Chapter X: Part 10

Pumps that are generally operated at moderately high speeds and with high lifts may be made to work more smoothly by placing a _vacuum chamber on the suction pipe_.

* * *

_Valves in the suction pipe_ should have the stems carefully packed and kept tight; air leaks in valve stem stuffing-boxes are too often overlooked.

* * *

_Stoppage of the suction pipes_ or chamber is generally indicated by a jerky action and pounding of the plungers or water pistons, while a dull thud at the ends of the stroke is more often due to a lack of air in the air chamber, or when the speed is high, to a lack of capacity in the air chamber.

* * *

_The steam ends of pumps_ require the same lubrication as the cylinders and valves of engines. Intermittent lubrication is never to be recommended even for slow running pumps. Sight feed oil cups are always preferred.

* * *

_A sight feed lubricator_ connected to the steam pipe below the throttle or to the steam chest is _automatic in its operation_. All that is necessary is to fill it. When the speed increases the feed increases and when the pump stops the feed stops. An oil hand pump is also desirable to introduce a mixture of oil and graphite, about 10 per cent. of graphite.

* * *

_The water end stuffing-boxes of a pump_ may be lubricated by putting a heavy grease on the piston rods, or good cylinder oil may be used when grease is not at hand. _Some of the grease works into the stuffing-boxes_ and furnishes better lubrication than can be obtained by the water alone. Care must be used not to use too much oil as it must not go beyond the stuffing-boxes and contaminate the water.

* * *

When a pump works properly under high pressures and fails to work under low pressures, the difficulty is generally found _in the lift of the valves_.

* * *

_When the water end of a pump_ is known to be in good condition failure to run properly will in all probability be discovered _in the steam end_, and in single cylinder pumps the fault is generally caused by clogging of the auxiliary valves and ports. Sometimes pieces of packing break off and get into these small ports, thus shutting off the admission or release of steam.

* * *

_When one side of a duplex pump_ makes a quick stroke it indicates either that the stuffing-box gland of the opposite side is too tight or that the packing in the cylinder of the side making the quick stroke is wearing out or has, perhaps, given way. A broken discharge or suction valve will also cause a “jerky“ motion of the pistons.

* * *

Pumps should be examined frequently in order _to know what parts are beginning to wear_ and how fast the wear is taking place. When this is done the worn parts can, in the majority of cases, be taken out and replaced by new ones before they give out entirely, thus avoiding delay, but what is better, _duplicated parts kept on hand_ ready at a moment’s notice.

* * *

The regular inspection _of the screen in the separating chamber_ in the suction pipe renders frequent inspections of the interior of the pump unnecessary, the inspection previously alluded to is generally easier and more quickly done.

* * *

_Considerable wear can and frequently does take place in a pump_ in the course of six months, and for this reason it is advisable to inspect the interiors at shorter intervals, say four months for general service pumps and once in three months for boiler feed pumps. More frequent inspections should be made when handling dirty water.

* * *

_When a pump has to run faster one week than the week previous_ in order to supply approximately an equal volume of water, the plungers and valves should be examined, because such behavior indicates leakage.

* * *

_The sight feed lubricator should be filled in the morning_ so as to be empty by night, thus permitting the water to be drained out without wasting oil. Draining the delivery valve chest will also drain the delivery pipe up to the check valve if those pipes are above the chest and without water seals in them. If this pipe is arranged below the pump, then separate drain cocks should be provided and should be placed at the lowest positions in the piping.

* * *

_When a pump fails to start after standing for some time_ it should be primed by filling the barrel with water and starting the pump slowly. If after priming it fails to raise water, the suction pipe should be examined and also the plungers and the valves. If the plunger packing has become dry and hard, merely filling the water end with water will not at once remedy the trouble because the packing must be thoroughly soaked before it will work properly.

* * *

_Pumps should be packed with the same care and consideration as is used with the best steam engines._ The rods should be packed just tight enough to prevent leakage, and the packing renewed often enough to keep it soft and pliable, in which state it readily absorbs oil. Old packing will upon examination be frequently found full of sand and small particles of grit.

* * *

_Metallic packings_ are now extensively used on steam piston rods and upon the rods of air pumps.

* * *

_When priming and draining a pump_ the air cock in the air chamber should also be opened. The drain and cylinder cocks at the steam end should be opened before closing the throttle; the steam should be shut off at the boiler when stopping at night so as to drain the entire pipe.

* * *

_Pumps that are exposed to low temperatures in winter_ should be provided with removable drain plugs or drain cocks for emptying the cylinders and valve chambers of water and also allowing the water to flow out of the suction pipe.

* * *

_The friction in pipes_, whether of cast iron, steel or copper, depends upon the internal smoothness of the pipe and the velocity of the water, as well as the number and kind of ells, tees and valves in the pipe. Wrought iron lap welded pipe, for steam, is preferable to either cast iron or copper. It is smoother internally than cast iron, and is lighter and costs less than copper, and is much stronger and safer than either.

* * *

It may be said when an engine is run without a condenser the steam with which the cylinder is filled at the end of the stroke _has to be forced out against the pressure of the atmosphere_, about 15 pounds to the square inch. It is possible from the nature of steam to remove the atmospheric pressure with a decided gain in almost all cases.

* * *

_One pound of steam at atmospheric pressure_ occupies 1,642 times as much room as it does in the state of water. If, therefore, when the stroke has been completed, and we are ready for the piston to come back, we inject a little cold water into the spent steam, it will condense to about one 1600th of its volume, and leave a vacuum into which the piston can return without having to force back the atmosphere. This is the way the earlier vertical engines were run, the condensation taking place in the cylinder itself, and, moreover, the vacuum was all that made the engine operative, for the steam carried was but little above atmospheric pressure.

* * *

_The velocity of water entering a suction pipe_ depends upon two things, the vacuum in the pipe and the vertical lift of the water. The longer the suction pipe, vertically, the greater the frictional resistance to the flow of water; the flow of water through small discharge pipes should not exceed four hundred feet per minute, and for large pipes five hundred feet per minute.

* * *

_A locomotive-boiler compound._ The lines of a certain great R. R. traverse a country where the water is very hard and they are compelled to resort to some method of precipitating the lime that is held in solution. After many tests and experiments they have made a compound and use it as follows: in a barrel of water of a capacity of fifty gallons they put 21 lbs. of carbonate of soda, or best white soda ash of commerce, and 35 lbs. of white caustic soda; the cost, per gallon, is about 2-1/2 cents. The compound is carried in this concentrated form, in calomine cans on the tender of each locomotive. A certain amount, according to the necessities of the case, is poured into the tender at the water tank at each filling. This amount is determined by analysis, and varies all the way from two to fifteen pints for two thousand gallons of water. The precipitating power of this compound may be taken roughly at 2/3 of a pound of the carbonate of lime, or equivalent amount of other material, per pint of the compound. On their western lines where they are dealing with alkali waters and those containing sulphates, the company use merely 60 pounds of soda ash to a barrel of water. When the water is pumped into the boiler the heat completes the precipitation and aggregation of the particles, and this does away with all trouble of the boiler or injector tubes clogging up.

* * *

It has been recently determined by some German experimenters that _sugar effects a strong action in steam boilers_; it has an acid reaction upon the iron which dissolves it with a disengagement of hydrogen. The amount of damage done increases with the amount of sugar in the water. These results are worthy of note in sugar refineries and places where sugar sometimes finds its way into the boilers by means of the water supplied. The experiments in question also show that zinc is strongly attacked by sugar; copper, tin, lead and aluminium are not attacked.

* * *

_White oak bark, used by tanners_, has an excellent effect on boiler incrustations. It may be used as follows: Throw into the tank or reservoir from which the boilers are fed a quantity of bark in the piece, in sufficient quantity to turn the water to a light brown color. Repeat this operation every month at least, using only half the quantity after the first month. Add a very small quantity of the muriate of ammonia, about one pound for every 2,000 gallons of water used. This will have the effect of softening as well as disintegrating the carbonate of lime and other impurities deposited by the action of evaporation.

NOTE.—Care must be exercised in keeping the bark, as it becomes
broken up, from the pump valves and blow-off valves. This may be
accomplished by throwing it into the reservoir confined in a sack.

_Among the best samples of boiler compounds_ ever sent to the laboratory for analysis were those found to be composed of:

Sal-soda 40 Pounds
Catichu 5 „
Sal-ammoniac 5 „

This solution was formerly sold at a good round figure, but since its nature became more generally known, it is not found in the market, but it is largely used, consumers putting it up in lots sufficient to last a year or so at a time.

The above is strongly recommended by those who have used it, one pound of the mixture being added to each barrel of water used, but after the scale is once thoroughly removed from the boiler, the use of sal-soda is all that is necessary.

* * *

_There are other evils sometimes inherent in hard waters_ above the mere production of a crust. Some waters contain a great deal of soluble magnesia salts, together with common salt. When this is the case there is a great probability of corrosion, for the former is attacked by steam at high pressure in such a way that muriatic acid fumes are produced, which seriously corrode the boiler, and what is far worse, passes with the steam into the engine, and sets up corrosion in the cylinders and other delicate fittings with which the steam comes in contact. All this can, however, be obviated by the removal of the magnesia from the water.

* * *

_When water attains a high temperature_, as it does under increasing pressure, ranging from 175° to about 420° Fahr., all carbonates, sulphates and chlorides are deposited in the following order:

First. Carbonate of lime at 176° and 248° Fahr.

Second. Sulphate of lime at 248° and 420°.

Third. Magnesia, or chlorides of magnesium, at 324° and 364°.

It is to take advantage of this fact that mechanically arranged jets, sprinklers and long perforated pipes are introduced into the interior of a steam boiler; these tend to scatter the depositing impurities and also to bring the feed water more quickly to the highest possible temperature.

_Where fuel is expensive_ and pumps are used for continuous service under high and unusually high pressures it is oftentimes advisable to operate the pumps condensing. This may be done, when the pump lifts water by suction, without a separate condenser by connecting the exhaust pipe with the suction pipe, as shown in Fig. 667. Assume that the pump has been working properly for from 3 to 5 minutes with the valve _A_ nearly closed and the valve _B_ a little open, the valve _A_ is now quickly closed and _B_ opened. In operating these valves both hands should be used, so that they may be opened and closed simultaneously.

_So penetrating is water at high pressure_ that only special qualities of cast iron will be tight against it. In the early days of the hydraulic jack it was no uncommon thing to see water issuing like a fine needle through the metal, and the water needle is said to penetrate the flesh as readily as one of steel.

The engraving, Fig. 668, represents a novel device for _preventing the bursting of water pipes by freezing_. This is simply an air chamber placed in the horizontal part of the pipe, with the chamber on top side so that the ice may expand into this chamber, and so its force is expended upon the air instead of bursting the pipe.

This device also acts as an air chamber and prevents “water hammer.” It is made by the Anti-bursting pipe Co., Pittsburg, Pa.

_When it becomes necessary_ to make a quick connection into a main steam pipe without breaking joints, a saddle such as either of those shown in Fig. 669 and Fig. 670 may be applied by simply cutting or drilling a hole through the main steam pipe.

_To make the joint_, the rough lumps should be filed off the outside of the pipe and red lead rubbed on to mark the surface, to show when the fit is properly made. Then lay on with a brush a thin mixture of red lead and varnish and quickly screw the saddle in place. Such joints seldom or never leak when allowed to thoroughly dry before use.

When it becomes necessary to cut square packing to reduce its depth, place the packing in a vise, allowing the stock to be removed to project above the jaws, as shown in Fig. 671. With the aid of a draw-knife the work can be quickly and easily done. It is difficult to cut the packing evenly. If the rings have an uneven bearing on the bottom of the grooves leakage is likely to occur when the pump is first started.

_The follower type of water piston_ can readily be packed without removing it from the cylinder, providing rings of the proper depth and length are at hand. The old packing rings can be removed with a packing hook. Take the new ring and start one end with a soft stick, and push the remainder of the ring firmly against the collar or flange at the inner end of the piston, as shown in the engraving, Fig. 672. Arrange the several rings so as to break joints.

_Method of packing a follower piston._ Coat the sides of the rings with a thick paste of cylinder oil and _Dixon’s Flake_ graphite, which will prevent the rings from sticking together.

_Pump packing cannot be readily examined_ and is liable to fail at any time, therefore several rings, cut to the proper length, should be kept on hand. This may be easily done by making a pattern ring, which is nothing more or less than a ring of packing which has been fitted into the piston and is known to be of the proper length. The extra rings can then be cut at odd times, and when occasion demands it the water piston can be packed very quickly and the pump started.

Care should be taken when about to pack a boiler feed pump or other pump subjected to high pressure to see that the cylinders are relieved before loosening the cylinder head bolts. This may be accomplished by closing the valve in the delivery pipe, and also in the suction pipe; if the pump receives water under pressure, open the air cock on the air chamber and cylinder cocks.

_Pump slip or slippage_ represents the difference between the calculated and the actual discharge of a pump, which is generally expressed as a percentage of the calculated discharge. Thus, when the slippage is given as fifteen per cent. it indicates that the loss due to slip amounts to fifteen per cent. of the calculated discharge. Slippage is due to two causes, the time required for the suction and discharge valve to seat, due to excessive speed. When the piston speed is so high that the water cannot enter the pump fast enough to completely fill the cylinder only a partial cylinder full of water is delivered at each stroke. High speeds also increase slippage, due to the seating of the valves.

_Graphite as a lubricant_ is almost without a rival. It is one of the forms under which carbon appears in nature; it is also known under the name of _plumbago_ and _black lead_; it is soft and oily to the touch; it is a conductor of electricity; it is a lubricant that allows pipe joints to be screwed up to the tightest possible fit. Graphite remains upon the threads preventing rust, and it so preserves its peculiar properties that pipe can be unscrewed without effort eight or ten years after the joints have been made.

_It is difficult to lift hot water by suction, but not everyone can explain the cause_; the reason is as follows:

In Fig. 674, let A be a vessel in which a vacuum exists, and let it communicate by a tube, as shown, to the lower vessel containing water. The pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface will force the water up into the pipe until the column is high enough to exert a pressure per square inch equal to that of the atmosphere. A cubic inch of water weighs about 1/28 of a pound, so that it will take 28 cubic inches to weigh a pound, or a column 28 inches high to exert a pressure of one pound per square inch. The atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds, or to avoid fractions, say, 15 pounds. This pressure would then support a column (15 × 28)/12 = 35 feet high; that is, the column _a-c_ in Fig. 674 would be 35 feet in height. Attach a gauge at or above the top, _a_, of a column, and it will indicate a perfect vacuum; if the gauge were attached 28 inches below _a_, it would indicate a pressure of one pound above absolute zero, or a vacuum of 15-1 = 14 pounds; and if the gauge were moved further downward, it would indicate an increasing pressure, that is, a diminishing vacuum, at the rate of one pound for every 28 inches of the water column above it, until at the level of the water in the tank the pressure would be 15 pounds absolute, and the vacuum would be zero.

Now, suppose the pipe to be lowered until the distance from the bottom of the vessel, A, to the water level, _c_, is 21 feet. In that case we will have the pressure of the atmosphere (15 pounds) forcing the water up into the vessel, and the column 21 feet high, or (21 × 12)/28 = 9 pounds, opposing it. The difference, 15-9 = 6 pounds, is available to force the water into the chamber. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 673, where A is a pump cylinder; then the difference in pressure, 6 pounds, lifts the valve, and the water enters the pump chamber with a velocity due to that pressure. In order to insure smooth and quiet running of the pump, it is necessary to keep the speed of the piston inside of the velocity with which the cylinder would fill under this pressure, reduced by the friction of the water, the pressure required to lift the valves, etc.

But this supposes that there is a perfect vacuum in A, and we cannot realize this in contact with hot water. Water at any temperature will boil unless it is under a pressure equal to or greater than that corresponding with the temperature. Water at 60 degrees F. will boil if the pressure upon its surface is reduced to a quarter of a pound per square inch, and in the case shown in Fig. 674, it would boil and fill the space A with steam at that absolute pressure.

NOTE.—Water at 170 degrees F. will boil if its pressure is reduced
below 6 pounds absolute, and if the water were at this temperature
in Fig. 673, the cylinder, A, would be filled with steam at 6 pounds
pressure; and this added to the 9 pounds pressure of the column would
completely balance the atmospheric pressure, and the water would not
rise above the level, A.

TABLES AND
DATA

TABLES AND DATA.

_Miner’s Inch Measurement._ _The term miner’s inch_ is of California origin, and not known or used in any other locality, it being a method of measurement adopted by the various ditch companies in disposing of water to their customers. The term is more or less indefinite for the reason that the water companies do not all use the same head above the center of the aperture, and the inch varies from 1.36 to 1.73 cubic feet per minute each, but the most common measurement is through an aperture 2 inches high and whatever length is required, and through a plank 1-1/4 inches thick, as shown in the engraving, Fig. 675. The lower edge of the aperture should be 2 inches above the bottom of the measuring box, and the plank 5 inches high above the aperture, thus making a 6-inch head above the center of the stream. Each square inch of this opening represents a miner’s inch, which is equal to a flow of 1-1/2 cubic feet per minute. Time is not to be considered in any calculation based upon a miner’s inch measurement.

_Explanation of Weir Dam Measurement._ Place a board or plank edgewise across the stream to be measured as illustrated in Fig. 676.

This plank will be supported by posts sufficiently strong to resist the pressure likely to be brought upon it by the head of water which will form in the pond above this temporary dam, saw out a gap in the top of the dam whose length should be from two to four times its depth for small quantities of water and longer for larger quantities. The edges of this gap should be beveled toward the intake as represented. The over-fall below the bottom of gap should be not less than twice its depth, that is, twelve inches if the gap is six inches deep, etc.

Drive a stake above the dam at a distance of about six feet from the face of the plank and then obstruct the water until it rises precisely to the bottom of the gap and mark the water level on the stake. Complete the dam so that all the water will be compelled to flow through the gap and when the stream has assumed a regular flow mark the stake at this new level.

Some would prefer to drive the stake with its top precisely level with the bottom edge of gap in dam so that the depth of water in stream may be measured with a rule or steel square placed upon top of this stake at any time after the flow of water has reached its average depth over dam. However the marks upon the stake are preferred by most experts. After the stake has been marked it may be withdrawn and the distance between the first and last marks gives the theoretical flow according to the table, page 391.

_Measurement in an open stream by velocity and cross section._ Measure the depth of the water at from 6 to 12 places across the stream at equal distances apart. Add together all the depths in feet and divide by the number of measurements made; this will be the average depth of the stream, which, multiplied by its width, will give its area or cross section. Multiply this by the velocity of the stream in feet per minute which gives the cubic feet per minute of the stream.

Cubic Feet of water per minute that will flow over a Weir one-inch wide and from 1/8 to 20-7/8-inches deep.

------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------
INCHES | 1/8 | 1/4 | 3/8 | 1/2 | 5/8 | 3/4 | 7/8
----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------
=0=| .00 | .01 | .05 | .09 | .14 | .19 | .26 | .32
=1=| .40 | .47 | .55 | .64 | .73 | .82 | .92 | 1.02
=2=| 1.13 | 1.23 | 1.35 | 1.46 | 1.58 | 1.70 | 1.82 | 1.95
=3=| 2.07 | 2.21 | 2.34 | 2.48 | 2.61 | 2.76 | 2.90 | 3.05
=4=| 3.20 | 3.35 | 3.50 | 3.66 | 3.81 | 3.97 | 4.14 | 4.30
=5=| 4.47 | 4.64 | 4.81 | 4.98 | 5.15 | 5.33 | 5.51 | 5.69
=6=| 5.87 | 6.06 | 6.25 | 6.44 | 6.62 | 6.82 | 7.01 | 7.21
=7=| 7.40 | 7.60 | 7.80 | 8.01 | 8.21 | 8.42 | 8.63 | 8.83
=8=| 9.05 | 9.26 | 9.47 | 9.69 | 9.91 | 10.13 | 10.35 | 10.57
=9=| 10.80 | 11.02 | 11.25 | 11.48 | 11.71 | 11.94 | 12.17 | 12.41
=10=| 12.64 | 12.88 | 13.12 | 13.36 | 13.60 | 13.85 | 14.09 | 14.34
=11=| 14.59 | 14.84 | 15.09 | 15.34 | 15.59 | 15.85 | 16.11 | 16.36
=12=| 16.62 | 16.88 | 17.15 | 17.41 | 17.67 | 17.94 | 18.21 | 18.47
=13=| 18.74 | 19.01 | 19.29 | 19.56 | 19.84 | 20.11 | 20.39 | 20.67
=14=| 20.95 | 21.23 | 21.51 | 21.80 | 22.08 | 22.37 | 22.65 | 22.94
=15=| 23.23 | 23.52 | 23.82 | 24.11 | 24.40 | 24.70 | 25.00 | 25.30
=16=| 25.60 | 25.90 | 26.20 | 26.50 | 26.80 | 27.11 | 27.42 | 27.72
=17=| 28.03 | 28.34 | 28.65 | 28.97 | 29.28 | 29.59 | 29.91 | 30.22
=18=| 30.54 | 30.86 | 31.18 | 31.50 | 31.82 | 32.15 | 32.47 | 32.80
=19=| 33.12 | 33.45 | 33.78 | 34.11 | 34.44 | 34.77 | 35.10 | 35.44
=20=| 35.77 | 36.11 | 36.45 | 36.78 | 37.12 | 37.46 | 37.80 | 38.15
----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------

Example showing the application of the above table

Suppose the Weir to be 66 inches long, and the depth of water on it
to be 11-5/8 inches. Follow down the left hand column of the figures
in the table until you come to 11 inches. Then run across the table
on a line with the 11 until under 5/8 on top line you will find
15.85. This multiplied by 66, the length of Weir, gives 1046.10, the
number of cubic feet of water passing per minute.

FRICTION-LOSS IN POUNDS PRESSURE, FOR EACH 100 FEET OF LENGTH IN DIFFERENT SIZE CLEAN IRON PIPES DISCHARGING GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER PER MINUTE. ALSO VELOCITY OF FLOW IN PIPE, IN FEET PER SECOND.

_G. A. Ellis, C. E._

----------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------
Gallons | 1/2 Inch. | 3/4 Inch.
discharged|--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
5 | 8.17 | 24.6 | 3.63 | 3.3
10 | 16.3 | 96.0 | 7.25 | 13.0
15 | .... | .... | 10.9 | 28.7
20 | .... | .... | 14.5 | 50.4
25 | .... | .... | 18.1 | 78.0
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

----------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------
Gallons | 1 Inch. | 1-1/4 Inch.
discharged|--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
5 | 2.04 | 0.84 | 1.31 | 0.31
10 | 4.08 | 3.16 | 2.61 | 1.05
15 | 6.13 | 6.98 | 3.92 | 2.38
20 | 8.17 | 12.3 | 5.22 | 4.07
25 | 10.2 | 19.0 | 6.53 | 6.40
30 | 12.3 | 27.5 | 7.84 | 9.15
35 | 14.3 | 37.0 | 9.14 | 12.04
40 | 16.3 | 48.0 | 10.4 | 16.1
45 | ... | ... | 11.7 | 20.2
50 | ... | ... | 13.1 | 24.9
75 | ... | ... | 19.6 | 56.1
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

----------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------
Gallons | 1-1/2 Inch. | 2 Inch.
discharged|--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
5 | 0.91 | 0.12 | ... | ...
10 | 1.82 | 0.47 | 1.02 | 0.12
15 | 2.73 | 0.97 | ... | ...
20 | 3.63 | 1.66 | 2.04 | 0.42
25 | 4.54 | 2.62 | ... | ...
30 | 5.45 | 3.75 | 3.06 | 0.91
35 | 6.36 | 5.05 | ... | ...
40 | 7.26 | 6.52 | 4.09 | 1.60
45 | 8.17 | 8.15 | ... | ...
50 | 9.08 | 10.0 | 5.11 | 2.44
75 | 13.6 | 22.4 | 7.66 | 5.32
100 | 18.2 | 39.0 | 10.2 | 9.46
125 | ... | ... | 12.8 | 14.9
150 | ... | ... | 15.3 | 21.2
175 | ... | ... | 17.1 | 28.1
200 | ... | ... | 20.4 | 37.5
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

----------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------
Gallons | 2-1/2 Inch. | 3 Inch.
discharged|--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
25 | 1.63 | 0.21 | 1.13 | 0.10
50 | 3.26 | 0.81 | 2.27 | 0.35
75 | 4.90 | 1.80 | 3.40 | 0.74
100 | 6.53 | 3.20 | 4.54 | 1.31
125 | 8.16 | 4.89 | 5.67 | 1.99
150 | 9.80 | 7.00 | 6.81 | 2.85
175 | 11.4 | 9.46 | 7.94 | 3.85
200 | 13.1 | 12.47 | 9.08 | 5.02
250 | 16.3 | 19.66 | 11.3 | 7.76
300 | 19.6 | 28.06 | 13.6 | 11.2
350 | ... | ... | 15.9 | 15.2
400 | ... | ... | 18.2 | 19.5
450 | ... | ... | 20.4 | 25.0
500 | ... | ... | 22.7 | 30.8
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

----------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------
Gallons | 4 Inch. | 6 Inch.
discharged|--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe| Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
50 | 1.28 | 0.09 | ... | ...
75 | ... | ... | ... | ...
100 | 2.55 | 0.33 | 1.13 | 0.05
150 | 3.83 | 0.69 | 1.70 | 0.10
200 | 5.11 | 1.22 | 2.27 | 0.17
250 | 6.39 | 1.89 | 2.84 | 0.26
300 | 7.66 | 2.66 | 3.40 | 0.37
350 | 8.94 | 3.65 | 3.97 | 0.50
400 | 10.2 | 4.73 | 4.54 | 0.65
450 | 11.5 | 6.01 | 5.11 | 0.81
500 | 12.8 | 7.43 | 5.67 | 0.96
----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

NOTE.—The quantity of a fluid discharged through a pipe or an orifice
is increased by heating the liquid: because heat diminishes the
cohesion of the particles, which exists to a certain degree, in all
liquids.

FRICTION LOSS IN POUNDS PRESSURE, FOR EACH 100 FEET OF LENGTH IN DIFFERENT SIZE CLEAN IRON PIPES DISCHARGING GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER PER MINUTE. ALSO VELOCITY OF FLOW IN PIPE, IN FEET PER SECOND.

_G. A. Ellis, C. E._

----------+----------------------------+----------------------------
Gallons | 6 Inch. | 8 Inch.
discharged|--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
250 | 2.84 | 0.26 | 1.59 | 0.07
500 | 5.67 | 0.98 | 3.19 | 0.25
750 | 8.51 | 2.21 | 4.79 | 0.53
1,000 | 11.3 | 3.88 | 6.38 | 0.94
1,250 | ... | ... | 7.97 | 1.46
1,500 | ... | ... | 9.57 | 2.09
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------

----------+----------------------------+----------------------------
Gallons | 10 Inch. | 12 Inch.
discharged|--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
250 | 1.02 | 0.03 | 0.71 | 0.01
500 | 2.04 | 0.09 | 1.42 | 0.04
750 | 3.06 | 0.18 | 2.13 | 0.08
1,000 | 4.08 | 0.32 | 2.84 | 0.13
1,250 | 5.10 | 0.49 | 3.55 | 0.20
1,500 | 6.12 | 0.70 | 4.26 | 0.29
1,750 | 7.15 | 0.95 | 4.96 | 0.38
2,000 | 8.17 | 1.23 | 5.67 | 0.49
2,250 | ... | ... | 6.38 | 0.63
2,500 | ... | ... | 7.09 | 0.77
3,000 | ... | ... | 8.51 | 1.11
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------

----------+----------------------------+----------------------------
Gallons | 14 Inch. | 16 Inch.
discharged|--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
500 | 1.04 | 0.017 | 0.80 | 0.009
1,000 | 2.08 | 0.062 | 1.60 | 0.036
1,500 | 3.13 | 0.135 | 2.39 | 0.071
2,000 | 4.17 | 0.234 | 3.19 | 0.123
2,500 | 5.21 | 0.362 | 3.99 | 0.188
3,000 | 6.25 | 0.515 | 4.79 | 0.267
3,500 | 7.29 | 0.697 | 5.59 | 0.365
4,000 | 8.34 | 0.910 | 6.38 | 0.472
4,500 | ... | ... | 7.18 | 0.593
5,000 | ... | ... | 7.98 | 0.730
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------

----------+----------------------------+----------------------------
Gallons | 18 Inch. | 20 Inch.
discharged|--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
500 | 0.63 | 0.005 | ... | ...
1,000 | 1.26 | 0.020 | 1.02 | 0.012
1,500 | 1.89 | 0.040 | ... | ...
2,000 | 2.52 | 0.071 | 2.04 | 0.042
2,500 | 3.15 | 0.107 | ... | ...
3,000 | 3.78 | 0.150 | 3.06 | 0.091
3,500 | 4.41 | 0.204 | ... | ...
4,000 | 5.04 | 0.263 | 4.08 | 0.158
4,500 | 5.67 | 0.333 | ... | ...
5,000 | 6.30 | 0.408 | 5.11 | 0.244
6,000 | 7.56 | 0.585 | 6.13 | 0.348
7,000 | ... | ... | 7.15 | 0.472
8,000 | ... | ... | 8.17 | 0.612
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------

----------+----------------------------+----------------------------
Gallons | 24 Inch. | 30 Inch.
discharged|--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
per |Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss|Veloc. in Pipe|Friction Loss
minute. | per second. | in pounds. | per second. | in pounds.
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------
1,000 | 0.72 | 0.005 | 0.45 | 0.002
2,000 | 1.44 | 0.020 | 0.91 | 0.006
3,000 | 2.16 | 0.047 | 1.36 | 0.012
4,000 | 2.88 | 0.067 | 1.82 | 0.022
5,000 | 4.60 | 0.102 | 2.27 | 0.035
6,000 | 4.32 | 0.146 | 2.72 | 0.048
7,000 | 5.04 | 0.196 | 3.18 | 0.065
8,000 | 5.76 | 0.255 | 3.63 | 0.083
9,000 | 6.47 | 0.323 | 4.08 | 0.105
10,000 | 7.19 | 0.398 | 4.54 | 0.131
----------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------

NOTE.—The velocity with which a liquid issues from an infinitely
small orifice in the bottom or sides of a vessel that is kept full is
equal to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling from the
surface level to the level of the orifice.

TABLE SHOWING FRICTIONAL HEADS AT GIVEN RATES OF DISCHARGE IN CLEAN CAST IRON PIPES FOR EACH 1000 FEET OF LENGTH, CONDENSED FROM ELABORATE TABLES PREPARED BY MESSRS. GEO. A. ELLIS AND A. H. HOWLAND, CIVIL ENGINEERS, BOSTON, MASS.

-----------+-------------+----------------------+----------------------
| | 4-INCH PIPE. | 6-INCH PIPE.
|U. S. gallons|--------+-------------+--------+-------------
U. S. | discharged | | Friction | | Friction
gallons | per |Velocity| Head. |Velocity| Head.
discharged | twenty-four | in +------+------+ in +------+------
per minute.| hours. | Feet. | Feet.|Pounds| Feet. | Feet.|Pounds
-----------+-------------+--------+------+------+--------+------+------
25 | 36000 | .64 | .59| .26| .28 | .11| .05
50 | 72000 | 1.28 | 2.01| .87| .57 | .32| .14
100 | 144000 | 2.55 | 7.36| 3.19| 1.13 | 1.08| .47
150 | 216000 | 3.83 | 16.05| 6.95| 1.70 | 2.28| .99
200 | 288000 | 5.11 | 28.09| 12.17| 2.27 | 3.92| 1.70
250 | 360000 | 6.37 | 43.47| 18.83| 2.84 | 6.00| 2.60
300 | 432000 | 7.66 | 62.20| 26.94| 3.40 | 8.52| 3.69
350 | 504000 | 8.94 | 84.26| 36.50| 3.97 | 11.48| 4.97
400 | 576000 | 10.21 |109.68| 47.50| 4.54 | 14.89| 6.45
450 | 648000 | 11.49 |138.43| 59.96| 5.11 | 18.73| 8.11
500 | 720000 | 12.77 |170.53| 73.87| 5.67 | 23.01| 9.97
600 | 864000 | 15.32 |244.76|106.02| 6.81 | 32.89| 14.25
700 | 1008000 | 17.87 |332.36|143.98| 7.94 | 44.54| 19.08
800 | 1152000 | ... | ... | ... | 9.08 | 57.95| 25.10
900 | 1290000 | ... | ... | ... | 10.21 | 73.12| 31.67
1000 | 1440000 | ... | ... | ... | 11.35 | 90.05| 38.99
1200 | 1728000 | ... | ... | ... | 13.61 |129.20| 55.96
1400 | 2016000 | ... | ... | ... | 15.88 |175.38| 75.97
1600 | 2304000 | ... | ... | ... | 18.15 |228.62| 99.0
1800 | 2592000 | ... | ... | ... | 20.42 |288.90|125.14
2000 | 2880000 | ... | ... | ... | 22.69 |356.22|154.30
-----------+-------------+--------+------+------+--------+------+------

-----------+-------------+----------------------+----------------------
| | 8-INCH PIPE. | 10-INCH PIPE.
|U. S. gallons|----------------------+----------------------
U. S. | discharged | | Friction | | Friction
gallons | per |Velocity| Head. |Velocity| Head.
discharged | twenty-four | in +-------------+ in +-------------
per minute.| hours. | Feet. | Feet.|Pounds| Feet. | Feet.|Pounds
-----------+-------------+--------+------+------+--------+------+------
25 | 36000 | .16 | .04| .02| .10 | .02| .01
50 | 72000 | .32 | .10| .04| .20 | .04| .02
100 | 144000 | .64 | .29| .13| .41 | .11| .05
150 | 216000 | .96 | .60| .26| .61 | .22| .10
200 | 288000 | 1.28 | 1.01| .44| .82 | .36| .16
250 | 360000 | 1.60 | 1.52| .66| 1.02 | .54| .23
300 | 432000 | 1.91 | 2.13| .92| 1.23 | .75| .32
350 | 504000 | 2.23 | 2.85| 1.24| 1.43 | .99| .43
400 | 576000 | 2.55 | 3.68| 1.59| 1.63 | 1.27| .55
450 | 648000 | 2.87 | 4.61| 2.00| 1.83 | 1.58| .69
500 | 720000 | 3.19 | 5.64| 2.44| 2.04 | 1.93| .84
600 | 864000 | 3.83 | 8.03| 3.48| 2.45 | 2.72| 1.18
700 | 1008000 | 4.47 | 10.83| 4.69| 2.86 | 3.66| 1.58
800 | 1152000 | 5.09 | 14.05| 6.08| 3.27 | 4.73| 2.05
900 | 1290000 | 5.74 | 17.68| 7.69| 3.68 | 5.93| 2.57
1000 | 1440000 | 6.38 | 21.74| 9.41| 4.08 | 7.28| 3.15
1200 | 1728000 | 7.66 | 31.10| 13.47| 4.90 | 10.38| 4.50
1400 | 2016000 | 8.94 | 42.13| 18.25| 5.72 | 14.02| 6.07
1600 | 2304000 | 10.21 | 54.84| 23.75| 6.53 | 18.22| 7.89
1800 | 2592000 | 11.47 | 69.22| 29.98| 7.35 | 22.96| 9.95
2000 | 2880000 | 12.77 | 85.27| 36.93| 8.17 | 28.25| 12.34
2500 | 3600000 | 15.96 |132.70| 57.49| 10.21 | 43.87| 19.00
3000 | 4320000 | ... | ... | ... | 12.25 | 62.92| 27.25
-----------+-------------+--------+------+------+--------+------+------

-----------+-------------+----------------------+-----------------------
| | 12-INCH PIPE. | 14-INCH PIPE.
|U. S. gallons|----------------------+-----------------------
U. S. | discharged | | Friction | | Friction
gallons | per |Velocity| Head. |Velocity| Head.
discharged | twenty-four | in +-------------+ in |--------------
per minute.| hours. | Feet. | Feet.|Pounds| Feet. | Feet.|Pounds
-----------+-------------+--------+------+------+--------+------+-------
25 | 36000 | .07 | .01| ... | ... | ... | ...
50 | 72000 | .14 | .02| .01| .10 | .01| ...
100 | 144000 | .28 | .05| .02| .21 | .03| .01
150 | 216000 | .43 | .10| .04| .31 | .05| .02
200 | 288000 | .57 | .16| .07| .42 | .08| .04
250 | 360000 | .71 | .24| .10| .52 | .12| .05
300 | 432000 | .85 | .32| .14| .63 | .16| .07
350 | 504000 | .99 | .43| .18| .73 | .21| .09
400 | 576000 | 1.13 | .54| .23| .83 | .27| .12
450 | 648000 | 1.28 | .67| .29| .94 | .33| .14
500 | 720000 | 1.42 | .81| .35| 1.04 | .40| .17
600 | 864000 | 1.70 | 1.14| .49| 1.25 | .55| .24
700 | 1008000 | 1.98 | 1.52| .66| 1.46 | .73| .32
800 | 1152000 | 2.27 | 1.96| .85| 1.67 | .94| .41
900 | 1290000 | 2.55 | 2.45| 1.06| 1.88 | 1.17| .51
1000 | 1440000 | 2.84 | 3.00| 1.30| 2.08 | 1.43| .62
1200 | 1728000 | 3.40 | 4.26| 1.85| 2.50 | 2.02| .88
1400 | 2016000 | 3.97 | 5.74| 2.49| 2.91 | 2.72| 1.18
1600 | 2304000 | 4.54 | 7.44| 3.22| 3.33 | 3.51| 1.52
1800 | 2592000 | 5.11 | 9.36| 4.06| 3.75 | 4.41| 1.91
2000 | 2880000 | 5.67 | 11.50| 5.00| 4.17 | 5.41| 2.34
2500 | 3600000 | 7.09 | 17.82| 7.72| 5.21 | 8.35| 3.62
3000 | 4320000 | 8.51 | 25.51| 11.05| 6.25 | 11.93| 5.17
3500 | 5040000 | 9.93 | 34.58| 14.98| 7.29 | 16.14| 6.99
4000 | 5760000 | ... | ... | ... | 8.34 | 21.00| 9.10
4500 | 6480000 | ... | ... | ... | 9.38 | 26.49| 11.47
-----------+-------------+--------+------+------+--------+------+---------

NOTE.—There seems to be no form of water pipe so perfect as to make
it fit for use in any and all cases and open to no improvement, but,
in the present state of knowledge, tarred cast iron seems to come the
nearest to this desideratum.

TABLE SHOWING FRICTIONAL HEADS AT GIVEN RATES OF DISCHARGE IN CLEAN CAST IRON PIPES FOR EACH 1000 FEET OF LENGTH, CONDENSED FROM ELABORATE TABLES PREPARED BY MESSRS. GEO. A. ELLIS AND A. H. HOWLAND, CIVIL ENGINEERS, BOSTON, MASS.

------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------------------
U.S. gallons|U.S. gallons| 16-INCH PIPE. | 18-INCH PIPE.
discharged | discharged +-----------------------+--------+--------------
per minute.| per twenty-|Velocity| Friction |Velocity| Friction
| four hours.| in | Head. | in | Head.
| | feet. +------+-------+ feet. +------+-------
| | |Feet. |Pounds.| |Feet. |Pounds.
------------+------------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------
500 | 720000 | .80 | .22 | .09 | .63 | .13 | .06
1000 | 1440000 | 1.60 | .76 | .34 | 1.26 | .44 | .19
1500 | 2160000 | 2.39 | 1.63 | .71 | 1.89 | .93 | .40
2000 | 2880000 | 3.19 | 2.82 | 1.22 | 2.52 | 1.60 | .69
2500 | 3600000 | 3.99 | 4.34 | 1.88 | 3.15 | 2.45 | 1.06
3000 | 4320000 | 4.79 | 6.19 | 2.68 | 3.78 | 3.48 | 1.51
3500 | 5040000 | 5.59 | 8.37 | 3.63 | 4.41 | 4.70 | 2.03
4000 | 5760000 | 6.38 |10.87 | 4.71 | 5.04 | 6.09 | 2.64
4500 | 6480000 | 7.18 |13.70 | 5.93 | 5.67 | 7.67 | 3.32
5000 | 7200000 | 7.98 |16.85 | 7.30 | 6.30 | 9.43 | 4.08
5500 | 7920000 | 8.78 |20.33 | 8.71 | 6.93 |11.38 | 4.92
6000 | 8640000 | ... | ... | ... | 7.57 |13.49 | 5.84
------------+------------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------

------------+------------+-----------------------+-----------------------
U.S. gallons|U.S. gallons| 20-INCH PIPE. | 24-INCH PIPE.
discharged | discharged +--------+--------------+--------+--------------
per minute.| per twenty-|Velocity| Friction |Velocity| Friction
| four hours.| in | Head. | in | Head.
| | feet. +------+-------+ feet. +------+-------
| | |Feet. |Pounds.| |Feet. |Pounds.
------------+------------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------
500 | 720000 | .51 | .08 | .04 | .35 | .04 | .02
1000 | 1440000 | 1.02 | .27 | .12 | .71 | .12 | .05
1500 | 2160000 | 1.53 | .56 | .24 | 1.06 | .24 | .10
2000 | 2880000 | 2.04 | .96 | .42 | 1.42 | .41 | .18
2500 | 3600000 | 2.55 | 1.47 | .64 | 1.77 | .62 | .27
3000 | 4320000 | 3.06 | 2.09 | .90 | 2.13 | .87 | .38
3500 | 5040000 | 3.57 | 2.81 | 1.22 | 2.48 | 1.16 | .50
4000 | 5760000 | 4.08 | 3.64 | 1.58 | 2.84 | 1.50 | .65
4500 | 6480000 | 4.59 | 4.58 | 1.98 | 3.19 | 1.88 | .82
5000 | 7200000 | 5.11 | 5.62 | 2.43 | 3.55 | 2.31 | 1.00
5500 | 7920000 | 5.62 | 6.77 | 2.93 | 3.90 | 2.77 | 1.20
6000 | 8640000 | 6.13 | 8.03 | 3.48 | 4.26 | 3.28 | 1.42
7000 | 10080000 | 7.15 |10.86 | 4.71 | 4.96 | 4.43 | 1.92
8000 | 11520000 | ... | ... | ... | 5.67 | 5.75 | 2.49
9000 | 12960000 | ... | ... | ... | 6.38 | 7.25 | 3.14
------------+------------+--------+------+-------+-------+--------+------

------------+------------+-----------------------+----------------------
U.S. gallons|U.S. gallons| 30-INCH PIPE. | 36-INCH PIPE.
discharged | discharged +--------+--------------+--------+-------------
per minute.| per twenty-|Velocity| Friction |Velocity| Friction
| four hours.| in | Head. | in | Head.
| | feet. +------+-------+ feet. +-----+-------
| | |Feet. |Pounds.| |Feet.|Pounds.
------------+------------+--------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------
500 | 720000 | .23 | .01 | .00 | .16 | .01 | .00
1000 | 1440000 | .45 | .04 | .02 | .32 | .02 | .01
1500 | 2160000 | .68 | .09 | .04 | .47 | .04 | .02
2000 | 2880000 | .91 | .15 | .06 | .63 | .06 | .03
2500 | 3600000 | 1.13 | .22 | .09 | .79 | .09 | .04
3000 | 4320000 | 1.36 | .30 | .13 | .95 | .13 | .06
3500 | 5040000 | 1.59 | .40 | .17 | 1.10 | .17 | .07
4000 | 5760000 | 1.82 | .52 | .22 | 1.26 | .22 | .09
4500 | 6480000 | 2.04 | .64 | .28 | 1.42 | .27 | .12
5000 | 7200000 | 2.27 | .78 | .34 | 1.58 | .33 | .14
5500 | 7920000 | 2.50 | .94 | .41 | 1.73 | .39 | .17
6000 | 8640000 | 2.72 | 1.11 | .48 | 1.89 | .46 | .20
7000 | 10080000 | 3.18 | 1.49 | .65 | 2.21 | .62 | .27
8000 | 11520000 | 3.63 | 1.93 | .84 | 2.52 | .80 | .35
9000 | 12960000 | 4.08 | 2.43 | 1.05 | 2.84 |1.00 | .43
10000 | 14400000 | 4.54 | 2.98 | 1.29 | 3.15 |1.23 | .53
11000 | 15840000 | 5.00 | 3.59 | 1.55 | 3.46 |1.47 | .64
12000 | 17280000 | 5.44 | 4.25 | 1.84 | 3.78 |1.74 | .75
13000 | 18720000 | 5.90 | 4.97 | 2.15 | 4.09 |2.03 | .88
14000 | 20160000 | 6.36 | 5.75 | 2.49 | 4.41 |2.35 |1.02
15000 | 21600000 | 6.80 | 6.58 | 2.85 | 4.73 |2.69 |1.17
16000 | 23040000 | ... | ... | ... | 5.05 |3.46 |1.32
17000 | 24480000 | ... | ... | ... | 5.36 |3.43 |1.49
18000 | 25920000 | ... | ... | ... | 5.68 |3.83 |1.66
20000 | 28800000 | ... | ... | ... | 6.30 |4.71 |2.04
------------+------------+--------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------

NOTE.—A pressure of one lb. per sq. in. is exerted by a column of
water 2.3093 feet or 27.71 inches high at 62° F.; and a pressure of
one atmosphere, or 14.7 lbs. per sq. in. is exerted by a column of
water 33.947 feet high, or 10.347 meters at 62° F.

TABLE.

The pressure of water in pounds per square inch for every ft. in height to 300 feet and then by intervals to 1,000 feet head. By this table, from the pounds pressure per square inch, the feet head is readily obtained and _vice versa_.