Chapter XXIII: Conclusion: 1. Summary of Results (2)

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Wiklund, K. B., _Om lapparnes tideräkning_. Meddelanden från
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Wilson, C. T., _Peasant Life in the Holy Land_. London, 1906.

Winkler, J., _Der Kalender der Toba-Bataks auf Sumatra_. Zeitschr.
f. Ethnologie 45, 1913, 436 ff.

Wirth, A., _The Aborigines of Formosa_. The American Anthropologist
10, 1897, 357 ff.

Wollaston, A. F. R., _Pygmies and Papuans_. London, 1912.

Worm, Olaus, _Fasti Danici_. Hafniæ, 1642.

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INDEX.

Acronychal risings and settings, 5

Age, classes of, 99;
ignorance of, 98;
relative, 98

Agricultural cycles of seasons, 66;
festivals, 268, 337;
year, 91, 95

Anglo-Saxon seasons, 75;
months and year, 292

Apollo, festivals of, 363;
and the Greek calendar, 366

Arabic lunisolar year, 251;
month-names, 237;
names for days of the month, 165

Astrology, 119;
origin of, 146

Astronomers, primitive, 350, 351

Babylonian designation of years, 105;
intercalation, 258;
months, 226

Beginning of the year, see New Year.

Bilfinger on the Icelandic week-year, 78, n. 1;
on the Anglo-Saxon year, 295

Birds of passage, 46

Calendar, Greek star-c., 114;
Indian picture-writing c., 103

Calendar-makers, 347

Canaanitish month-names, 233

Constellations, 114

Continuous time-reckoning, 8, 359

Counting, 168;
aids in, 319;
of days, 168;
of months, 148, 217

Dagsmǫrk, 21

Dawn = day, 13

Day, of 24 hours, 11;
limits of, 43;
solar, stellar, 3;
as unit of time-reckoning, 3

Day, times of, 17;
expressions for, 22;
indications of, 17

Days, counting of: in dawns, 13;
in days, 14;
in nights, 13;
in sleeps, 15;
in suns, 12

Decades, 168

Delphi, influence on the calendar, 365

Dieteris, 1

Disting, 302

Dry and rainy seasons, 54, 88;
two, 62

Easter, computation of, 301

Ebb and flow, 39

Egyptian designation of years, 107;
year, 277

End of the year, 268

Ennaeteris, 364

Epiphany moon, 301

Eponyms, 107

Equinoxes, observation of, 313

Extracalation, 244, 360

Fasti, Greek, 365

Feriae conceptivae, 340

Festivals, agricultural and new year, 268;
cycles of, 337;
months named after, 345;
regulated by the moon, 341;
by the solstices, 344;
by the stars, 133

First-fruits, 269

Full moon, celebration of, 155;
the time of festivals, 342

Germanic division of the year, 75;
month-names, 288;
seasons, 74

Gestures indicating days, 12;
time of the day, 17

Gezer, calendar of, 235

Gnomon, 20

Greek division of the month, 168;
expressions for times of the day, 34;
observation of the solstices, 316;
of the stars, 110;
seasonal points, 46;
seasons, 72;
calendar, 362

Half-years, reckoning in, 75, 78, 87

Hammurabi, letter of, 263

Heliacal risings and settings, 5

Hesiod, 46, 112

Homer, 34, 110, 316

Hour, origin of, 43

Icelandic (cp. Scandinavian) designation of times of the day, 21;
months, 297;
seasons, 75;
week-year, 78, 370

Indo-European expressions for times of the day, 31;
notion of the year, 97;
seasons, 71

Intercalary cycle, Babylonian, 259;
Greek, 363

Intercalation (cp. month, intercalary,) cyclical, 362;
in Greece, 368;
empirical, 243, 359;
origin of, 240;
pre-Mohammedan, 253;
regulated by the solstices, 265;
by the stars, 247

Israelitish festivals at full moon, 341;
intercalation, 244;
months, 233;
new year, 272

King in charge of the calendar, 352

Knots, 104, 320

Kugler on Babylonian intercalation, 260

Landmarks indicating times of the day, 21;
for observation of solstices and equinoxes, 311

Latin expressions for times of the day, 37;
star-names, 113

Lunar month, see Month.

Lunar months of European peoples, 294, 304, 305

Markets, in Arabia, 251;
in Canaan, 334

Market-week, 324

Measures of time, 42

Monsoons, 57, 87

Month, 147;
division of, 155, 159;
halving of, 166;
tripartite division of, 167;
quarters of, 170;
intercalary, 243;
of the Wadschagga, 203;
lunar, 5;
number of days in, 149;
sidereal, 4;
synodic, 5

Month-names, 174;
from festivals, 345;
from seasons and occupations, 218, 227;
from stars, 227, 247;
absence of, 223;
multiplicity of, 222;
old Greek, 364;
pairs of, 224;
popular European, 282;
variability of, 221

Months, counting of, 148, 217;
numbering of, 188, 233;
series of, 174;
incomplete, 240, 246;
Semitic, 226

Moon (cp. full moon, new moon) course of, 147;
invisibility of, 149;
phases of, 151, 155;
smaller phases, 159;
position of, 150;
time counted by, 16

Mountains as landmarks, 21

Nasi, 253

New moon, celebration of, 151

New moons, counting in, 151, 235

New Year, 8, 91, 267;
Egyptian, 278;
festivals of, 268

Night, parts of, 39;
times of, indicated by the stars, 40

Nights, counting in, 13

‘Noon-line’, 21

Nundinae, 333

Oktaeteris, 1, 363

Olympiads, 364

Pars pro toto counting, 358;
of days, 16;
of weeks, 358;
of years, 92

Picture-writings, 103

Planets, 120, 124

Plant as sun-dial, 19

Pleiades the, as indicating seed-time, 134;
special significance of, 129

Pleiades-year, 275

Priests as calendar-makers, 350

Qalammas, 253

Quarters of the moon, 170

Rainy and dry seasons, 54, 88;
two, 62

Sabbath, 329

Scandinavian (cp. Icelandic, Swedish) divisions of the day, 21;
observation of solstices, 316;
seasons, 74;
week-reckoning, 80

Schools of astronomy, 354

Seasonal points, 46

Seasons, 45;
cycles of, 65;
number: two, 54;
two or three, 72, 75;
three, 64;
four or five, 58, 63;
six, 60;
s. and months, 218;
regulation of, 70;
subdivision of, 61, 72

Sea-voyages, stars a guide to, 125, 353

Shabattu, 329

Shadow, time of day reckoned according to, 19

Shifting method of time-reckoning, 8

Solstices, 220;
festivals regulated by, 344;
months regulated by, 265;
observation of, 311

Stars, 109;
festivals regulated by, 133;
a guide to sea-voyages, 125, 353;
months named after, 227, 247;
new year determined by, 275;
omens of weather, 125, 130, 140, 143;
risings and settings of, 5, 128;
other phases, 129;
time of the night, 40;
time of the year indicated by, 128

Summer and winter, 54, 89

Summer day, the, 81

Sun = day, 13

Sun (cp. solstices and equinoxes), seed-time indicated by, 317;
time of day indicated by the position of, 17

Swedish (cp. Scandinavian) lunar months, 302, 304;
month-names, 299;
quarter-years, 80

Tally, 104, 168, 320

Tetraeteris, 1

Tille on the division of the Germanic year, 77

Time-indications, 9;
concrete, 355;
discontinuous and ‘aoristic’, 9, 356

Time-reckoning, methods of, 8

Units of time-reckoning, 3

Weather, stars as omens of, 125, 130, 140, 143

Webster on the sabbath, 335

Week, seven-day, 333

Week-year, 78, 370

Weidner on Babylonian intercalary cycles, 259

Weinhold on the Germanic seasons, 76

Wind-seasons, greater, 57;
shorter, 85

Winter and summer, 54, 89;
w. the time of festivals, 339

Winter day, the, 81

Winters, years counted in, 9

Year, 86;
agricultural, 91, 95, 96;
Egyptian, 277;
incomplete, 89, 223, 240;
stellar, 4;
stellar, of primitive peoples, 93, 275;
tropic, 4

Years, counting of, 92;
designation of y. after events, 99;
after rulers etc., 101, 107

Yule-moon, 301

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In Swedish (or German) I should use the word _punktnell_ to denote this mode of time-reckoning, since the calculation is based upon a _punctum_, a single point, not upon the whole unit of time. Unfortunately the word ‘punctual’ has quite another sense in English.

[2] Snouck Hurgronje, I. 201.

[3] Jochelson, _Yukaghir_ p. 42.

[4] Jenks, p. 219.

[5] Schoolcraft, II, 129.

[6] _Ibid._ I, 57 B.

[7] Haddon, p. 303.

[8] Ling Roth, p. 133.

[9] See further Usener, _Götternamen_, p. 289. E. g. Pindar, _Ol._ XIII, 37, ἀελίῳ ἀμφ’ ἑνί (‘in one day’), Euripides, _Helena_ 652, ἡλίους δὲ μυρίους μόγις διελθών (‘with difficulty passing through thousands of suns’), and in a sacred regulation ἐᾶσαι οὕτως ἔστε κα τρεῖς ἅλιοι γένωνται (‘to leave so until three suns have passed’), Blinkenberg, _Die lindische Tempelchronik_, p. 38, Part D, 1. 72, (Bonn, 1915) etc. In Latin still more frequently, e. g. Silius, _Punica_, III, 554, _Bis senos soles, totidem per vulnera saevas emensi noctes, etc._

[10] Il. XXI v. 80 ἠὼς δέ μοί ἐστιν ἥδε δυωδεκάτη ὅτ’ ἐς Ἴλιον εἰλήλουθα.

[11] Il. XXIV v. 413 δυωδεκάτη οἱ ἠως κειμένῳ.

[12] Otherwise, but in my opinion erroneously, G. Bilfinger, _Der bürgerliche Tag_, p. 35.

[13] Tacitus, _Germ._ 11, _nec dierum numerum sed noctium computant_.

[14] Schrader, II. 235; Ginzel, I, 243; A. Fischer, p. 744.

[15] Fornander, I, 122.

[16] Taylor, p. 364.

[17] Ellis, _Polyn. Res._³ I, 88.

[18] Mathias G., p. 210.

[19] Skeat and Blagden, I, 393.

[20] Claus, p. 38.

[21] Cole, p. 323.

[22] Cranz, I, 239.

[23] Heckewelder, p. 523.

[24] Dunbar, p. 1.

[25] Swanton, p. 339.

[26] Mooney, p. 365.

[27] Riggs, p. 165.

[28] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.

[29] Powers, p. 77.

[30] Carver, p. 177.

[31] Radloff, p. 308.

[32] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, pp. 25 ff.

[33] Schrader, II, 235.

[34] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, pp. 25 ff.

[35] Radloff, p. 308.

[36] Partridge, p. 244.

[37] Velten, p. 353.

[38] Claus, p. 38.

[39] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, 140.

[40] Hammar, p. 156.

[41] Merker, p. 153.

[42] Schulze, p. 373.

[43] Foa, p. 119.

[44] Alberti, p. 69.

[45] Fabry, p. 223.

[46] Oliveau, p. 343.

[47] Spencer and Gillen, _Across Austr._, II, 270.

[48] Jenks, p. 219.

[49] Hose, p. 169.

[50] Wilken, p. 200.

[51] Crawfurd, I, 287 f.

[52] Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 194.

[53] Haddon, p. 303.

[54] Forster, pp. 441 ff.

[55] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.

[56] Krause, p. 339.

[57] Crawfurd, I, 287.

[58] Merker, p. 153.

[59] Velten, p. 333.

[60] Mansfeld, p. 244.

[61] Stannus, p. 288.

[62] Wegener, p. 146.

[63] Skeat and Blagden, I, 393.

[64] ὅταν ᾖ δεκάπουν τὸ στοιχεῖον, λιπαρῷ χωρεῖν ἐπὶ δεῖπνον.

[65] G. Bilfinger, _Zeitmesser_, p. 19; art. _Horologium_ in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_.

[66] Paul, III, 447. See further Finn Magnusson.

[67] _Arkiv för Nord. Filologi_, 23, 1907, pp. 259 ff.

[68] Drake, p. 276.

[69] Hose, p. 169.

[70] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes_, p. 25; Spencer, pp. 444 ff.

[71] MacCaulay, p. 525.

[72] Fewkes, p 260.

[73] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.

[74] Beverley, p. 4.

[75] _Ibid._ p. 182.

[76] _Handbook_, p. 189.

[77] Du Pratz, I, 223.

[78] Mooney, p. 365.

[79] Hill Tout, p. 155.

[80] Gilij, II, 12.

[81] Molina, pp. 139 ff.

[82] Hammar, p. 156.

[83] Gutmann, p. 241.

[84] Weeks, _JRAI, 39_, p. 417.

[85] Koelle, p. 284.

[86] Westermann, p. 105.

[87] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 150.

[88] Merker, p. 153.

[89] Hollis, _Masai_, p. 332.

[90] Roscoe, _JRAI, 32_, p. 71.

[91] Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 38.

[92] Junod, _Thonga_, II, 282.

[93] Schulze, p. 373.

[94] Man, pp. 336 ff.

[95] Nieuwenhuis, I, 317.

[96] Maass, pp. 511 ff.

[97] Crawfurd, I, 287.

[98] Snouck Hurgronje, I, 199 ff.

[99] Snouck Hurgronje, I, 200 n. 2; translator’s note.

[100] Thurnwald, p. 334.

[101] _Ibid._, p. 346.

[102] Brown, p. 332.

[103] Fornander, I, 121.

[104] Malo, pp. 33 ff.

[105] Forster, pp. 441 ff.

[106] Wegener, pp. 146 ff.; Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 89. The former quotes the latter from the first edition, but Ellis l. c. leaves out the translation of the concrete terms for the times later than noon, and fills up the period from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m. with modern terms, e. g. ‘about 7’, ‘8 a. m.’ etc.

[107] Mathias G., pp. 210 ff.

[108] Brown, p. 348.

[109] Velten, p. 333.

[110] Nieuwenhuis, I, 318.

[111] Gutmann, p. 241.

[112] Hollis, _Nandi_, p. 96.

[113] Crawfurd, I, 287.

[114] Cp. above, p. 27.

[115] Above, pp. 24, 30.

[116] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 140.

[117] ‘As the sun turned over to the unyoking of the oxen’.

[118] Feist, p. 262.

[119] Hollis, _Nandi_, pp. 96 ff.

[120] Sibree, pp. 69 ff.

[121] ἔσσεται ἢ ἠὼς ἢ δείλη ἢ μέσον ἦμαρ--Il. XXI, 111.

[122] εὗδον παννύχιος καὶ ἐπ’ ἠῶ καὶ μέσον ἦμαρ--Od. VII, 288.

[123] ὄφρα μὲν ἠὼς ἦν καὶ ἀέξετο ἱερὸν ἦμαρ--Od. IX, 56.

[124] ἦμος ... φάνη ... Ἠὼς--Od. IV, 431.

[125] ἦμος δ’ ἠέλιος μέσον οὐρανὸν ἀμφιβεβῃκη--Od. IV, 400.

[126] πᾶσαν δ’ ἠοίην μένομεν ... ἔνδιος δ’ ὁ γέρων ἦλθ’ ἐξ ἁλός--Od. IV, 447-50.

[127] δείελον ἦμαρ--Od. XVII, 606.

[128] Od. I, 422.

[129] ἦμος δ’ οὔτ’ ἄρ πω ἠὼς ἔτι δ’ ἀμφιλύκη νύξ--Il. VII, 433.

[130] ἅμ’ ἠοῖ--Il. VII, 331, Od. XVI, 2; ἅμα δ’ ἠοῖ φαινομένηφιν--Il. XI, 685; Od. IV, 407.

[131] Il. VIII, 538; Od. I, 24.

[132] ἠέλιος δ’ ἀνόρουσε λιπὼν περικαλλέα λίμνην οὐρανὸν εἰς πολύχαλκον, ἵν’ ἀθανάτοισι φαείνοι--Od. III, 1 f.

[133] οὔθ’ ὁπότ’ ἂν στείχῃσι πρὸς οὐρανὸν ἀστεροέντα, οὔθ’ ὅτ’ ἂν ἂψ ἔπὶ γαῖαν ἀπ’ οὐρανόθεν προτράπηται--Od. XI, 17.

[134] εὖτε γὰρ ἠέλιος φαέθων ὑπερέσχεθε γαίης--Il. XI, 735.

[135] ἠέλιος μὲν ἔπειτα νέον προσέβαλλεν ἀρούρας, ἐξ ἀκαλαρρείταο βαθυρρόου Ὠκεανοῖο οὐρανὸν εἲς ἀνιών--Il. VII, 421 ff.

[136] μέμβλωκε μάλιστα ἦμαρ--Od. XVII, 190.

[137] εἶσ’ ὑπὸ γαῖαν--Od. X, 191.

[138] ἐν δ’ ἔπεσ’ Ὠκεανῷ λαμπρὸν φάος ἠελίοιο ἕλκον νύκτα μέλαιναν--Il. VIII, 485.

[139] Od. XXII, 318.

[140] ἦμος δ’ ἠέλιος μετενίσσετο βουλυτόνδε--Il. XVI, 779; Od. IX, 58.

[141] ὥς οἱ ἐναργὲς ὄνειρον ἐπέσσυτο νυκτὸς ἀμολγῷ--Od. IV, 841.

[142] ἦμος δὲ δρυτόμος ἀνὴρ ὡπλίσσατο δεῖπνον ... ἐπεί τ’ ἐκορέσσατο χεῖρας τάμνων δένδρεα μακρά--Il. XI, 86.

[143] ἦμος δ’ ἐπὶ δόρπον ἀνὴρ ἀγορῆθεν ἀνέστη κρίνων νείκεα πολλά--Od. XII, 439.

[144] ἀγορῆς πληθυούσης--Herod. IV, 181; even in a Delphian sacred decree, _Syll. inscr. graec._³ 257; περὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν--Xen., _Anab._ II, 1, 7; ἀγωρῆς πληθώρη--Herod. II, 173.

[145] πρὶν ἀγορὰν πεπληθέναι--Pherekr., _Autom._ 9.

[146] ἀγορῆς διάλυσις--Herod. III, 104.

[147] ἀλλ’ ἴομεν· μάλα γὰρ νὺξ ἄνεται, ἐγγύθι δ’ ἠώς. ἄστρα δὲ δὴ προβεβήκε, παροίχωκεν δὲ πλέων νὺξ τῶν δύο μοιράων, τριτάτη δ’ ἔτι μοῖρα λέλειπται--Il. X, 251.

[148] ἦμος δὲ τρίχα νυκτὸς ἔην, μέτα δ’ ἄστρα βεβήκει--Od. XII, 312, and XIV, 483.

[149] Od. XIII, 93.

[150] _cum a curia inter rostra et graecostasin prospexisset solem; a columna Maenia ad carcerem inclinato sidere supremam pronuntiavit, sed hoc serenis tantum diebus_--Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, VII, 214.

[151] G. Bilfinger, _Stundenangaben_, _Zeitmesser_. _Hora sexta_ is, for example, 6 o’clock, not the sixth hour. It seems to me as though _hora_ refers to the hour-line.

[152] Bilfinger, _Stundenang._, p. 131; Ginzel, III, 89.

[153] _ea hora qua incipit homo hominem posse cognoscere_, XXV, 6.

[154] _cum aperit esse pullorum cantus_, XXXVI, 1.

[155] _de pullo primo_, XXXV, 1.

[156] Crantz, I, 294.

[157] p. 55.

[158] Wegener, p. 147.

[159] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 89.

[160] Malo, p. 49.

[161] Wegener, p. 146; cp. above, p. 29.

[162] Fornander, I, 121.

[163] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 365.

[164] Merker, p. 153.

[165] Westermann, p. 105.

[166] Hammar, p. 156.

[167] Schulze, p. 373.

[168] Malo, p. 33.

[169] Cp. above, p. 28.

[170] Schulze, p. 373.

[171] Merker, p. 153.

[172] See below, p. 40.

[173] Forster, p. 441.

[174] Mathias G., p. 210.

[175] Gutmann, p. 241.

[176] Crawfurd, p. 271.

[177] Velten, p. 333.

[178] Wilken, p. 200.

[179] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 150.

[180] Oliveau, p. 343.

[181] Forster, p. 441.

[182] Wegener, p. 148.

[183] Dibble, p. 107.

[184] Malo, p. 33.

[185] Nordenskjöld, _Indianlif_, p. 273.

[186] Holm, _10_, 142, or _39_, 85 and 106.

[187] Egede, p. 131.

[188] Drake, pp. 277 ff.

[189] Paul, III, 447; cp. above, p. 21.

[190] See above, p. 36.

[191] Sibree, pp. 69 ff.

[192] Mansfeld, p. 244.

[193] Snouck Hurgronje, I, 201.

[194] Brown, p. 332.

[195] Cp. Bilfinger, _Der bürgerliche Tag_, pp. 198 ff., and my _Entstehung_, p. 13.

[196] Bilfinger, _Doppelstunde_; for the other side see Boll, _Sphaera_, pp. 311 ff.

[197] Ginzel, III, 93 ff.

[198] Matthews, p. 4.

[199] Hesiod, _Op._, v. 448.

[200] Athenaeus, VIII, p. 360 C; for modern swallow-processions and songs see Abbot, p. 18.

[201] Baumeister, _Denkm. des klass. Alt._, III, p. 1985, fig. 2128.

[202] αἵτ’ (γέρανοι) ἐπεὶ οὖν χειμῶνα φύγον--Il. III, 4.

[203] ὄρνιθος φωνήν, Πολυπαίδη, ὀξὺ βοώσης ἤκουσ’, ἥτε βροτοῖς ἄγγελος ἦλθ’ ἀρότου ὡραίου--Theognis, vv. 1197 ff.

[204] Aristoph., _The Birds_, translated by J. H. Frere, vv. 709 ff.

[205] Cranz, I, 293.

[206] Wilson, p. 297.

[207] Stow, p. 112.

[208] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 140.

[209] Gilij, II, 20 ff.; ch. VII.

[210] Howitt, p. 432.

[211] Brown, p. 332.

[212] Thurnwald, p. 342.

[213] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 367.

[214] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 352.

[215] Heckewelder, p. 525.

[216] Junod, _Thonga_, p. 20.

[217] Junod, _Ronga_, pp. 196 ff.

[218] Grabowsky, p. 102.

[219] Sibree, p. 57.

[220] Dieffenbach, II, 122 ff.

[221] Sechefo, p. 931.

[222] Matthews, p. 4.

[223] Schiefner, p. 196.

[224] Homfray, p. 62.

[225] Turner, p. 202.

[226] Dalsager, pp. 54 ff.; cp. Cranz I, 293 ff.

[227] See below, pp. 66 ff.

[228] _R. T. Str._, pp. 226 ff.

[229] Cp. below, p. 57.

[230] Below ch. VI.

[231] _Handbook_, p. 189.

[232] Schoolcraft, II, 129.

[233] Fewkes, _21_ p. 19.

[234] Stevenson, p. 108.

[235] Bushnell, p. 17.

[236] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, p. 25.

[237] Gilij, II, 14; von den Steinen, _Globus_, p. 244.

[238] _Ibid._, p. 245.

[239] Krause, p. 339.

[240] Claus, p. 38.

[241] Hollis, _Nandi_, p. 94.

[242] _Loango Exp._ III: 2, 139.

[243] Torday and Joyce, _35_, p. 413; _36_, pp. 47 and 295.

[244] Mansfeld, p. 244.

[245] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 215.

[246] Hobley, _Akamba_., p. 53.

[247] Cp. below, p. 88 f.

[248] Wilken, p. 197; cp. below p. 70.

[249] Maass, p. 514.

[250] Fornander, I, 118 ff.

[251] Sheldon Dibble, p. 24.

[252] Malo, pp. 53 and 57, note 2.

[253] Forster, p. 436.

[254] _Ibid._, p. 371.

[255] von Bülow, _72_, p. 239.

[256] Brown, p. 347.

[257] Stair, p. 37.

[258] Jenks, p. 219.

[259] Oliveau, p. 343.

[260] Erdland, p. 21.

[261] Landtman, communicated by letter.

[262] Meier, pp. 708 ff.

[263] Hale, p. 105.

[264] Hastings, p. 132.

[265] Skeat and Blagden, I, 393.

[266] Nelson, p. 234.

[267] Bushnell, p. 17.

[268] Hill Tout, _34_, 33.

[269] Teit, _Thompson_, pp. 238 f.

[270] Teit, _Shuswap_, p. 517.

[271] _Handbook_, p. 189.

[272] Powers, p. 294.

[273] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 370.

[274] Riggs, p. 165.

[275] Dunbar, p. 1.

[276] Schoolcraft, II, 129.

[277] Molina, pp. 319 ff.

[278] Beverley, p. 181.

[279] _Ibid._, p. 4.

[280] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 366.

[281] Cp. below, p. 73.

[282] Below pp. 72 ff.

[283] Wiklund, p. 5.

[284] Drake, p. 278.

[285] Jochelson, _Yukaghir_, p. 42.

[286] Claus, p. 38.

[287] Johnstone, p. 266.

[288] Barrett, p. 35.

[289] Merker, p. 155.

[290] Hollis, _Masai_, pp. 333 ff.

[291] Spieth, p. 312 and note.

[292] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 151.

[293] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, 139.

[294] Hammar, p. 156.

[295] Gutmann, p. 240.

[296] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 139.

[297] Weeks, p. 308.

[298] Sibree, pp. 53, 57.

[299] _Ibid._, p. 77.

[300] Schulze, p. 369.

[301] Irle, p. 224.

[302] Nisbet, II, 288.

[303] Malo, p. 60, n. 8.

[304] _Ibid._, p. 58, n. 5.

[305] Ellis, _Polyn. Res._³, I, 87.

[306] Taylor, pp. 361 ff., 364 ff.

[307] Du Bois, p. 165.

[308] MacDonald, p. 64.

[309] Dennett, pp. 130 ff.

[310] Westermann, p. 103.

[311] von den Steinen, _Globus_, p. 245.

[312] Hastings, p. 69.

[313] Wilken, p. 199.

[314] Nieuwenhuis, I, 161.

[315] Jenks, pp. 219 ff.

[316] The figures in brackets represent the number of days as given by Wilken. See below.

[317] Crawfurd, I, 297 ff.

[318] Wilken, p. 197.

[319] D’Enjoy; Ginzel, I, 467. The latter begins the list with the commencement of spring and gives dates. The number of days is in each case taken from d’Enjoy.

[320] _Hiems et ver et aestas intellectum et vocabula habent, autumni perinde nomen et bona ignorantur_--Tac., _Germ._, ch. 26; Schrader, II³, 223 ff.; Feist, p. 265.

[321] Fragm. 76 Bergk.

[322] _De sign. temp._, 21, 44, 48.

[323] Roscher, p. 84; the limits according to Galen, XVII A, 17.

[324] Thibaut, pp. 10 ff.; Ginzel, I, 315.

[325] Weinhold, _Mon._, pp.2 ff.; cp. I. Aasen, _Norsk Ordbog_.

[326] Vigfusson, I, 431.

[327] _In der brache, in der zwibrache, in der herbst-sat, in der erne, im houwet, im hanfluchet, ze afterhalme und houwe, in der bonenarne, im brâchet, im wimmot, in der sât, im dem snite, laubbrost, laubrîse, haberschnitt, habererndte._ Tille, p. 10; cp. below, ch. XI.

[328] Cp. below pp. 78 ff.

[329] _De temp. rat._, ch. 13.

[330] _Im rîs und im lôve, im rûwen und im blôten, bî strô und bî grase._

[331] Grimm, I, 74.

[332] Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_, Hanover, 1878, maintains that the quadripartite division was developed alongside of the tripartite, and bases his statement on a study of the principal festivals.

[333] _Om en nordisk årstredelning_, p. 248. I cannot however agree with the author in the direction indicated by the sub-title of his essay: “Is a trace of an old Germanic tripartite division of the year to be observed in our popular festivals?”

[334] Above, p. 73.

[335] For exceptions see Bilfinger, I, 8 ff.

[336] Bilfinger has brought forward his opinion with great penetration and wide learning, but his reasoning cannot stand before a searching criticism such as that amassed by Ginzel, III, 58 ff., and Brate, _Nordens äldre tideräkning_, Program of the Södermalm College, Stockholm, 1908, pp. 17 ff., and in particular developed and more profoundly based by Beckman, _Alfræði_, Intro. pp. 1 ff.; cp. an article by the same author in the Norwegian periodical _Maal og Minne_, 1915, p. 198. I might content myself with a simple reference to Beckman, since I agree with him on all important points, but as his article is written in Swedish and is therefore probably inaccessible to many, I add the following note which in the main was written long before it now appears, originally in connexion with my studies in the primitive history of the Christmas festival, worked out in the year 1914.

In point of fact it seems as though the objection which Bilfinger in his study of the Yule-tide festival, II, 120, note, makes against the criticism of Finnur Jonsson has not been answered (before Beckman): the objection is that no notice is taken of the fundamental idea of Bilfinger’s work on the Old Icelandic year--the cardinal point around which his whole demonstration revolves--viz. the relation of the Old Icelandic calendar to the calculation of Easter. Granting that the still heathen Icelanders or Norwegians knew the week (the Germanic peoples took over the week while yet in their heathen period, see my _Studien zur Vorgeschichte des Weihnachtsfestes_, Archiv f. Religionswiss., 19, 1918, p. 118) and made use of it in counting time, and that they later learnt approximately to know the length of the year--which is very easily conceivable in view of their lively intercourse with other nations--we have the elements out of which their calendar was developed, viz. the week and the year. To these must be added the old-established divisions of the year, summer and winter, which, on account of their importance for civil life, were introduced as fixed periods of time into the calendar. As a result of the adjusting of the reckoning in weeks to the year of 365, in leapyear 366, days, there arose a week-year with periodic interpolations of an embolimic week. This of necessity agrees with Bilfinger’s so-called ‘mean Easter year’, since both are constructed out of the same elements, it being assumed only that the week-days of the one calendar correspond to those of the other, and this is the case, since the week came to Iceland from the south. Bilfinger is not correct in calling (I, 71) the shifting Easter period a fragment of a week-year: in so doing he shuts his eyes to what he himself terms the quinary factor, i. e. that Easter Sunday falls varyingly on one of the five Sundays between March 22 and April 25 (the other days of the Paschal term being fixed accordingly). This fact, as has long ago been observed, makes the Easter period a fragment of a lunisolar year. A further development would lead to a lunisolar year that also took into account the reckoning in weeks. Bilfinger’s view of the matter is that the Icelanders for the sake of convenience eliminated the quinary factor from the Easter reckoning by taking the mean Easter Thursday as a fixed point of departure instead of letting the calendar follow the actual variation of this day: this roundabout method is unnecessary since the same result is arrived at by basing a system of time-reckoning on the year and the week. The aim of the Icelandic calendar, according to Bilfinger, was to fix the beginning of summer, a legally very important term. If this was the object in view it was, as Brate remarks (p. 21), not attained, for this day, Thursday of the week April 9-15, may fall in the Passion week so that it becomes useless for all business purposes. This proves on the contrary that the fixing of the beginning of summer is pre-Christian.

The last objection to Are’s account of the introduction of the Icelandic calendar, which Finnur Jonsson and Brate have allowed to stand, must also fall. According to Are the cyclical interpolation of a week was introduced by Torsten Surt about 960 A. D., while previously the year had 52 weeks, i. e. 1¼ days too few. Bilfinger objects that such a year is unthinkable, since in the course of 40 years it must anticipate itself by 50 days, and therefore in 292 years must have run through the whole circle of the seasons: the mid-winter festival must therefore for one generation have fallen in summer. Theoretically the objection is valid, but in practice not so (cp. the Egyptian shifting year), and the old calendars are administered practically. In the effort to arrive at an embolimic cycle mistakes are at first made, and the agreement with the solar year is once more brought about by means of intercalations irregularly introduced for practical reasons. How the ancient Roman calendar was treated we know: by the end of the Republic it had become thoroughly disorganised as a result of intercalations made for political purposes. Moreover the Roman year with its average length of 366¼ days was from the beginning not a whit better than the year of 364 days ascribed by Are to the Icelanders before Torsten Surt. We learn from inscriptions that in Athens still more irregular intercalations were made during the last decades of the 5th century. Such intercalations are the ruin of any system, but chronology must work with a system, and this fact often blinds the eye of the chronological student to the irregularity in the practical treatment of the calendar. Irregular intercalations of this kind are not indeed attested for Iceland, but it is evident that they must always appear of themselves in a defective calendar. The possibility of a treatment of this kind existed, since the spokesman of the laws had to proclaim publicly every year to the assembled people in the Althing notices about the calendar for the following year, among which the announcement of the intercalation held a special place. In these arguments I find myself in agreement with Beckman: I also agree with his statement as to the gradual increase in accuracy in the formation of the Icelandic week-calendar under the influence of the ecclesiastical calendar.

We conclude then that the cardinal points of the Icelandic calendar, which recur throughout Scandinavia and fall about three weeks behind the equinoxes or the solstices, are not of Christian origin: the agreement with what Bilfinger terms the ‘mean Easter Thursday’ is accidental. The date is due to climatic conditions. A contributory factor may have been the circumstance that mid-winter and midsummer fall just at the places where a shortening or lengthening of the day becomes observable.

[337] Småland and neighbouring provinces. Communicated by Dr. von Sydow.

[338] This practice has passed into the Lapp language: _kess idja_ = week of the summer nights, _talvidja_ = the winter nights. Wiklund, pp. 16 and 20.

[339] _Þá skylldi blóta i móti vetri til árs, enn at miðjum vetri blóta til gróðrar; hit þriðja at sumri, þat var sigrblót_--_Heimskringla_, Ynglingasaga, ch. 8.

[340] See e. g. above, p. 70.

[341] Coquilhat, p. 367.

[342] Maass, p. 314. The names are those of the Arabic letters and also denote the years of an eight-year cycle, the years of which are said to be characterised by similar weather. The people are Islamite Malays. Astrology and the calendar have strongly influenced Sumatra and in particular Java; primitive modes of thought however recur under the surface.

[343] Brown, p. 331.

[344] Thurnwald, p. 346.

[345] _Ibid._

[346] Routledge, p. 40.

[347] Hale, p. 105.

[348] Hastings, p. 132.

[349] Swoboda, p. 22.

[350] Brown, p. 331.

[351] Skeat and Blagden, I, 393.

[352] De Backer, p. 406.

[353] Hagen, p. 154.

[354] Brown, p. 347.

[355] Parkinson, p. 378.

[356] Cp. p. 57.

[357] Above, p. 55.

[358] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, 139.

[359] Roscoe, _Baganda_, pp. 37 ff.

[360] Id., _Bantu_, p. 72.

[361] Schiefner, pp. 191 ff.

[362] See above, p. 75.

[363] Schiefner, pp. 198, 201 ff.

[364] Wirth, p. 211.

[365] Hale, pp. 106, 170.

[366] Mathias G., p. 211.

[367] Dennett, pp. 136 ff.

[368] Adriani and Kruijt, II, 264.

[369] Maass, p. 512.

[370] Evans, _JRAI, 42_, p. 395.

[371] Mommsen, _Röm. Chronologie_², pp. 47 ff.; bibliography in Ginzel II, 221 ff.

[372] Schulze, p. 369.

[373] Fabry, p. 224.

[374] Jenks, p. 219.

[375] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 140.

[376] Grabowsky, p. 102.

[377] Spieth, p. 311.

[378] Junod, _Thonga_, II, 282.

[379] Foa, p. 120. In these districts there are two seed-times and two harvests in the year.

[380] See below ch. X.

[381] Schulze, p. 369.

[382] Musil, p. 256.

[383] Kisak Tamai, p. 97.

[384] von den Steinen, _Globus_, p. 246, n. 1.

[385] _Ibid._, p. 245: the last detail quoted from C. de Rochefort, _Hist. naturelle et morale des Iles Antilles_, Rotterdam, 1663, p. 56.

[386] Beverley, p. 181.

[387] Grimm, I, 85; Weinhold, _Jahrt._, p. 12.

[388] von den Steinen, _Globus_.

[389] Mathias G., p. 211.

[390] Weeks, _JRAI, 39_, 129.

[391] Schrader, II³, 227; Feist, p. 266.

[392] Cranz, I, 293.

[393] Nelson, p. 234.

[394] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 366.

[395] Dunbar, p. 1.

[396] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.

[397] Carver, p. 175.

[398] Powers, p. 77.

[399] Mallery, _4_, p. 99.

[400] Hill Tout, pp. 34, 33.

[401] von den Steinen, _Globus_, p. 245.

[402] Weeks, _Bakongo_, p. 308.

[403] _Handbook_, p. 189.

[404] MacCauley, p. 524.

[405] Sechefo, p. 932, note 1.

[406] Stannus, p. 288.

[407] Wilson, p. 297.

[408] Musil, p. 227.

[409] Read, p. 64.

[410] Schrader, II³, 227; Feist, pp. 266 ff.

[411] De la Vega, I, 199.

[412] Johnstone, p. 266.

[413] Lane’s Dictionary, s. v.

[414] Adriani and Kruijt, II, 263 ff.

[415] Fornander, I, 124; cp. 119.

[416] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 87.

[417] Codrington, p. 349.

[418] Prellwitz, in _Festschr. für Friedländer_, pp. 382 ff.; Türk, _Hermes, 31_, 1896, pp. 647 ff.

[419] See p. 89.

[420] Stannus, p. 288.

[421] Johnstone, p. 266.

[422] Landtman, communicated by letter.

[423] _R. T. Str._, p. 225.

[424] Fabry, p. 224.

[425] Thomas, _Edo_, p. 18.

[426] Foa, p. 120.

[427] Schulze, p. 369.

[428] Kisak Tamai, p. 97.

[429] Reed, p. 64.

[430] Mathias G., pp. 211 ff.

[431] Thomson, I, 198.

[432] Hammar, p. 156.

[433] Below, p. 108.

[434] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 86.

[435] Hollis, _Masai_, pp. 261 ff.

[436] Holland, p. 234.

[437] Johnstone, _JRAI, 32_, p. 266.

[438] Adriani and Kruijt, II, 263 ff.

[439] Nicolovius, p. 7.

[440] von Brenner, p. 195.

[441] Hose and McDougall, II, 214.

[442] Cranz, I, 293; Dalsager, p. 55; Egede, p. 132.

[443] Alberti, p. 68.

[444] Drake, p. 279.

[445] Schulze, p. 369.

[446] Roscoe, _JRAI, 32_, p. 72; cp. id., _Baganda_, p. 37.

[447] Sprenger, pp. 137 ff.

[448] Ginzel, I, 251.

[449] Claus, p. 39.

[450] Merker, p. 156.

[451] Irle, pp. 222 ff.

[452] Heckewelder, pp. 525 ff.

[453] Dunbar, p. 1.

[454] Mooney, _Siouan Tribes_, p. 32.

[455] Mallery, _4_, p. 88.

[456] Russel, p. 36.

[457] King, p. 215.

[458] Cp. King, pp. 95, 130, 143, 144.

[459] Kugler, _Sternd._ II: 1, pp. 153 ff.; Ed. Meyer, _Gesch._, I: 2², 331, together with the bibliography there given.

[460] Thureau-Dangin, _Journal asiatique, 14_, 1909, p. 337.

[461] King, pp. 146, 95.

[462] Kugler, _Sternd._, II, 236 ff.; King _passim_.

[463] King, p. 190.

[464] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch._, I, 2², 31 and 148, _Chronol._ pp. 185 ff., and elsewhere.

[465] See above, pp. 91 ff.

[466] See pp. 129.

[467] Landtman, communicated by letter.

[468] Il. XXII, 25 ff. translated by P. S. Worsley.

[469] Cp. my article in _Arch. f. Religionswiss., 14_, 1911, p. 429.

[470] Od. XI, 17; XII, 380; see above, p. 35.

[471] ἀστέρ’ ὀπωρινῷ ἐναλίγκιον. ὅστε μάλιστα λαμπρὸν παμφαίνῃσι λελουμένος Ὠκεανοῖο--II. V, 5: ‘bathed in the Ocean’, since Sirius at his rising emerges like the sun from the ocean.

[472] οὔλιος ἀστὴρ παμφαίνων--II. XI, 62.

[473] ὀψὲ δυόντα Βοώτην--Od. V, 272.

[474] Il. XVIII, 489; Od. V, 275.

[475] οὐδέ οἱ ὕπνος ἐπὶ βλεφάροισιν ἔπιπτεν Πληιάδας τ’ ἐσορῶντι καὶ ὀψὲ δύοντα Βοώτην ἄρκτον κ. τ. λ.--Od. V, 271 ff., translated by A. S. Way.

[476] Il. XVIII, 486.

[477] Od. XIII, 93.

[478] _Op._, vv. 528 ff.

[479] vv. 414 ff.

[480] Pfeiffer, pp. 1 ff.

[481] Alcaeus, fr. 28a Matth.:--τέγγε πλεύμονα ϝοίνῳ· τὸ γὰρ ἄστρον περιτέλλεται. Cp. Theognis vv. 1039 f.

[482] Aeschylus, _Agam._, vv. 4 ff., translated by E. Thring.

[483] Schol. Aesch. _Prom._, 457; Soph. _Palam._, fr. 399 N^2.

[484] Aesch., _Prom._, 453 ff., translated by R. Whitelaw.

[485] Soph., _Oed. Rex_, v. 113,--ἐξ ἦρος εἰς ἀρκτοῦρον ἑκμήνους χρόνους.

[486] Gundel, pp. 99 ff.

[487] Rehm.

[488] Sprenger, pp. 162 ff.

[489] Bogoras, II, 307 ff.

[490] Egede, pp. 131 ff.

[491] Holm, _10_, 142, and 39, 106 and 85.

[492] Schiefner, p. 204.

[493] Swanton, p. 427.

[494] Carver, p. 253.

[495] Heckewelder, p. 527.

[496] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 110.

[497] Gatschett, p. 666.

[498] Dorsey and Swanton, p. 203.

[499] Du Bois, pp. 162 ff.

[500] Columbus, p. 635.

[501] von den Steinen, _Zentralbras._, pp. 359 ff., 436, 513.

[502] Krause, p. 340.

[503] Teschauer, pp. 734 ff.

[504] Nordenskiöld, _Indianlif_, p. 273, _Indianer och hvita_, p. 173.

[505] Ehrenreich, pp. 44 f., 72.

[506] Molina, pp. 319 f.

[507] Spieth, p. 557.

[508] Thomas, _Ibo_, p. 127.

[509] Arcin, p. 394.

[510] Weeks, _Bakongo_, pp. 293 ff.

[511] Weeks, _JRAI, 39_, pp. 417 ff.

[512] Westermann, p. 104.

[513] Claus, p. 39.

[514] Junod, _Thonga_, II, 285.

[515] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, pp. 135 ff.

[516] Schulze, pp. 367 ff.

[517] Bleek, p. 108.

[518] Rivers, pp. 593 ff.

[519] Skeat and Blagden, II, 724.

[520] Hose and MacDougall, II, 213 f., 139.

[521] Many names of stars are given, e. g. by Ridley and MacPherson, others by Kötz, pp. 30 ff. I give only a few examples; cp. also pp. 131 ff. and 144.

[522] Spencer and Gillen, _Central Australia_, pp. 565 f., _North. Tribes_, pp. 628 ff.

[523] Strehlow, I, 19 f., 21 f., 24; II, 9.

[524] Howitt, pp. 431 f.

[525] Parker, pp. 95 ff.

[526] Ridley, p. 274.

[527] Brough-Smyth, I, 433, quoted by Kötz, p. 37.

[528] See below, pp. 139 ff.

[529] _R. T. Str._, p. 219.

[530] Rivers, _Mel._, I, 173.

[531] _Ibid._, II, 552, quoting Parkinson, p. 376, from the statement of a native Moanu.

[532] Thurnwald, pp. 340 ff.

[533] Codrington, p. 348.

[534] Forster, p. 442.

[535] Wegener, p. 148.

[536] Erdland, pp. 24 ff.

[537] von Bülow, _72_, p. 238.

[538] See further Kötz, pp. 43 ff.

[539] Mathias G., pp. 209 f.

[540] Wegener, p. 148.

[541] Brandeis, p. 78.

[542] Forster, p. 442.

[543] Fornander, I, 127, note 1.

[544] Dibble, p. 107.

[545] Taylor, p. 363.

[546] Pp. 211 f.

[547] Christians, pp. 388 ff.

[548] Hale, p. 68.

[549] See pp. 123, 125, 132, 136, 138, 139, 144.

[550] On this special point Andree has collected much material, which has been considerably augmented by Frazer.

[551] Bleek and Lloyd, I, 338 f.

[552] Schulze, p. 367.

[553] Parker, p. 95; cp. above, p. 122.

[554] McKellar, quoted by Frazer, p. 307; cp. Ridley, p. 279; below, p. 144.

[555] Strehlow, pp. 9 and 19 ff.

[556] Stanbridge, in MacPherson, pp. 71 ff.

[557] Brough-Smyth, in Kötz, p. 43.

[558] Dawson, quoted by Frazer, p. 308.

[559] Bogoras, II, 307.

[560] L’Heureux, _JRAI, 15_, 301.

[561] Wilson, quoted by Andree, p. 364; McClintock, quoted by Frazer, p. 311.

[562] Fewkes, quoted by Frazer, p. 312.

[563] Koch-Grünberg, II, 203 ff.

[564] Teschauer, pp. 734 ff.

[565] von den Steinen, _Globus_, p. 245.

[566] Cp. above p. 49.

[567] Gilij, II, 21.

[568] Grubb, quoted by Frazer, p. 309.

[569] De Angelis; Frazer, p. 309.

[570] Nordenskiöld, _Indianer och hvita_, pp. 173, 113.

[571] Id., _Indianlif_, p. 169.

[572] Frazer, p. 310, with references.

[573] Moffat, quoted by Frazer, p. 316.

[574] Kidd: Frazer, p. 116.

[575] McCall Theal: Frazer, p. 316.

[576] Callaway, p. 39.

[577] Junod, _Thonga_, II, 286.

[578] Stannus, p. 289.

[579] Hobley, _JRAI, 41_, 442.

[580] Hollis, _Masai_, pp. 275 ff.; cp. below, pp. 201 f.

[581] _Globus, 82_, 1902, p. 177.

[582] Winterbottom, quoted by Frazer, p. 318.

[583] Weeks, _Bakongo_, pp. 293 ff.

[584] See above, p. 93.

[585] Weeks, _39_, p. 129.

[586] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, pp. 135 and 138.

[587] Arcin, p. 394.

[588] St. John, I, 213 ff.

[589] Schaank, quoted by Andree, p. 364.

[590] Hose and McDougall, I, 109; II, 139, 213.

[591] Hose, _JRAI, 23_, p. 168.

[592] Schaank, quoted by Andree, p. 364.

[593] Nieuwenhuisen, quoted by Frazer, p. 315.

[594] Marsden: Frazer, p. 315.

[595] von Spreeuwenberg: Frazer, p. 313.

[596] Neuhauss: Frazer, p. 313.

[597] Haddon: Frazer, _ibid._

[598] Haddon, p. 303.

[599] _R. T. Str._, pp. 218 ff.

[600] Landtman, pp. 482 ff.

[601] Codrington, p. 348.

[602] Brown, p. 332.

[603] Parkinson, pp. 377 ff.

[604] Wheeler, p. 37.

[605] Guppy, quoted by Frazer, p. 313.

[606] Thurnwald, pp. 340 ff.

[607] Codrington, p. 348.

[608] Christians, pp. 388 ff.

[609] von Bülow, _72_, p. 238; the author expresses himself erroneously, as if it were a case of the entrance of a planet into a constellation, instead of the position of a fixed star.

[610] Pfeiffer, pp. 1 ff.

[611] See above, pp. 130 f., 137, 131, 125 f.

[612] G. Schmidt, quoted by Frazer, p. 317.

[613] Ridley, p. 279.

[614] Parker, pp. 95 ff.; cp. above, p. 131.

[615] Ridley, p. 273.

[616] Manning, p. 168; cp. Frazer, p. 308.

[617] Reuterskiöld, pp. 72 and 119.

[618] Above, p. 112.

[619] Weeks, _Bakongo_, pp. 293 ff.

[620] Hollis, quoted by Frazer, p. 317.

[621] Nordenskiöld, _Indianer och hvita_, p. 173.

[622] Abbot, p. 70.

[623] Nordenskiöld, _Kulturhist._, p. 219.

[624] The Caffres--Alberti, p. 68; probably also among the ‘wild’ Kubu of Sumatra--Hagen, p. 155.

[625] Partridge, p. 244.

[626] Oliveau, p. 343.

[627] von Bülow, _93_, 251.

[628] Spieth, p. 311.

[629] Sechefo, _4_, p. 931.

[630] Below, pp. 158 f.

[631] Macdonald, p. 291.

[632] Sechefo, p. 932.

[633] Thomas, _Ibo_, p. 127.

[634] Schoolcraft, II, 177.

[635] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 140.

[636] Spieth, p. 556.

[637] Stannus, p. 288.

[638] MacCaulay, p. 525.

[639] Thurnwald, p. 331.

[640] See further Frazer, IV: 2, 140 ff.

[641] Howitt, p. 428.

[642] Hanserak, p. 44.

[643] Musters, p. 203.

[644] Carver, p. 175.

[645] Du Pratz, II, 354 ff.

[646] Seligmann, p. 193.

[647] Wollaston, p. 132.

[648] Thurnwald, pp. 332 ff.

[649] Bleek and Lloyd, I, 415.

[650] Livingstone, p. 235.

[651] Junod, _Thonga_, I, 51; II, 283.

[652] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 139 f.

[653] Gutmann, p. 238.

[654] Thomas, _Ibo_, p. 127.

[655] Stow, p. 112.

[656] Foa, p. 120.

[657] _Arch. f. Anthropol., 12_, 1913, p. 152.

[658] Møller, p. 50.

[659] Strabo, III, 4, 16 (p. 164).

[660] _Coeunt, nisi quid fortuitum et subitum inciderit, certis diebus, cum aut inchoatur luna aut impletur: nam agendis rebus hos auspicatissimum initium credunt_--Tac., _Germ._, XI.

[661] With this section cp. Webster, ch. V, _Lunar Superstitions and Festivals_.

[662] Spencer, p. 456.

[663] Cp. below, p. 160.

[664] Homfray, p. 61.

[665] Man, p. 337.

[666] Heckewelder, p. 527.

[667] Reed, p. 64.

[668] Hambruch, p. 57.

[669] Krause, p. 339.

[670] Schulze, p. 370.

[671] Spencer, p. 333.

[672] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, p. 565.

[673] Junod, _Thonga_, II, 283.

[674] Cp. above, p. 150.

[675] Spieth, p. 556.

[676] Skeat and Blagden, II, 660.

[677] Jenks, p. 219.

[678] Scheerer, p. 158.

[679] Brown, p. 332.

[680] Thurnwald, pp. 330 ff.

[681] Ray, in _R. T. Str._, p. 225.

[682] von den Steinen, p. 358.

[683] _Ibid._, p. 435.

[684] Nieuwenhuis, I, 317.

[685] Adriani, quoted by Winkler, p. 440.

[686] Adriani and Kruijt, II, 264 ff.

[687] von Krämer, I, 356 ff.

[688] Malo, pp. 54 ff.

[689] Fornander, I, 120 ff.

[690] Fornander, p. 126.

[691] Mathias G., p. 211.

[692] Tregear, _JRAI, 19_, p. 114.

[693] Forster, pp. 439 ff.; cp. Tregear, _Maori Dictionary_, App. A.

[694] The names of the days (Ellis, _Polyn. Res._³, I, 88) are very similar to those of Tahiti; cp. also Wegener, p. 147, n. 1.

[695] Collected by Christians, pp. 387 ff.

[696] These expressions give the time of day, cp. above, p. 150.

[697] Hollis, _Nandi_, pp. 95 ff.

[698] Ginzel, I, 243.

[699] Boas, p. 648.

[700] Radloff, p. 308.

[701] Wirth, p. 364.

[702] Claus, p. 38.

[703] Hagen, pp. 154 ff.

[704] Above, p. 158.

[705] Merker, p. 156, n. 1.

[706] The twice-recurring verse τοῦ μὲν φθίνοντος μηνὸς τοῦ δ’ ἱσταμένοιο in Homer, _Od._ XIV, 162 and XIX, 307; Hesiod, _Op._, v. 780. Cp. my _Entstehung_, pp. 27 and 30 f.

[707] Below, pp. 188 and 206 f.

[708] Stevenson, p. 108.

[709] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 144.

[710] Merker, pp. 154 ff.

[711] Hesiod, _Op._, v. 773.

[712] See my remarks in _Arch. f. Religionswiss., 14_, p. 432.

[713] Barrett, p. 35.

[714] Stannus, p. 288.

[715] Gutmann, pp. 238 ff.

[716] Merker, pp. 154 ff.

[717] De Backer, p. 407; for the Andamanese cp. above, p. 155.

[718] See the passage from a Babylonian Creation epic quoted by Boll in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Realcykl. der klass. Altertumswiss._, VII, 2551.

[719] Mausser, p. 222.

[720] Compare the corresponding Chukchee months cited by Bogoras, below p. 220.

[721] Jochelson, _Koryak_, p. 428.

[722] Jochelson, _Yukaghir_, p. 41.

[723] Nelson, pp. 234 ff.

[724] Boas, _Eskimo_, pp. 644 ff.

[725] Dalsager, pp. 54 ff.; cp. Cranz, I, 293 ff.

[726] Schiefner, p. 204.

[727] Swanton, _Tlingit_, pp. 425 ff.

[728] Teit, _Shuswap_, pp. 517 ff.

[729] Teit, _Thompson_, pp. 237 ff.

[730] _Ibid._, pp. 238 ff.

[731] Teit, _Lillooet_, pp. 223 f.

[732] Boas, _Kwakiutl_, pp. 412 ff.

[733] Hill Tout, _JRAI, 34_, p. 34.

[734] _Ibid._, pp. 334 ff.

[735] Cp. the lists from the Yakuts p. 179 and the Tunguses p. 178.

[736] Hale, pp. 210 ff.

[737] Hastings, p. 66.

[738] De la Potherie, II, 331.

[739] Carver, pp. 175 ff.

[740] The translator quotes Loskiel, _Gesch. der Mission der evangelischen Brüder unter die Indianer in Nordamerika_, Barby, 1789.

[741] Heckewelder, p. 524.

[742] Jenks, _Wild Rice_, pp. 1089 f.

[743] Riggs, _Dict._, s. v. _wi_, ‘moon’.

[744] Clark, p. 16.

[745] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.

[746] Mooney, _Kiowa_, pp. 368 ff.

[747] Dunbar, p. 1.

[748] Gatschet, p. 1.

[749] Beverley, p. 4.

[750] Clark, p. 372.

[751] Matthews, p. 4.

[752] MacCauley, p. 524.

[753] Bushnell, p. 17.

[754] Du Pratz, II, 354 ff.

[755] Fewkes, _15_, p. 256.

[756] Stevenson, p. 108.

[757] _Handbook_, p. 189, from Cushing.

[758] Russel, p. 36.

[759] Hastings, p. 69.

[760] E. g. Garcilasso de la Vega, I, 200.

[761] Chervin, p. 229; Nordenskiöld, _Kulturh._, p. 219.

[762] Gilij, II, 233.

[763] Krause, p. 339.

[764] Schulze, p. 370.

[765] Sechefo, _4_, 931 ff., _5_, 71 ff.

[766] Macdonald, _JRAI, 19_, p. 291.

[767] Junod, _Ronga_, II, 284 ff.

[768] Irle, p. 224.

[769] François, _Nama und Damara_, Magdeburg, 1895, p. 185 f., quoted from Ginzel, II, 142.

[770] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, 139.

[771] Burrows, p. 56. The land extends from 23° W. long., and runs eastwards to the Nile at the most northerly point of the Congo Free State.

[772] Westermann, pp. 103 and 299.

[773] Hobley, _Akamba_, pp. 52 ff.

[774] Barret, _JRAI, 41_, p. 35.

[775] Cole, p. 323.

[776] Hollis, _Nandi_, pp. 94 ff.

[777] Gutmann, pp. 239 ff.

[778] Mischlisch, p. 127.

[779] Thomas, _Edo_, p. 18.

[780] _Etudes ethnogr., Rev. de Madag._, août 1904, p. 148 f.

[781] _Antan. Annual_, 1886, p. 237.

[782] Grandidier, pp. 384 ff.

[783] Newbold, II, 356 ff.

[784] von Bremer, p. 233.

[785] Nieuwenhuis, I, 317.

[786] Ginzel, I, 422 ff.; Friederich, p. 87.

[787] Forbes, p. 429.

[788] Cp. Landtman, p. 482. My additions are in brackets.

[789] See above, p. 57.

[790] Below, pp. 218 ff.

[791] Christians, pp. 389, 394.

[792] Christians, p. 393, after Kubary.

[793] Kubary, pp. 107 ff.

[794] Hale, p. 68.

[795] _Ibid._, pp. 391 ff.

[796] Meineke, p. 105.

[797] Cp. pp. 212, 213.

[798] Thomson, I, 198, Taylor, p. 362. The list is Taylor’s: Thomson’s is not so full, and is distinguished from the other in assigning a later position to the phases of the vegetation; it must therefore come from a more southerly district.

[799] Martin, II, Vocabulary, s. v. _mahina_, ‘moon, month’.

[800] Ellis, _Polyn. Res._³, I, 86.

[801] Forster, pp. 438 ff.

[802] Fornander, I, 125.

[803] von Bülow, _Globus, 72_, p. 239; G. Turner, _A hundred years ago and long before_, London, 1884, makes the same statement, Krämer (I, 356) differs very little from it; cp. also Hale, pp. 169 ff. A quite different list is to be found in a work inaccessible to me--Pratt and Frazer, _Some Folk-songs and Myths from Samoa_, R. Soc. of New S. Wales, XXIII, 1891, p. 121. It is worth noting that here two names of months are said to mean a demon, another a forest spirit.

[804] Lister, p. 53.

[805] Dibble, pp. 24 ff.; Fornander, I, 119.

[806] Haddon, p. 303; so also _R. T. Str._, p. 225.

[807] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, p. 25.

[808] Spencer, p. 444.

[809] Codrington, pp. 349 ff.

[810] Brown, pp. 331 ff.

[811] Bogoras, I, 51 ff.

[812] Above, p. 182.

[813] Jenks, p. 219.

[814] Mooney, _Kiowa_, p. 368.

[815] Above, p. 193.

[816] Above, p. 183.

[817] Forster, p. 371.

[818] Above, p. 190.

[819] Above, p. 195.

[820] Above, p. 192.

[821] Above, p. 180.

[822] Thomas, _Ibo_, I, 127.

[823] Mathias G., p. 211.

[824] Above, pp. 210 f.

[825] Above, pp. 178, 180.

[826] Above, p. 176.

[827] Above, pp. 193 f.

[828] Above, p. 192.

[829] Above, p. 195.

[830] Dubois, p. 165.

[831] Above, p. 193.

[832] Above, p. 200.

[833] Above, p. 174.

[834] The explanations given by Muss-Arnolt are known to me only through Ginzel, I, 117 ff.

[835] The respective explanations are from Kugler, II: 1, pp. 176 ff., and Thureau-Dangin.

[836] Hrozný, pp. 85 ff.

[837] I Kings, Chap. VI and VIII.

[838] Dillman, p. 926, König, p. 612 ff., and elsewhere.

[839] Above, p. 204.

[840] Schiaparelli, _A. Test._, p. 139.

[841] König, p. 636.

[842] Wellhausen, _Proleg._, p. 110.

[843] See below, pp. 272 ff.

[844] Finally discussed by Marti.

[845] I Kings VI, vv. 1, 37, and 38; VIII, 2.

[846] Exod. II, 2, Moses’ mother ‘hid him three months’.

[847] i. e. ‘month of the days’, Deut. XXI, 13, II Kings XV, 13.

[848] Deut. XXXIII, 14.

[849] Above, p. 151.

[850] I have examined the passages by the aid of Mandelkern’s Concordance and the analysis of sources in Kautzch’s translation of the Bible: for the numbered months cp. also Wellhausen, _Proleg._, p. 110.

[851] I Sam. XX.

[852] First in the somewhat later narrative of Elisha, II Kings IV, 23; then in Amos VIII, 5; Isaiah I, 13; XLVII, 13; LXVI, 23, etc.

[853] Num. XXIX, 6; XXVIII, 11, 14,

[854] I Sam. XX, 28, ‘the morrow after the new moon’.

[855] First the Yahwist, Ex. XXXIV, 18, and his reviser, XIII, 4 ff.; XXIII, 15; XXXIV, 18; further the Deuteronomist, XVI, 1, and in Ex. XII, 2.

[856] Judges XI, 37 ff.

[857] One month: Lev. XXVII, 6; Num. III, (often); IX, 22; XVIII, 16; XXVI, 62; I Kings IV, 7, 27; V, 14 (in the history of Solomon); several months: I Sam. XXVII, 7 (the old History of the Kings); II Sam. II, 11; V, 5; VI, 11; XXIV, 8, 13; I Kings XI, 16; II Kings XV, 8; Deut. XXIII, 31; XXIV, 8.

[858] The Elohist, Gen. XXIX, 14; the Yahwist, Num. XI, 20; Jud. XIX, 2; XX, 47.

[859] See below, pp. 272 ff.

[860] Enumerated by Ginzel, I, 240; cp. Wellhausen, _Reste_, p, 94, note 1.

[861] Wellhausen, _Reste_, pp. 96 (with note 1), 97.

[862] Cranz, I, 293, Dalsager, p. 54; cp. Holm, _10_, p. 141, and _39_, p. 105, respectively.

[863] Above, pp. 185 f.

[864] Mallery, _4_, p. 99; cp. Riggs, _Grammar_, p. 165.

[865] Dunbar, p. 1.

[866] Macdonald, p. 291.

[867] Friederich, p. 88.

[868] Below, p. 250.

[869] Winkler, p. 439.

[870] Nieuwenhuis, I, 317.

[871] Maes, p. 627.

[872] Thomas, _Ibo_, I, 127.

[873] Beverley, p. 181.

[874] Jochelson, _Yukaghir_, p. 42.

[875] Jochelson, _Koryak_, p. 428.

[876] Above, p. 241.

[877] Matthews, p. 4.

[878] Carver, p. 175.

[879] Below, p. 262.

[880] Above, pp. 201 f.

[881] Hollis, p. 334.

[882] Ginzel II, 41, 44.

[883] Dalman, p. 3.

[884] Boas, _Eskimo_, pp. 644 ff.

[885] Boas, _Kwakiutl_, pp. 412 ff.

[886] Dunbar, p. 1.

[887] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 86.

[888] Above, p. 184.

[889] Dubois, p. 165.

[890] Above, pp. 197 and 199.

[891] Above, pp. 211 f.

[892] Above, p. 210.

[893] Above, p. 208.

[894] Petrus Martyr, _De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis insulis_, Basileae, 1521; quoted by Ginzel, I, 446, note 1.

[895] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, 138.

[896] Macdonald, p. 291.

[897] Friederich, p. 86.

[898] Taylor, p. 362.

[899] Thomson, I, 198.

[900] Tregear, p. 114.

[901] De Backer, p. 407.

[902] Brandeis, p. 78.

[903] Malo, p. 59.

[904] Quoted by Malo, p. 59, note 7.

[905] Above, p. 242.

[906] Winkler, pp. 436 ff.

[907] Above, pp. 237 ff.

[908] Wellhausen, _Reste_, pp. 88, 99.

[909] Sprenger, p. 144.

[910] Wellhausen, _Reste_, p. 96; _Vakidi_, pp. 17 ff.

[911] I cannot go further into this, but refer to Ginzel, I, 243 ff., though he has far from exhausted the subject. Wellhausen’s treatment (l. c.) is suggestive but too dogmatic, and he leaves the _nasî_ out of account. More recently Moberg has examined in detail the Arabian traditions: for particulars of his researches I refer to his paper, _Den muhammedanska traditionen i fråga om an-nasî_, St. Tegn., pp. 465 ff. His conclusion is that originally _nasî_ was partly the term for the insertion of the intercalary month, and also probably the name of the intercalary month itself.

[912] For quotations see Sprenger, pp. 145 ff., also Albiruni, in Ginzel I, 245.

[913] See my _Entstehung etc._, p. 47.

[914] Sprenger’s hypothesis that the pre-Mohammedan Arabians had the lunar year but that the feast of pilgrims was held before the full moon preceding the spring equinox is also false: for the names of months shew that the feast was connected with a definite month.

[915] I give here the English translation of Sachau, p. 73, which adds _rabi I_ in brackets as an explanation. I am indebted to Prof. Moberg for the literal translation of the passage:--“The first _nasî_ fell in the _muharram_, and _safar_ was called by this name and _rabi I_ by the name _safar_, and from this they let the months revolve in the series. The second _nasî_ fell in _safar_, and the month following that (_rabi I_: Sachau) was again called _safar_, and so on, until the _nasî_ had run through all twelve months and came back again to _muharram_.” As a result of the first intercalation _rabi I_ became _safar_, therefore _rabi II_ = _rabi I_, after the second the names are pushed another stage forwards, therefore the original _safar_ = after the first intercalation _rabi I_, after the second _rabi II_. I have added a reference to the original situation.

[916] Caussin, p. 349.

[917] Above, pp. 226 ff.

[918] Kugler, _Erg._, p. 153.

[919] Kugler, I, 35 ff., II, 88 ff.

[920] Above, p. 227.

[921] Kugler, I, 228 ff., _Erg._, p. 169.

[922] The connexion of the number of the 12 signs of the zodiac with the months has often been contested, but in my opinion erroneously.

[923] Kugler, _Erg._, p. 131; cp. also Weissbach, pp. 281 ff.

[924] For a general view I refer to Bezold’s essay.

[925] Cp. above, p. 243.

[926] See Landsberger, pp. 44 ff.

[927] _Ibid._, p. 30, note 4.

[928] Kugler, II, 187 ff.; Weidner, _Memnon, 6_, 65 ff.

[929] Kugler, II, 248 ff.

[930] Kugler, II, 253, and elsewhere: the passage is often quoted.

[931] Schiaparelli, _Bab._, p. 229.

[932] Schiaparelli, _Bab._, p. 230.

[933] Weidner, p. 73; for the 27-year period in question see below, p. 264.

[934] Above, p. 183.

[935] Above, p. 188.

[936] Below, p. 313.