Chapter V: Of Verbs (1)

CORRECT and INCORRECT FORMS.[64]--It is not enough to learn by heart the "principal parts" of a verb; the habit of using them correctly should be acquired. The following verb-forms are often misused:--

_Present. Past Indicative. Past Participle._

awake (intransitive) awoke awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought blow blew blown bid ("to order," "to greet") băde bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid break broke broken[65] burst burst burst choose chose chosen come came come dive dived dived do did done drive drove driven eat ate eaten flee fled fled fly flew flown freeze froze frozen forget forgot forgotten get got got[66] go went gone hang hung, hanged[67] hung, hanged[67] lay ("to cause to lie") laid laid lie ("to recline") lay lain plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved[68] ride rode ridden rise (intransitive) rose risen raise (transitive) raised raised run ran run see saw seen set ("to put"; of the sun, set set moon, etc., "to sink") sit sat sat shake shook shaken shoe shod shod show showed shown speak spoke spoken slay slew slain steal stole stolen take took taken throw threw thrown wake (transitive) woke waked write wrote written

In using the verbs _drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim,_ it seems better to confine the forms in "a" to the preterite tense, and the forms in "u" to the past participle: as, "The bell _rang_ five minutes ago"; "Yes, the bell has _rung_."[69]

The following forms also should be distinguished:--

_Present. Past. Participle._
alight ("to get down from," alighted alighted
"to dismount")
light ("to ignite," lighted[7] lighted[70]
"to shed light on")
light ("to settle down as lighted or lit lighted or lit
a bird from flight," or
"to come upon by chance")

[64] "Foundations," pp.78-81, 91-93. [65] "Broke," as a form of the past participle, is still found in verse. [66] "Gotten" is an old form not sanctioned by the best modern usage. [67] "Clothes are 'hung' on the line; men are 'hanged' on the gallows."--"Foundations," p. 79. [68] "'Proven' is borrowed from the Scotch legal dialect."--"Foundations," p.92 [69] Ibid., p. 91. [70] "'Lighted' seems preferable to 'lit'; but 'lit' is used by some writers of reputation."--Ibid., p. 92.

EXERCISE XXXVIII.

_Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the past tense_

1. The guests _begin_ to go home. 2. I _beseech_ you to hear me. 3. The wind _blows_ furiously. 4. The steward _bids_ me say that supper is ready. 5. Mr. O. _bids_ forty-two dollars for the picture. 6. George _dives_ better than any other boy in the crowd. 7. I _do_ it myself. 8. They _eat_ their supper as if they were half starved.. 9. The enemy _flee_ before us. 10. The door _flies_ open. 11. The wild goose _flies_ southward in the autumn. 12. He _flees_ at the smell of powder. 13. The Susquehanna river _overflows_ its banks. 14. The workmen _lay_ the rails for the track with great care. 15. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she _lies_ down an hour every day. 16. Our cat _lies_ on the rug by the hour watching for mice. 17. The cows _lie_ under the trees in the meadow. 18. Helen _comes_ in and _lays_ her coat on a chair. 19. The envoys _plead_ with Caesar earnestly. 20. Both short-stop and pitcher _run_ for the ball. 21. He _runs_ up to Mr. C. as if to strike him. 22. I _see_ two cannon and a company of infantry. 23. Harry _sees_ me coming. 24. The negro women _set_ their baskets on their heads. 25. They _sit_ in the third pew from the front. 26. Mr. N. always _shoes_ my pony. 27. The savages who _live_ on this island _slay_ their captives. 28. The catcher often _throws_ the ball to the second base. 29. The sun _wakes_ me early. 30. The bell _rings_ at seven o'clock. 31. The stag _drinks_ his fill. 32. She _sings_ sweetly. 33. Armed men _spring_ up on all sides. 34. Tom _swims_ very well indeed. 35. The vessel _sinks_ with all on board. 36. The colonel and his staff _alight_ in front of the general's tent. 37. He _lights_ the lamp with a splint. 38. On the trees a crested peacock _lights_.

EXERCISE XXXIX.

_Change these sentences so that the italicized, verbs will be either in the perfect tense or in the passive voice:--_

1. The sleeper _awakes_. 2. The Gauls _beseech_ Caesar to be merciful. 3. The wind _blows_ my papers off the table. 4. Ethel _broke_ her arm. 5. His wrongdoing _breaks_ my heart. 6. The pressure of the water _breaks_ the pipes. 7. They _choose_ Mr. W. to be their chairman. 8. The enemy _come_ in force. 9. The boys _dive_ three times. 10. John _is driving_ the cows out of the corn. 11. The boys _are eating_ their supper. 12. An absconding cashier _flees_ to Canada. 13. A robin _flies_ to the vines by my window. 14. The Ohio river _overflows_ its banks. 15. The water in my pitcher _froze_. 16. I _forget_ his name 17. He _gets_ along fairly well. 18. They _go_ by steamer. 19. The sheriff _hangs_ the condemned man. 20. The maid _hangs_ up my cloak. 21. I _lie_ on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 22. Tramps _lie_ by the road below the gate. 23. Boys _lay_ traps for hares. 24. They _lay_ burdens on me greater than I can bear. 25. They _plead_ their cause well. 26. This _proves_ the truth of my assertion. 27. He _rides_ alone from Litchfield to Waterbury 28. A mist _rises_ before my eye. 29. I _see_ the President often. 30. I _set_ the lamp on the table. 31. He _sits_ by the hour talking politics. 32. Rab _shakes_ the little dog by the neck. 33. He _is shoeing_ my horse. 34. This fact clearly _shows_ the prisoner's guilt. 35. He _speaks_ his declamation well. 36. They _slay_ their prisoners. 37. He _stole_ my watch. 38. Some one _takes_ my hat. 39. He _throws_ cold water on my plan. 40. He _writes_ home. 41. He _wakes_ me every night by his restlessness.

NOTE.--If the teacher thinks that the class needs more drill of this kind, Exercises XXXVIII. and XXXIX. may be reversed, that is, the verbs in XXXVIII. may be changed to perfect or passive forms; the verbs in XXXIX. to the past tense. If this is done, some of the sentences will have to be slightly recast. In the next exercise drill on the same forms is continued in a different way.

EXERCISE XL.

_Insert the proper form in each of the blanks in the following sentences:--_

AWAKE, WAKE. 1. I--at six o'clock this morning; I have--at about the same time ever since I came to school. 2. Lord Byron one morning--to find himself famous. A certain Mr. Peck--one day last week to find that the _Nation_ had made him notorious. 3. A few nights ago Mr. Michael Dixon was--by a burglar in his bedroom. 4. He--me an hour before time. 5. Have you--your brother? 6. He--as I opened the door.

BEGIN. 7. He had--his speech before we arrived. 8. The Senators--to ask him questions. Then he--to be confused.

BID. 9. When the Major passed us he--us good-morning very politely. 10. Father has for--us to go there.

BLOW. 11. Before the sunset gun was fired the bugler--a strain on his bugle. 12. The top-mast of the sloop was--away.

BREAK. 13. Did you hear that Waldo has--his leg? 14. The window was--by Jack.

BURST. 15. When the South Sea bubble--, thousands of families were made poor. 16. The cannon was--by an overcharge of powder.

CHOOSE. 17. If they had--him, they would have--more wisely. 18. A better day for a drive could not have been--.

COME. 19. Harry--running up to me and asked me to lend him my cap.

DIVE. 20. The loon saw the flash of my gun and--. 21. It had--several times before.

DO. 22. I know he--it; for it could not have been--by any one else. 23. Ask him why he--it.

DRIVE. 24. He was--out of town by his indignant neighbors. 25. This stake has been--in deep.

EAT. 26. The scraps were--up by the dog. 27. The men have--their dinner.

FLEE, FLY, FLOW. 28. During the night the river had over--its banks. 29. Benedict Arnold was forced to--the country. He--to England. 30. The birds have--away. 31. The guilty man has--. He--with his family to Mexico. 32. Our meadow was over--during the freshet. 33. The yacht--like a bird before the wind. 34. The lotus-eaters watched the gleaming river as it--seaward. 35. It had--through the same channel hundreds of years. 36. The terrified savages--to the mountains. 37. They shall--from the wrath to come. 38. The plantations along the Mississippi are over--.

FORGET. 39. Once Sydney Smith, being asked his name by a servant, found to his dismay that he had--his own name. 40. Maude is late; she must have--the time.

FREEZE. 41. I thought my ears were--. 42. He would have--to death if he had not been found by the St. Bernard dogs.

GET. 43. They have--home. 44. Whenever any milk was wanted it could be--from the magic pitcher. 45. Grace has--three seats for to-night. 46. Franklin asked the boy where he had--the bread.

GO. 47. The price of coal has--up since last year. 48. He would have--with us if he had been invited.

HANG. 49. Judas, overwhelmed with remorse, went and,--himself. 50. In olden times in England a man was--for stealing a sheep.

LAY, LIE. 51. Two men--under the hay-stack all yesterday morning. They must have--there all night. 52.--down and rest. 53. He came in and--his books on his desk. 54. After he--down he remembered that he had left his pocket-book--ing by the open window. 55. He played until he was so tired that he had to--down. 56. He has--himself at full length on the grass. 57. You had better--down for a while after dinner. 58. I have--down, and I feel rested. 59. I--down an hour ago to take a nap. 60. The scene of "The Lady of the Lake" is--in the lake region of Scotland. 61. The tired lambs--down to rest. 62. Darkness settled down while the soldiers--behind the breast-works. 63. Had you not better--down a while? 64. After they had been--ing silent for an hour, the command was given to prepare for a march; afterward the men ---- down again and waited for the next order. 65. When Romeo saw Juliet ---- ing in the casket, he ---- down by her side and drank the poison. When Juliet awoke, seeing Romeo ---- ing beside her dead, she took a sword which ---- near and killed herself.

PLEAD. 66. He ---- tearfully to be set free, but his captors were firm. 67. Yesterday he ---- "not guilty."

PROVE. 68. It cannot be ---- that Mars is inhabited. 69. He thinks that the prisoner's innocence has been ----.

RIDE. 70. We had ---- only a short distance when rain began to fall. 71. Have you ever ---- on a bicycle?

RISE, RAISE. 72. She could not get her bread to ----. 73. The price of corn has ----. 74. I ---- so that I might look around. 75. The students ---- him upon their shoulders.

RUN. 76. You look as if you had ---- all the way home. 77. He ---- up to me and asked what time it was. 78. He said some thief had taken his coat and had ---- away with it.

SEE. 79. Charlie, who has just come in, says he ---- two suspicious looking men near the barn. 80. Yes, I ---- him an hour ago. 81. That is the best dog I ever ----.

SET, SIT. 82. Please ---- still while I try to find her. 83. The old man was ----ting in his easy-chair. 84. He ---- out for Boston day before yesterday. 85. ---- down and talk awhile. 86. The sun ----s at six o'clock twice a year. 87. I ---- the basket on a rock while I went to the spring. 88. We ---- with our friends at the table for over an hour. 89. In which seat did you ----? 90. I am--ting in my study by the window. 91. The children are dreadfully sunburnt; yesterday they--in the sun on the beach all the morning. 92. Just--down, till I call her. 93. Annie, I have--the pitcher on the table. 94. He has--there all the evening. 95. We were all--ting round the fire. 96. I had to--up all night. 97. The farmer after felling the tree found that it had fell (fallen) on a--ting hen that had laid (lain) her eggs under its branches.

SHAKE. 98. All the restraints of home had been--off long before. 99. John--the tree; Lida picked up the nuts. 100. After they had--off the dust, they entered the house.

SHOE. 101. Go, ask Mr. N. whether he has--the horses yet. 102. He says he--them an hour ago.

SHOW. 103. They have--their good intention. 104. Has Edward--you his yacht? Yes, he--it to me this morning.

SPEAK. 105. English is--in many parts of the world. 106. After he had--a half-hour we had to leave.

SLAY. 107. David--Goliath with a pebble. 108. A brave man never boasts of having--his thousands.

STEAL. 109. He thinks the horse was--. 110. Some one has--my purse.

TAKE. 111. I found upon inquiry that I had mis--the house 112. Yesterday she--me home with her. 113. You look as if you had--root there.

THROW. 114. He--the ball to me and I--it back. 115. The Governor's son was--from his pony this morning.

WRITE. 116. I think he should have--and told us. 117. He--for the book two days ago. 118. She has--for samples.

* * * * *

DRINK. 119. The toast was--with great enthusiasm. 120. Then they--to the health of the President. 121. He had once--sour wine and slept in the secret chamber at Wolf's Crag.

RING. 122. The fire bell--twice last night. It had not--for two months before. 123. Has the last bell--?

SING. 124. The choir boys--the "Hallelujah Chorus" from "The Messiah." It seemed to me that they had never--so well.

SINK. 125. The steamer struck an iceberg and--with all on board. 126. They have--two wells, but have got (gotten) no water.

SPRING. 127. The grass--up like magic last night. 128. Homer describes a race of men who--from the gods.

SWIM. 129. I once--three-quarters of a mile without stopping. 130. Having--the river, the fugitives plunged into the forest.

EXERCISE XLI.

_Illustrate by original sentences the proper use of the past indicative and the past participle of each of the following verbs, thus: A swallow FLEW into my room, but before I recovered from my surprise it had FLOWN out again. Give to the sentences variety:_--

Awake, beat, begin, beseech, blow, bid (to order), bid (to offer), break, burst, choose, come, dive, do, drive, eat, flee, fly, flow, forget, freeze, get, go, hang, lay, lie (to recline), plead, prove, ride, rise, run, see, set, sit, shake, shoe, show, speak, slay, steal, take, throw, wake, write.

CONTRACTIONS.[71]--Some writers hold that in careful writing contracted forms should be avoided; but all are agreed that in conversation some contractions, if correctly used, are natural and proper. The conversation of a person who never said "can't" for "can not," "don't" for "do not," or "doesn't" for "does not," would seem stiff. Care should, however, be taken not to use plural contractions for singular, or singular for plural. _Don't_ is a contraction of "do not," _doesn't_ of "does not." The proper contraction of "is not" is _isn't;_ of "are not," _aren't. Daresn't_, if used at all, should be used only when "dares not" might be substituted. _Ain't_ is a gross vulgarism.

[71] "Foundations," pp. 81-82.

EXERCISE XLII.

_Insert the proper contraction (doesn't, don't) in each of the blank places_:--

1. It--- seem possible. 2. The captain--- know what it is to be afraid. 3. John says he--- understand the problem on page 266. 4. Why--- she come? 5.--- it seem strange that they--- come? 6. Waldo--- improve in penmanship as fast as he should. 7. It--- look like pure water. 8. Why--- he answer? 9. The boy will fail, but he--- seem to care much.

MAY (MIGHT) or CAN (COULD).[72]--_Can_ and _could_, which denote "ability" or "possibility," are often wrongly used in the place of _may_ and _might_, which are the proper words to denote "permission."

[72] Ibid., pp. 82-83.

EXERCISE XLIII.

_Fill the blanks with the right words:_--

1. ---- I leave the room? 2. You ---- go to the concert, but I doubt whether you ---- get a seat. 3. ---- we by searching find out God? 4. ---- I have some more lemonade? 5. ---- I have another piece of cake? 6. ---- you tell me which is Mr. Ames's house? 7. Mother says I--invite the girls to tea. 8. A man who knows himself to be right ---- afford to await the judgment of posterity. 9. ---- I write at your desk? 10. You ---- come to see me whenever you ---- find time. 11. They asked whether they ---- have a holiday. 12. They were wondering whether they ---- be recognized in their disguises. 13. ---- I have the use of your sled? 14. ---- I trouble you to get me a glass of water?

WILL OR SHALL.[73]--Some grammarians teach that the future tense of "go" is: "I _shall_ or _will_ go," "You _shall_ or _will_ go," "He _shall_ or _will_ go," etc. The fact seems to be that there is only one form for the future; the other form, often given as an alternative, expresses something more than futurity, and is somewhat like a distinct mode.

A help to the proper use of _shall_ and _will_ is found in the original meaning of the words. At first _shall_ and _will_ were notional verbs,[74] _shall_ meaning "to owe," "to be obliged," and _will_ meaning "to wish:" as, "That faith I _shall_ (owe) to God."[75] At present _shall_ and _will_ often retain some trace of their original meaning, _will_ implying a reference to the will of the subject, and _shall_ implying obligation or compulsion: as, "I _will_ follow him to the end;" "He _shall_ be brought to justice;" sometimes they are mere auxiliaries, with no trace of their original meaning: as, "It _will_ rain to-day;" "I _shall_ be glad."

[73] "Foundations," pp. 83-88. [74] By "notional verb" is meant a verb that has some distinct idea or notion of its own: as, "I _have_ a ball." Here "have" expresses the idea of possession. In the sentence "I _have_ lost my ball," the word "have" does not express a distinct idea; it only helps to form a tense of the verb "lose": that is, it is not notional, but auxiliary. [75] Chaucer.

For practical purposes the distinction between _shall_ and _will_ may be exhibited as follows:--

I. IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

_Simple Futurity. Volition,_ implying that the matter is within the control of the speaker. I (we) _shall_ \ I (we) _will_ \ you _will_[76] } go. you _shall_ } go. he (they) _will_/ he (they) _shall_[77]/

[76] Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate officer. [77] Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place, or of what is willed by some ruling power.

II. IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

In noun clauses introduced by "that," expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have _different subjects,_ the distinction between _shall_ and _will_ is the same as in independent sentences: as,

My sister says (that) Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with us. (Futurity; the same as, "Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with us.")

My sister says (that) Dorothy _shall_ not be left behind. (Volition; the same as, "Dorothy _shall_ not be left behind.")

In all other dependent clauses, _shall_ is in all persons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity; _will_ in all persons implies an exercise of will on the part of the subject of the clause: as,

Dorothy says (that) she _shall_ (futurity) be able to go with us. She says (that) she _will_ (volition) meet us at the corner. If Bessie _will_ come (volition), we will try to make her visit pleasant. When He _shall_ appear (futurity) we shall be like Him.

REMARK.--It is worthy of notice that in noun clauses introduced by "that"--clauses which are really indirect quotations--the same auxiliary is generally used that would be used were the quotation in the direct form: as, "My sister says, 'Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with you,'" "My sister says that Dorothy _will_ be glad to go with us;" "Dorothy says, 'I _shall_ be glad to go with you,'" "Dorothy says that she _shall_ be glad to go with us." This remark, however, is not an adequate statement of the best usage, for it is not true of such sentences as 21, p. 76, and 8, 22, p. 77.

III. IN QUESTIONS.

In _the first person_ "will" is never proper, except when it repeats a question asked by another person. "Will I go?" would mean, "Is it my intention to go?"--a useless question, since the speaker must know his own will without asking.

In the _second and third persons_ the auxiliary which is expected in the answer should be used.

Will you dine with me to-morrow? I will. (Volition.) Shall you be glad to come? I shall. (Futurity.) Will your brother be there, too? He will. (Futurity.)

WOULD OR SHOULD.[78]--"_Should_ and _would_ follow the same rules as _shall_ and _will_, but they have in addition certain meanings peculiarly their own.

"_Should_ is sometimes used in its original sense of 'ought,' as in 'You should not do that.'

"_Would_ is sometimes used to signify habitual action, as in 'The 'Squire would sometimes fall asleep in the most pathetic part of my sermon;' and to express a wish, as, 'Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!'"[79]

[78] "Foundations," pp. 88-90. [79] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p 63.

EXERCISE XLIV.

_Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:_--

1. I will (shall) meet you in the village. 2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 3. Will he come? Shall he come? 4. You will (shall) repent of this. 5. He will (shall) not see me. 6. You will (shall) have a new suit to-morrow. 7. Shall (will) you stay at home to-night? 8. We will (shall) not be left alone. 9. She will (shall) have a reward if she continues faithful. 10. He would (should) start in spite of the danger. 11. Shall (will) you be a candidate? 12. He said he would (should) not go. 13. I shall (will) never see him again. 14. You will (shall) know to-morrow the result of the examination. 15. Will (shall) he who fails be allowed to try again? 16. Will (shall) the admission fee be twenty-five or fifty cents? 17. He thought there would (should) be a charge. 18. I will (shall) be the last to go. 19. He thought I would (should) wait. 20. He says that she will (shall) not eat watermelon. 21. If she disobeyed she would (should) be punished. 22. Do you think I should (would) go under the circumstances? 23. If they would (should) come, the danger would be averted. 24. If I would (should) say so, he would dislike me. 25. He says he will (shall) not come, since she forgot him at first. 26. We will (shall) come as soon as we can. 27. I will (shall) not endure his rudeness. 28. John says he will (shall) stay to see the game.

EXERCISE XLV.

_Insert the proper auxiliary (will, shall) in each blank in the following sentences:_--

1. I ---- be drowned; nobody ---- help me. 2. You ---- have a wet day for your journey. 3. He says he ---- not be able to come. 4. We ---- not soon forget this picnic. 5. He ---- repent of his folly when it is too late. 6. We ---- be pleased to have you call. 7. The gathering ---- be informal; therefore I ---- not need my dress suit 8. We ---- have occasion to test the wires to-night. 9. I ---- be obliged to you for your autograph. 10. He ---- be obliged to you. 11. The managers have agreed that the race ---- be rowed again. 12. Do you think we ---- have rain? 13. If the fire is not put out soon, we ---- have the whole town to rebuild. 14. Do not fear; we ---- be all right. 15. A prize is offered to whoever ---- guess this conundrum. 16. We ---- find ourselves much mistaken. 17. The time is coming when we ---- have to go elsewhere for lumber. 18. Are you not afraid that you ---- miss the train? 19. Yes, I fear that I ---- miss the train. 20. He is afraid that he ---- miss the train. 21. They say I ---- find picture-galleries in every city. 22. Think what a happy life we ---- live. 23. If you will call for me, I ---- be glad to go with you. 24. I ---- be sixteen in May. 25. John thinks he ---- be sick to-morrow. 26. He says James ---- be sick to-morrow. 27. Howard thinks he ---- probably live to old age. 28. Howard thinks his brother ---- probably live to old age. 29. He tells me that he--be ten next month. 30. We ---- be all right if Congress will (shall) adjourn without tampering with the tariff. 31. If we examine the falling snow, we ---- find that each flake consists of particles of ice. 32. He has resolved that he ---- not answer the letter. 33. She has resolved that her daughter ---- not answer his letter. 34. I ---- feel greatly obliged if you ---- tell me. 35. When He--appear, we ---- be like Him. 36. I hope we ---- be in time to get good seats. 37. When ---- I come to get my paper? 38. ---- I put more coal on the fire? 39. ---- you be sorry to leave Boston? 40. ---- you be elected? 41. When ---- we three meet again? 42. ---- I fetch a chair for you? 43. ---- you be surprised to hear it? 44. ---- you do me the favor to reply by return mail? 45. ---- we have time to get our tickets? 46. ---- you have time to get your ticket? 47. ---- he have time to get his ticket? 48. ---- there be time to get our tickets? 49. ---- you be at leisure after dinner? 50. ---- I find you at home? 51. When ---- we have peace? 52. ---- he find gold there? ---- we find any? 53. ---- we hear a good lecture if we go? 54. If I fail on this examination,---- I be allowed to take it over again?

EXERCISE XLVI.

_Insert the proper auxiliary (would, should) in each blank in the following sentences_:--

1. I ---- like to know who he is. 2. We ---- prefer to go by boat from Rhinebeck. 3. He ---- prefer to go by boat from Poughkeepsie. 4. He ---- be sorry to miss his train. 5. I ---- be sorry to lose this umbrella. 6. I ---- feel hurt if he ---- abuse my hospitality in that way. 7. Were I to go, I ---- get tired. 8. He ought to have known that we ---- be ruined. 9. I ---- think he ---- know they are fooling him. 10. The head-master decided that you ---- be promoted. 11. Ralph said he ---- (volition) not stay at the hotel if it were not better kept. 12. Though I ---- die for it, yet ---- I do it. 13. I was afraid she ---- not come. 14. If I knew where she is, I ---- write to her. 15. We ---- have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 16. They ---- have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 17. I said nothing lest she ---- feel hurt. 18. I asked her whether she ---- come again. 19. He promised that it ---- not occur again. 20. If it ---- rain, we would not start. 21. Queen Isabella offered a reward to the first man who ---- discover land. 22. Cornelia was afraid that we ---- miss the train. 23. I expected that they ---- accept the proposal. 24. He said Miss Anderson ---- not return to the stage. 25. Franklin resolved that Collins ---- row. Collins said that he ---- not row, but that Franklin ---- row in his place. 26. At first I did not think I ---- enjoy seeing the World's Fair. 27. What ---- we do without our friends? 28. If he ---- come to-day, would (should) you be ready?

QUESTIONS OF TENSE.[80]--The tense of a verb should correctly express the time referred to. Most errors in the use of tenses are violations of some one of the following principles, which are established by good usage:--

1. Principal verbs referring to the same time should be in the same tense.
2. The _perfect indicative_ represents something as now completed--as
begun in the past but continuing till the present, at least in its
consequences: as, "I _have lost_ my book" (so that now I do not have
it); "This house _has stood_ for ninety years" (it is still standing);
"Bishop Brooks _has died,_ but he _has left_ us his example" (he is not
now among us, but we have his example).
3. The tense of the verb in a dependent clause varies with the tense of
the principal verb:[81] as,
I _know_ he _will_ come.
I _knew_ he _would_ come.
I _have taken_ the first train, that I _may_ arrive early.
I _had taken_ the first train, that I _might_ arrive early.
Blanche _will be_ frightened if she _sees_ the bat.
Blanche _would be_ frightened if she _saw_ the bat.
Blanche _would have been_ frightened if she _had seen_ the bat.
Present facts and unchangeable truths, however, should be expressed in
the present tense, regardless of the tense of the principal verb: as,
"What did you say his name _is_?"
4. The _perfect infinitive_ is properly used to denote action which is
completed at the time denoted by the principal verb: as, "I am glad _to
have seen_ Niagara Falls;" "He felt sorry _to have hurt_ your feelings."

EXCEPTION.--_Ought, must, need,_ and _should_ (in the sense of "ought") have no distinctive form to denote past time; with these verbs present time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the present tense, past time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the perfect tense: as, "You ought _to go_," "You ought _to have gone_;" "He should _be_ careful," "He should _have been_ careful." A similar change from the present to the perfect infinitive is found after _could_ and _might_ in some of their uses: as, "I could _go_," "I could _have gone_;" "You might _have answered_."

[80] "Foundations," pp. 93-98. [81] This is sometimes called the "Law of the Sequence of Tenses."

EXERCISE XLVII.

_Distinguish in meaning between the following_:--

1. The house stood (has stood) twenty years. 2. The messenger came (has come). 3. He should stay (have stayed). 4. It rained (has rained) for two weeks. 5. He was believed to live (to have lived) a happy life. 6. He ought to go (to have gone). 7. He deposited (has deposited) the money in bank. 8. I am sure I could go (have gone) alone. 9. Yesterday at three o'clock I completed (had completed) my work. 10. He must be (have been) weary. 11. He appeared to be (have been) crying. 12. He need not go. He need not have gone. 13. The horse jumped (had jumped) into the field, and began (had begun) to eat the corn. 14. Achilles is said to be (have been) buried at the foot of this hill.

EXERCISE XLVIII.

_Which of the italicized forms is right_?--

1. Where did you say Pike's Peak _is_ (_was_)? 2. I intended _to do_ (_to have done_) it yesterday. 3. Atlas _is_ (_was_) a mythical giant who was supposed _to hold_ (_to have held_) the sky on his shoulders. 4. I do not think that any one would say that winter _is_ (_was_) preferable to spring. 5. Cadmus was supposed _to build_ (_to have built_) Thebes. 6. Your father grieves _to hear_ (_to have heard_) of your bad conduct. 7. Would he have been willing _to go_ (_to have gone_) with you? 8. I meant _to write_ (_to have written_) yesterday. 9. He tried to learn how far it _is_ (_was_) from New York to Syracuse. 10. He hardly knew that two and two _make_ (_made_) four. 11. His experience proved that there _is_ (_was_) many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip. 12. Carrie knew that water _is_ (_was_) composed of two gases. 13. It was their duty to _prevent_ (_to have prevented_) this outrage. 14. He was reported _to rescue_ (_to have rescued_) the drowning man. 15. It would have been unkind _to refuse_ (_to have refused_) _to help_ (_to have helped_) him. 16. It would not have been difficult _to prevent_ (_to have prevented_) the disaster. 17. Where did you say Gettysburg _is_ (_was_)? 18. It was as true as that he _is_ (_was_) listening to me when I said it. 19. It was harder than I expected it would _be_ (_have been_). 20. Homer is supposed _to be_ (_to have been_) born about 850 B.C. 21. When I came I intended _to buy_ (_to have bought_) all Paris. 22. Washington is known _to have_ (_to have had_) many narrow escapes. 23 If you would only wait, your success _will_ (_would_) be certain. 24. Is he very sick? I should say he _is_ (_was_). 25. Who first asserted that virtue _is_ (_was_) its own reward? 26. We have done no more than it was our duty _to do_ (_to have done_). 27. What building _is_ (_was_) that which we just passed? 28. He impressed on us the truth that honesty _is_ (_was_) the best policy. 29. He expected _to see_ (_to have seen_) you to-morrow. 30. He expected _to win_ (_to have won_) the suit, and was astonished at the decision of the court. 31. The result of such constant reading by poor light would have been _to destroy_ (_to have destroyed_) his sight. 32. It would have given me great satisfaction _to relieve_ (_to have relieved_) him from his distress. 33. Who would have thought it possible _to receive_ (_to have received_) a reply from India so soon? 34. It would have been better _to wait_ (_to have waited_). 35. I should like _to hear_ (_to have heard_) the speeches of Hayne and Webster. 36. The furniture was _to be_ (_to have been_) sold at auction. 37. It was a pity I was the only child, for my mother had fondness of heart enough _to spoil_ (_to have spoiled_) a dozen children. 38. I am writing to him so that he _may_ (_might_) be ready for us. 39. I have written to him so that he _may_ (_might_) be ready for us. 40. I wrote to him so that he _may_ (_might_) be ready for us.

EXERCISE XLIX.

_Examine the tenses in the following sentences, explain any errors which you find, and correct them_:--

1. I knew him since boyhood. 2. It was a superstition among the Mexicans that a bullet will not kill a man unless it has his name stamped on it. 3. Being absent from the last recitation, I am unable to write on the subject assigned this morning. 4. Soon after Oliver reached home a servant announces the presence of Charles. 5. "'Got any luck?' says I. 'No,' says he. 'Well,' says I, 'I've got the finest string of trout ever was seen.'" 6. Be virtuous and you would be happy. 7. Stackhouse believed that he solved the problem he had so long studied over, and yesterday afternoon he started from his house, No. 2446 North Tenth Street, to make a test. 8. This beautiful little bird that appears to the king and tries to warn him, was not an ordinary bird. 9. Next September I shall be at school three years. 10. I know very little about the "Arabian Nights," for I have never read any of the stories before I came to this school. 11. If he received your instructions he would have obeyed them. 12. Before he was going to have the sign printed he submitted it to his friends for corrections. 13. The Balloon Society recently invited Mr. Gould to read before them a paper on yachting. Mr. Gould, in reply, has expressed regret that the shortness of his visit will prevent him from accepting the invitation. 14. I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that respect. 15. While he was in England the British had given him very honorable positions in America in order to have his help if they had any trouble with the colonies. 16. Up and down the engines pounded. It is a good twenty-one knots now, and the upper deck abaft the chart-house began rapidly to fill. 17. Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln regret that a previous engagement, will prevent them from accepting Mrs. Black's kind invitation for Thursday. 18. Mr. Rockwell will accept with pleasure the invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Pembroke for Tuesday evening, December 3d. 19. I am sure that he has been there and did what was required of him. 20. He might probably have been desirous, in the first place, to have dried his clothes and refreshed himself. 21. He could not have failed to have aroused suspicion. 22. When, on the return of Dr. Primrose's son Moses from the Fair, the family had discovered how he had been cheated, we are shown an admirable picture of home life. 23. Apart from his love, Orlando was also a noble youth. When old Adam, at last overcome by fatigue, sank in the footsteps of Orlando, Orlando tries to encourage and assist him. 24. The increase in tonnage was not so rapid as it would have been were it not for the Act of 1790.

INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE.[82]--The modern tendency to drop the subjunctive is unfortunate, for the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative is too useful to be abandoned.[83] A knowledge of the difference between these modes in English is especially important in view of the difficulty which pupils complain of in mastering the uses of the Latin subjunctive or the Greek subjunctive and optative.[84] For these reasons more space is given to the subjunctive in this book than would be called for by a mere discussion of modern English usage.

FORMS of the SUBJUNCTIVE--In form the English subjunctive differs from the indicative in several ways:--

1. In the single case of the verb _to be_ there are distinct forms for the present and past tenses, namely:--

_Present_. _Past_ I, we \ I _were_, we \ thou, you } _be_. thou _wert_, you } _were_. he, they/ he _were_, they/

EXAMPLES.--"See that my room _be_[85] got ready at once." "I will work you a banner if you _be_[85] victorious." "The headsman feels if the axe _be_[85] sharp." "Take care lest you _be_ deceived." "Judge not that ye _be_ not judged." "I will beard them, though they _be_[85] more fanged than wolves and bears." "If I _were_ you, I would not say that." "If you _were_ more studious, you would rank high." "Would that my parents _were_ here!"

2. In _other verbs_ the subjunctive form is distinguishable from the indicative in the second and third persons singular by the absence of the personal endings _-th,-s_, or _-st_: as,

_Present Indicative_: I have, thou hast, he has (hath).
_Subjunctive_: I have, thou have, he have.
_Past Indicative_: I had, thou hadst, he had.
_Subjunctive_: I had, thou had, he had.

_Present Indicative_: I come, thou comest, he comes (cometh).
_Subjunctive_: I come, thou come, he come.
_Past Indicative_: I came, thou earnest, he came.
_Subjunctive_: I came, thou came, he came.

[82] "Foundations," pp. 98-101. [83] "Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as good as lost, that it is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated, it might even now be saved.... If we lose the Subjunctive Verb, it will certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving variation to diction--and I make bold to assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude."--John Earle: English Prose, its Elements, History, and Usage, p. 172. [84] "The lecturer also put in a plea for more vitality in the teaching of English, which ought to be made the gate to other languages. Many of the difficult questions of Latin syntax might be examined in the field of English, if only we were careful to treat our English critically. Whereas most grammars cut the ground from under them by denying the existence of a Subjunctive Mood. Until teachers recognize generally that, in such a sentence as 'If he had done it, it had been better,' we have a Subjunctive in both clauses, and a sentence essentially different from 'If he had loved her before, he now adored her,' English must forfeit half its value, both as a mental discipline and as a means of approach to Latin, Greek, and German."--From a report of a Lecture by Prof. Sonnenschein, of the Mason College, quoted in Earle's "English Prose," p. 55. [85] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common.

EXAMPLES.--"Long _live_ the king!" "If thou _go_, see that thou _offend_ not." "It is better he _die_." "Though he _slay_ me, yet will I trust him." "Unless he _behave_[86] better, he will be punished." "If I will that he _tarry_ till I come, what is that to thee?" "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee." "If my sister _saw_ this snake, she would be frightened." "I wish I _knew_ where Charles is."

The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives are of course formed by means of the subjunctive present and past tenses of "have."

3. Very often, instead of the simple subjunctive forms, we use auxiliary verbs--_may_ (past, _might_) and _would_ or _should_--to express the subjunctive idea. "May" ("might") is common as an equivalent for the subjunctive mode in clauses denoting a purpose, a wish, a hope, or a fear: as, "Bring him the book, that he _may read_ to us;" "_May_ he _rest_ in peace;" "I hope you _may succeed_;" "They were afraid we _might lose_ the way." "Would" and "should" are common substitutes for all tenses of the subjunctive: as, "Walk carefully lest you (stumble) _should stumble_;" "If he (come) _should come_, he will find me at home;" "It (were) _would be_ better if he (went) _should go_ alone;" "If my sister had seen this mouse, she (had been) _would have been_ frightened." In these sentences either the form in parenthesis or the italicized form is correct, though the latter is more common.

NOTE.--It does not follow that the verbs "may," "would," and "should" always express the subjunctive idea. In the following sentences, for instance, they express the indicative idea: "You _may_ (_i.e_., are permitted to) stay an hour;" "You _should_ (_i.e_., ought to) be punctual;" "Edith _would_ not (_i.e_., was unwilling to) come." In such sentences "may," "should," and "would" make simple statements of fact.

USES of the SUBJUNCTIVE.--The indicative form is used in expressing a fact or what is assumed to be a fact: as "He _thinks_ he _is_ ill;" the subjunctive form indicates some uncertainty or doubt in the speaker's mind: as, "Whether it _rain_ or not, I will go."

The subjunctive idea occurs most frequently, perhaps, in _conditional sentences_. A conditional sentence is one that contains a condition or supposition. A supposition may refer to present, past, or future time. If it refers to present or past time, it may be viewed by the speaker as true, untrue, or as a mere supposition with nothing implied as to its truth; if it refers to the future, it may be viewed as either likely or unlikely. A supposition which is assumed to be true, or which is made without any hint as to its correctness, is expressed by the indicative. A supposition which is viewed by the speaker as untrue or unlikely is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. When the character of the supposition makes the conclusion untrue or unlikely, the conclusion also is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. The use of tenses is peculiar, as will be seen from the following table of a few common forms of conditional sentences. The tenses should be carefully noted:--

PRESENT:
If it _rains_ (_is raining_) now, I am sorry.
_Present indicative_: A simple supposition without any hint as to its
correctness.

If it _rained_ (_were raining_), I _should be_ sorry.
_Past subjunctive, both clauses_: The speaker implies that it is
not raining.

PAST:
If it _rained_ (_was raining_), I was sorry.
_Past indicative_: No suggestion of doubt.

If it _had rained_, I _should have been_ sorry.
_Past perfect subjunctive, both clauses_: The speaker implies that it
did not rain.

FUTURE:
If it _rains_, I shall be sorry.
_Present indicative_: The common, though inexact, form of a simple
future supposition.

If it _rain_, I shall be sorry.
_Present subjunctive_: Less common, but more exact. The future is
uncertain.

If it _should_ (_were to_) _rain_, I _should be_
sorry. _Subjunctive, both clauses_: The uncertainty is emphasized
by the auxiliary form; the chances of rain seem more remote.

NOTE 1.--When _if_ is equivalent to "whenever", the condition is called "general", to distinguish it from "particular" conditions, which refer to some particular act at some particular time. General conditions always take the indicative: as, "If (whenever) it _rains_, I stay at home."

NOTE 2.--Sometimes there is no "if", and then the verb or a part of the verb precedes the subject: as, "Were it raining, I should be sorry;" "Had it been raining, I should have been sorry."

NOTE 3.--In such sentences as "If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died," it may perhaps be questioned whether "had not died" is indicative, as in the Greek, or subjunctive, as in the Latin, idiom.

NOTE 4.--Clauses introduced by _though_ and _unless_ take the same forms as clauses introduced by _if_.

_Wishes_ are naturally expressed in the subjunctive. The _present_ subjunctive denotes a wish for the future: as, "Thy kingdom _come_." The _past_ subjunctive denotes a wish for the present which is unfulfilled: as, "I wish I _were_ a bird." The _past perfect_ subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact: as, "I wish you _had been_ there."

[86] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common. [87] See paragraph 3, page 84. The forms in "would" and "should" in conditional sentences, though they express the subjunctive idea, can hardly be called the "subjunctive mood". Sometimes they are called the "conditional mood."

EXERCISE L.

_Tell the time referred to in each of the following sentences, and whether the speaker regards the condition as true, untrue, or uncertain_:--

1. If all men did their duty, there would be less misery in the world. 2. Had I heard of the affair sooner, this misfortune would not have happened. 3. Were it true, I would say so. 4. I would go with you if I could spare the time. 5. She could sing if she would. 6. If love be rough with you, be rough with love. 7. If all the year were playing holidays, to play would be as tedious as to work. 8. If thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from his wickedness, he shall die in his iniquity. 9. He brags as if he were of note. 10. If the natural course of this stream be obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 11. If the natural course of a stream is obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 12. If the book was in my library, some one must have borrowed it. 13. If he knows the way, he does not need a guide. 14. If he still wishes to go, he may take my horse. 15. Had he followed my advice, he would be rich. 16. Had she lived a twelvemonth more She had not died to-day. 17. Though gods they were, as men they died. 18. Though the law is severe, we must obey it. 19. If the law be severe, we must change it. 20. Though the vase were made of steel, the servant would break it. 21. Though the vase was made of steel, the servant broke it.

EXERCISE LI.

_Tell the difference in meaning between the italicized forms_:--

1. If he _is_ (_were_) studious, he _will_ (_would_) excel. 2. If he _was_ (_had been_) studious, he _excelled_ (_would have excelled_). 3. Oh, that you _may be_ (_were, had been_) blameless. 4. Though he _deceive_ (_deceives_) me, yet will I trust him. 5. Though he deceived me, yet _will_ (_would_) I trust him. 6. Though he _deceived_ (_had deceived_) me, yet would I trust him 7. Though the boy's coat _was_ (_were_) made of silk, he _soiled_ (_would soil_) it.

EXERCISE LII.

_Which, of the italicized forms is preferable? Give the reason_:--

1. They act as if it _was_ (_were_) possible to deceive us. 2. If I _was_ (_were_) in his place, I would go. 3. I wish my mother _was_ (_were_) here. 4. See that no one _is_ (_be_) forgotten. 5. If this _is_ (_be_) treason, make the most of it. 6. If it _rain_ (_rains_), the work is delayed. 7. If it _rain_ (_rains_), the work will be delayed. 8. Take care lest you _are_ (_be_) carried away by your feelings. 9. If he _acquire_ (_acquires_) riches, they may make him worldly. 10. I could jump across the stream if it _was_ (_were_) necessary. 11. If to-morrow _is_ (_be_) breezy, we will go sailing. 12. If my father _was_ (_were_) here, he would enjoy this. 13. If she _was_ (_were_) at the reception, I did not see her. 14. If he _speak_ (_speaks_) only to display his talents, he is unworthy of attention. 15. I wish I _was_ (_were_) at home. 16. Though this _seem_ (_seems_) improbable, it is true. 17. I should be surprised if this marriage _take_ (_took, will take, should take_) place. 18. If the book _was_ (_were_) in my library, I would send it. 19. I will see that he _obey_ (_obeys_) you. 20. If a man _smite_ (_smites_) his servant and the servant _die_ (_dies_), the man shall surely be put to death. 21. Though he _is_ (_be_) poor and helpless now, you may rest assured that he will not remain so. 22. I wish I _was_ (_were_) a musician. 23. Make haste lest your ardor _cool_ (_cools_). 24. He will continue his course, though it _cost_ (_costs_) him his life. 25. Though a liar _speak_ (_speaks_) the truth, he will hardly be believed. 26. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ (_surprises_) thee. 27. Though gold _is_ (_be_) more precious than iron, iron is more useful than gold. 28. Whether he _go_ (_goes_) or not, it is your duty to go. 29. If he _was_ (_were, should be_) elected, it would be his ruin. 30. If a picture _is_ (_be_) admired by none but painters, the picture is bad. 31. If one _went_ (_should go_) unto them from the dead, they would repent. 32. If an animal of any kind _was_ (_were_) kept shut up in a box, it would surely die. 33. They will not believe, though one _rose_ (_rise_) from the dead. 34. Clerk wanted. It is indispensable that he _write_ (_writes_) a good hand and _have_ (_has_) some knowledge of book-keeping. 35. If the debtor _pay_ (_pays_) the debt, he shall be discharged. 36. If my sister _go_ (_goes_), which I think is doubtful, she will surely call for you. 37. The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations might have mouldered into oblivion _did_ (_had_) not some historian _take_ (_taken_) him into favor. 38. He will see his error if he _substitute_ (_substitutes_) "that which" for "what." 39. Though Dorothy _is_ (_be_) young, she is tall. 40. Unless he _take_ (_takes_) better care of his health, his constitution will break down. 41. If I lend you my horse, I _shall_ (_should_) have to borrow one myself. 42. I hope that if any of my readers _comes_ (_come, should come_) to New Haven, he may find the city just as I have described it.

SINGULAR or PLURAL.[88]--The following principles, established by good usage, writers or speakers are liable to forget:--