Chapter XIII: TECHNOLOGY.--Future Prospects for Gas Companies.--By Mr (4)

A vast amount of popular misapprehension and prejudice exists as to the use of spectacles. Many persons who need them object to wearing them for various reasons. Some fear that it will lead their friends to suspect that they are getting old. Others think it will cause them to be suspected of wishing to appear learned or cultured. Some persons do not want to begin to wear them lest, having acquired the habit, they may not be able to leave them off or to see well without them. Others again object to glasses only on account of their inconvenience. I have personally met with many of all these classes of persons, but I have frequently heard of another class that I have never met with, namely, those who do not need glasses, but who wear them just for effect and to attract attention. Now, the simple truth is that there are just two good reasons for wearing spectacles, and only two. One is that we may see better, the other is that our eyes may be relieved of strain. Often both these reasons are combined in the same case. Many children begin to be near-sighted after they have attended school a few years. They first find it out by observing that they cannot see letters or figures on the blackboard as far as the other children. They can use their eyes as much as they want to without fatigue or blurring, or smarting, or burning, or itching, or pain in the eyes, or headache. In short, they show no symptoms of eye strain. They simply do not see distant objects distinctly. Such children should be fitted with glasses at once that will enable them to see as well as others at a distance, and these glasses should be worn constantly. The child should be instructed to take them off only when necessary to wipe them or to wipe or bathe the eyes and on going to bed. The sooner the eyes get accustomed to them the less likely is the near-sightedness to increase. Moreover, the child who sees clearly only a few feet away from him loses a very important part of his education. Our eyes gather information for us when we are least thinking of it, by taking cognizance of the many objects that come within our field of vision just as our ears gather material for the proper development of our minds in listening to general conversation or to the sounds of nature and of busy life about us. It is the duty of every one to make the best possible use of the faculties the Creator has bestowed upon him. The near-sighted person who does not have his vision corrected by glasses fails in the performance of this duty.

[8] Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 647, page 10342.

From a paper by David Webster. M.D., professor of ophthalmology in the New York Polyclinic and surgeon to the Manhattan Eye and Ear Hospital, New York.

Again, the time comes in the life of every one who is not near-sighted, and who lives to a good old age, when he cannot see near objects well without glasses. Between the ages of 40 and 50, the crystalline lenses of his eyes having hardened along with the other tissues of his body, he finds it impossible to focalize as he used to. He holds his book farther and farther away from his eyes, and finally he finds that he cannot read fine print at all, or without straining his eyes. Then he must accept the unpleasant fact that he is getting old-sighted, and if he wishes to use, and not abuse, his eyes, he must get glasses to take the place of his lost accommodation and with which he can read easily. Some persons who are near-sighted in one eye and far-sighted in the other never need glasses, but always do their reading and other near work with the near-sighted eye and their distant seeing with the far-sighted eye. I believe I read a long time ago, in an article by himself in the New York _Ledger_, that this was the case with the late Rev. Henry Ward Beecher. But the vast majority of persons who wear glasses, both for the distance and for the near, can see quite as well without them. They do not wear them in order to be able to see, but in order to have the strain removed from their eyes, and to be relieved from the many disagreeable symptoms, both direct and reflex, that result from eye strain.

FOCALIZATION.

The act of focalization is a muscular act and requires an effort, an output of nervous energy, just as much in proportion as any other muscular act, such as lifting a weight or shoving a saw or a jack plane. The eye that is normally shaped forms pictures of objects, more than a few feet distant, on its back wall without any muscular effort, and has to focalize only when engaged in near work. But the oversighted eye is compelled to do this extra work all the time, except when closed. If it did not focalize, it would see indistinctly. This it refuses to do, independently of any volition on the part of its owner. The eye that _can_ see distinctly _will_ see distinctly, no matter how great the strain, and this by a volition apparently entirely its own. The results are headache, vertigo, nausea, nervousness, irritability, and other disagreeable reflex conditions, besides the pain and inflammation, and other symptoms manifested in the eyes themselves. Of course, the only remedy in such cases is glasses, and these glasses should be carefully selected by a competent person, and should be worn as much of the time as is necessary to relieve the eye strain. I find in _Taggart's Times_, February 5, 1888, the following: "A French philosopher has said that a man who wears gold-bowed spectacles always admires himself, and it would seem as though spectacles were becoming a sort of badge of distinction, since young and old who have the slightest excuse for using them put them on.

HEADACHE.

"When one suffers from headache, he is told that he overstrains the nerves of the eyes, and must relieve this by the use of spectacles. When things dance before the sight, the cure for that is also spectacles; and when tired with close attention to work, the cure for wearied eyes is not rest, but spectacles.

"People who live much out of doors are usually very keen-sighted, owing probably to the ever-varying impressions made on the eyes, and this might reasonably suggest that the proper relief for a great many eye troubles would be a change from overwork."

I can only say that the person who wrote it seems not only to be prejudiced against glasses, but to know very little of the anatomy and physiology of the eye. The fact is that oversighted and astigmatic eyes, needing glasses to relieve the constant and severe strain upon the accommodative muscular apparatus, are benefited by rest and by change of air and occupation only to a limited degree. Real rest for such eyes is possible only from the use of glasses. Moreover, it is not possible for all who suffer from fatigue of the eyes to take the time for rest. It is necessary for many to use their eyes daily and almost constantly in order to make a living for themselves and for those dependent upon them. There is much more good sense in the paragraphs which follow and which are extracted from the same article.

"It is not surprising that so many school children suffer with weak eyes when we consider the conditions under which they are forced to use them. The very fact that the light in many school rooms is twice strained through glass partitions before it penetrates the inside rooms is in itself a severe test of sight. The preponderance of sash-wood over the panes of glass is anything but propitious to clear seeing. With heads bent over desks doing arithmetical examples, or studying the fine printed school books, or reading their own imperfect handwriting from which many of the lessons must be learned, the only wonder is that all the little ones are not purblind before they reach the grammar schools.

FLUFFY BANGS.

"But this is not all. Girls wear long and fluffy bangs, intercepting the sight, and both boys and girls seldom bathe their faces with clear cold water. In the matutinal face washing the eyes are usually closed, while a wet towel is delicately passed over the eyelids. Few persons can bear the pain of opening their eyes wide in a basin of cold water, yet Mr. A. M. Spangler told, in his interesting lecture on Nassau, how the native population would dive to the bottom of the sea and bring up shells, sponges, etc., that had been pointed out to them by curious visitors through a sea glass. Not only men divers, but also little boys and girls could keep their eyes open in the water and search for cents which had been thrown in for them to pick up. This shows that even salt water is not injurious to eyes accustomed to it, and that habit makes the eye unnaturally sensitive."

As to the statement that "people who live much out of doors are usually very keen-sighted," it is an expression of a popular idea, but, like most popular ideas, is true only to a limited extent. The fact is that persons who do not live much out of doors generally use their eyes more for near work, such as reading, sewing, drawing, etc., and hence are more likely to develop near-sightedness. Persons living indoors who are not near-sighted are able to see as well and as far as those who live outdoors. It is true that the old sailor will recognize a ship in the horizon, or any other distant object at sea, sooner than a landsman. But it is not because he is any more "keen-sighted." It is because he knows just what to look for. He has seen such objects amid similar surroundings a thousand times, and recognizes them, even though his vision be considerably impaired by disease. I have often found, on testing the vision of such persons, that it was not more than one-half the normal, and yet they declared, and, I believe, conscientiously so, that they could discern a ship at sea as far as any one. A very large proportion of the North American Indians, who live much out of doors, have poor sight from inflammatory diseases of their eyes caused by exposure to smoke in their wigwams, and by contagious eye diseases, the propagation of which is favored by their unsanitary methods of living. But, no doubt, many of them can discern distant objects upon the prairies and in the forests farther than their white brothers because of their greater familiarity with the appearances of such objects.

It seems to me that the practice of opening the eyes under water is not to be specially recommended, except in cases of necessity. While many bear it well, to others it is more or less painful and irritating. Moreover, nature furnishes a fluid with which to wash the eyeballs, and applies it herself. It is only necessary to keep the eyelids scrupulously clean, and especially the edges of the eyelids where the eyelashes grow out. For bathing the eyelids when uninflamed, nothing is better than pure cold water. When the eyes become red and inflamed, the best domestic remedy is salt and water, about a teaspoonful to the pint, and applied warm or cold, or at whatever temperature seems most agreeable to the eyes in any particular case.

NO POULTICES.

Under no circumstances should poultices be applied to the eyes unless ordered by a physician. I have seen many cases in which a simple inflammation of the inside lining of the eyelids had been greatly aggravated by bread and milk poultices, or tea leaves, bound upon the closed eyelids and left on overnight. In fact, a distinguished professor of diseases of the eye has formulated the results of his observations thus: "Poultices spoil eyes."

All patent eye washes, eye salves, and other remedies advertised to cure all diseases of the eye should be avoided. Different diseases require different remedies. What will benefit one may injure another. When one gets something the matter with his eyes and resorts to the use of a patent medicine for its relief, he is in danger of losing valuable time. He may lose an eye from want of proper treatment at the outset of the disease. In a great city like New York, every one may easily avail himself of the services of the most skillful physician. If unable to visit them at their offices and pay their fees, they may consult them at the numerous dispensaries, hospitals, and medical schools and colleges, where it will cost them nothing.

USE OF INFLAMED EYES.

A lesson that is very difficult for many of us to learn is that inflamed eyes should not be used actively. Children with sore eyes should not be allowed to go to school for two reasons. First, the use of their eyes in reading will prevent or retard their recovery. Secondly, sore eyes are usually communicable, and one such child may infect a whole school. It is highly important that all persons with inflamed eyes should use only their own wash basins, towels, and handkerchiefs, and so avoid spreading the disease. We not infrequently see a catarrhal inflammation of the eyes run through a whole family. Of course, they catch it one from another, and, as there is no disease of the eye which is, like measles, or scarlet fever, or smallpox, communicable through the air, such spread of the disease might easily be prevented by proper care of the person first affected. Persons whose eyes are sensitive to light should not be kept in dark rooms, which are always unhealthy. They may have their eyes protected by shades or by smoke colored glasses, but should keep them open and exposed to the air, and should remain out of doors as much as possible.

EFFECT OF ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO UPON THE EYES.

I must not close without warning my hearers against the baneful effects of alcohol and tobacco upon the eyes. It is not uncommon for the eye surgeon to meet with persons who have become partially blind from the effects of these poisons upon their optic nerves. Of course, only a small proportion of those who use alcohol and tobacco to excess are affected in this way, but this renders it none the less certain that impaired sight is one of the dangers that we may avoid by abstaining from the use of these unnecessary and poisonous luxuries.

TUMORS OF THE BLADDER.

DIAGNOSED BY MEANS OF THE ELECTRO-ENDOSCOPIC CYSTOSCOPE.

By Dr. MAX NITZE.

In the following lines I wish to direct the attention of my English _confreres_ to the value of the electro-endoscopic mode of examination of the male urinary bladder, invented by me. I believe I could not have chosen a more suitable theme for that purpose than a short report of the bladder tumors diagnosed by me cystoscopically; for the diagnosis of these new formations offers the greatest difficulty, and in most cases it has been impossible till now to prove their existence with accuracy without digital exploration of the bladder. By the new method of cystoscopical examination the conditions have entirely changed. One look into the bladder, illuminated as if by daylight, is generally sufficient to afford means for forming an opinion of all the questions coming into consideration--viz., size, form, and site of the tumor. The accompanying diagrams (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4) may give an idea of the appearances which the different forms of bladder tumors present endoscopically. I regret that they cannot show the brightness of the light by which one sees the tumors during examination. The celebrated Vienna specialist, V. Dittel, is right in saying that "they offer sometimes truly charming pictures;" especially certain kinds of villous tumors, whose long slender villi floating in the liquid often present a splendid appearance. The following are the cases cystoscopically diagnosed by me.

_Case 1._--A man, aged fifty-five, under the care of Dr. Ch. Mayer, suffered from attacks of haematuria for thirty years. During the last six years he has had dysuria and inability to empty the bladder completely. The patient had been examined by the sound repeatedly by eminent surgeons and specialists, but none could give a certain diagnosis. On Nov. 11, 1886, I undertook the cystoscopic examination. I found on the anterior wall of the bladder a puffy swelling covered with white masses of mucus. (See Fig. 1.) The trigone was covered by a mass consisting of pointed papillae. On account of the weakness of the patient extirpation was impossible. The patient became weaker and weaker, and died in June, 1887. The post mortem examination showed the internal orifice of the urethra surrounded by a swelling representing a continuous tumor as large as a small apple. It was found that the instrument had penetrated through the middle of this swelling, which bled easily on pressure. In spite of this, the clearness of the picture was not interfered with in the least.

_Case 2._--A man, aged fifty, was obliged to exert a strong pressure in order to empty the bladder. The flow of urine often stopped. He himself introduced a catheter, and on withdrawing it a piece of villous tissue was found. On Dec. 10, 1886, I saw, on cystoscopical examination, directly and immediately over the internal orifice of the urethra, a villous swelling hanging from the anterior wall of the bladder. (See Fig. 2.) On Jan. 15, 1887, extirpation of the tumor by means of the high section was performed by Professor v. Bergmann. The size of the tumor (which was as large as a pigeon's egg) and its position corresponded exactly to the endoscopic picture. The patient recovered.

_Case 3._--A patient under the care of Professor Madelung, aged fifty-five, suffered from attacks of haematuria. Examination by sound and rectal palpation had given me negative results. On Feb. 20, 1887, cystoscopical examination was made. On the left side of the trigone a tumor with a broad base was seen, which resembled somewhat a strawberry in size and form. (See Fig. 3.) On March 1, Professor Madelung undertook the extirpation of the tumor. The appearance corresponded exactly to the cystoscopic picture. The patient recovered.

_Case 4._--This was a patient on whom Dr. Israel had performed the high section a long time before, on account of a bladder tumor. The extent was so great that only its most prominent part could be removed. The microscopical examination proved the diagnosis of cancer. Quick healing took place. The patient became free from pain, and the urine became clear. In order to see what had become of the remaining part, the cystoscopical examination was undertaken on April 3. It was easy to see that the right lateral wall was covered to an extent of from three to four centimeters with thick masses of verrucous and fungiform excrescences. (See Fig. 4.)

[We omit the description of the additional cases.]

The above shortly described fifteen[9] cases of bladder tumors have been diagnosed by me cystoscopically during the last sixteen months. This is a proof, on the one hand, of the value of the cystoscopic examination; on the other hand, of the fact that the new formations in question are not of so rare occurrence as has been hitherto thought. I would like to emphasize that the important results were often obtained under the most difficult circumstances. In several cases the external orifice of the urethra was found abnormally small; in others (Cases 8 and 11) the examination was made during the occurrence of a continuous hemorrhage from the tumor; in one case (Case 1) I introduced the instrument through the center of the tumor, which bled on the slightest pressure. In spite of this the appearances were seen satisfactorily. In the first case a post mortem examination was made; in eight other cases (Cases 2, 3, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15) the tumor was extirpated, seven times by the high section--in one case, that of a woman, through the dilated urethra. In these nine cases the endoscopic appearances were in every important respect confirmed in the most perfect manner. In every case my opinion regarding the size, position, and form was found to be correct. It is only in those cases where the edges of the tumor overlap the short pedicle that the latter cannot be observed. Besides, the relative good results of the operations undertaken on account of the cystoscopic appearance may be emphasized. Of the eight patients from whom the tumors had been extirpated, none died from the result of the operation. Case 9 proved fatal on account of the progressive extension of the growth. In the eleventh case there was a recurrence, but the patient is still alive. Five patients (Cases 2, 3, 10, 13, 14) must be considered entirely cured. Case 15 is still under treatment, and, as the conditions of the patient are at present (ninth day after operation) in every way satisfactory, a complete recovery is anticipated.

[9] The first eight cases are more fully described in the Arch. fur Chirurgie, vol. xxxvi., Part 3 (Dr. Nitze, Beitrage zur Endoscopie der mannlichen Harnblase). The full account of the last seven cases will be published soon.

Finally, on comparing the above cystoscopic appearances with the results obtained by other methods of examination, it must be observed that the examination of the urine, in most cases carefully made, had only in two cases shown the presence of villous tissue, which in one instance was brought out by the catheter. The rectal palpation, when made, had always given negative results. Further, the examination by means of the sound had been made in nine cases before the cystoscopic examination. In none of the cases had the sound revealed the presence of a tumor (which in two had attained the size of a small apple), although the examination was made by most experienced surgeons and eminent specialists. Those cases show how imperfect an instrument the sound is for the diagnosis of bladder tumors.

Only one method can compare with the cystoscope in giving valuable information regarding the size and nature of a bladder tumor--viz., the digital exploration of the internal surface of the bladder after a previous _boutonniere_, or the high section. The superiority of the cystoscopic method over the latter, on account of the smaller amount of inconvenience it causes the patient, need not be insisted on. The latter involves a cutting operation not free from danger, as well as deep narcosis, while the cystoscopic method is similar to a simple catheterization.

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 5) shows the instrument used by me for cystoscopic examination. It has been made by the Berlin instrument maker, Hartwig, according to my instructions. The source of the light (Mignon lamp) is cemented in a silver capsule, which is screwed into the distal end of the cystoscope. This instrument is superior to that made by Leiter, the Vienna instrument maker, because of its greater simplicity in construction, which allows the lamp to be easily replaced when necessary, and also on account of the greater length of the shaft.

I mention this because it differs from the explanation which Mr. Fenwick gave in his speech concerning my method of examination at the meeting of the Medical Society of London on Jan. 23, 1888. I must also strongly contradict Mr. Fenwick's statements concerning the share which he attributed to the Vienna instrument maker in the construction of the instrument. Leiter's connection with our instrument will be best explained when I say that he had to buy the patent[10] from me first in order to be allowed to make the instrument. Leiter has had no share in those peculiarities which characterize it as new. The introduction of the source of light into the organ had been practically brought about, the optical apparatus enlarging the view designed, the whole construction perfected, the instrument had proved itself useful in examining patients, and had been demonstrated by me in the Saechsisches Landes Medicinal Collegium before Leiter had any idea of the new invention! Also the eventual replacement of the first source of light (platinum wire) had been provided for.[11] Leiter has only made a few technical modifications on the finished instrument. I protest most emphatically against the incorrect explanations given by Mr. Fenwick, and against every connection of Leiter's name with my instruments. I hope to obtain in England the same generous recognition of my labors in this field that has been accorded to me in Germany.--_Lancet._

[10] Deutsche Patentschrifte, No. 6, 853.

[11] Ibid.

PAPILLOMATOUS TUMOR OF THE BLADDER, DEMONSTRATED BY
MEANS OF LISTER'S ELECTRO-CYSTOSCOPE.

By F. N. Otis, M.D., Clinical Professor, College of Physicians and
Surgeons, New York.

A. G----, aged twenty-three, United States; single; barber.

The young man was referred to me by his former medical attendant, March 16, 1883. His urine was found to be slightly but distinctly tinged with blood, and contained some small clots as well as some pus and mucus. He complained of exquisite pain on urination, increased at the close, recurring every half hour. Through examination per rectum (_a posteriori_) unusual tenderness was found. Distinct increase in the density and thickness of the right inferior section of the bladder was recognized by the bimanual touch; a catheter was introduced, and three ounces of bloody urine removed. The bladder was then irrigated gently with a saturated solution of boric acid until the fluid returned clear. The catheter was then withdrawn, leaving about four ounces of the solution, of a temperature of 80 deg., in the bladder, as a preparation for its examination by the electro-cystoscope of Lister. The required current was furnished by the small six-cell battery of the Galvano-Faradic Co. The cystoscope was then introduced into the bladder, and the current turned on. The illumination was complete. Through the slightly rosy medium the small blood vessels in the bladder mucous membrane were distinctly seen. On the right side a deep red, granular-looking mass, with a wavy outline, was then distinctly observed, covering about one-fourth of the cystoscopic field. This appearance was verified by Drs. Abbe, Bangs, and W. K. Otis--the unanimous opinion being that it represented a papillomatous growth, to some extent covered by coagulated blood. Two days later a similar examination was made, under the influence of an anaesthetic, which corroborated the previous observations in every particular. (See illustration.)

Some small filaments were subsequently removed with the lithotrite, but on microscopical examination nothing of diagnostic importance was discovered. From lack of the capacity of the bladder, the field was necessarily limited, nevertheless, a very excellent view of the tumor could be obtained. This is shown in the illustration, from a sketch made at the time of the first examination. It represents the position of the tumor and cystoscope when the best view of it was obtained.

On the following Monday the patient entered St. Luke's Hospital, and was operated upon by my associate, Dr. L. B. Bangs, Dr. Charles McBurney assisting. The high operation was performed, and the bladder being examined by means of an electric light, introduced through the suprapubic incision, the diagnosis made by the cystoscope was verified in every particular. The growth was then removed, as far as possible, with the scissors, and the surface cauterized with the Paquelin cautery. At the present writing the patient is going on toward a satisfactory recovery. The pathological examination made by Dr. Frank Ferguson, pathologist of St. Luke's Hospital, showed the neoplasm to be a simple papilloma.

This case is deserving of especial interest as being the first tumor of the bladder diagnosticated in this country by means of the cystoscope, and verified by subsequent operation, and adds one more to the list of sixteen cases so made out by foreign observers, and two by Dr. Fenwick, of England. In this instance the instrument deserves particular credit, as other methods had completely failed in the practice of competent observers.

This consists of a metal tube, about seven inches long, of a caliber of 22 French, having at the proximal end a funnel shaped ocular opening; at the distal, a short beak, similar to that of the catheter coude. A window of rock crystal is set in the end of this beak, behind which a small electric lamp, controlled by a switch at the ocular end, is placed. A rectangular prism, the hypothenuse plane of which is silvered, is placed in the end of the straight portion of the tube, its superior face being seen just anterior to the angle formed by the beak. The distended bladder is illuminated by the electric lamp, the rays reflected from its wall falling on the prism experience total reflection, an inverted image being formed within the tube. The size of the field thus obtained is greatly increased by means of a telescope introduced into the tube. The image seen through the cystoscope is an inverted image, but right and left are not transposed.

There can be no question as to the great prospective value of the electro-cystoscope in diagnosis of many difficulties to which the bladder is subject. A variety of foreign bodies have already been reported as made out by use of this instrument. The locality, size, and color of vesical calculi have been demonstrated in my own experience. In one instance two stones were seen where only one had been previously found, but this of course might with care have been effected by means of the lithotrite. But it is in the diagnosis of the tumors, and encysted or impacted calculi, that the most essential service may be anticipated from the use of the cystoscope. The orifices of the ureters are quite readily brought into the cystoscopic field, and it is more than probable that (perhaps through the introduction of some clear fluid with which blood does not readily mingle--glycerine, for instance) the true source of a previously doubtful haematuria will be demonstrated.--_Medical Record._

DISTANCE AND CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN.

So many queries about the solar system, or the members of it, have come recently to the attention of those in charge of this journal, from various sources, that it is thought best to make a brief statement of the present state of knowledge that astronomy has of the solar neighborhood in which we live.

Naturally we begin with the sun, and the oldest and most important problem which the study of this body offers is the determination of its distance from the earth in terrestrial units of measure. This distance is important because the knowledge of all the phenomena of all the heavenly bodies, except those of the moon, depend directly or indirectly on its value. The problem of the sun's distance is difficult because the data given for determining it are insufficient to enable the astronomer to apply the principles of trigonometry directly to it. He is, therefore, compelled to use indirect methods of solution, which, at best, give only approximations to the true distance, arising chiefly from small errors in observation, which, at the present time, seem unavoidable. A familiar illustration will make our meaning clear. The knowledge we have of the sun's distance depends on the accurate measurement of a small angle formed by drawing two lines from a point at the sun to the extremities of the earth's radius. That angle is called the sun's parallax. Ptolemy thought that this angle was 3' of arc, but we now know that its value is very near 8.80" of arc, and that the error of this amount from the true angle probably is not more than 0.02". To measure this small angle has been the astronomer's great trouble since the time of Aristarchus, and he does not yet know its value accurately. His problem is like that of a surveyor attempting to measure a ball, whose real diameter is one foot, at the distance of 4.4 miles nearly; and unless he can determine the diameter of the ball so that he shall not be uncertain in his measure to the amount of 0.03 of an inch, his work will not add anything useful to present knowledge.

If we suppose the angle of parallax to be known, the computation of the distance of a celestial body is easy. Multiply earth's radius by 206,265 (seconds of arc in the unit radius), and divide the product by the angle of parallax in seconds of arc. The mean equatorial radius of the earth, as given in Clark's Geodesy, is 3963.3 English miles. The sun's distance for a parallax of 8.78" would be

206,265" x 3963.3
----------------- = 93,108,000 miles.
8.78"

For parallax of 8.80" = 92,897,000 miles.
For parallax of 8.82" = 92,686,000 miles.

The range of error in parallax, as here given, is 0.04", and the change of the distance of the sun in allowing for this error is nearly half a million of miles. If 8.80" be the assumed parallax, with +- 0.02" as probable error, then the uncertainty of the sun's distance is still nearly a quarter of a million of miles.

So far astronomers are pretty generally agreed, unless it be in the value of the earth's radius used above. In his excellent work, entitled "The Sun," we notice that Professor Young gives 3,962.72 English miles as the "latest and most reliable determination" (page 22), while he seems to use Bessel's value of 3,962.80 in obtaining 92,885,000. This may be because the last named value is still in most general use, though less accurate undoubtedly than that of Clarke.

Since the transit of Venus, of 1874, the determination of the solar parallax has not been very much improved. The transit of 1882, so far as known, has given surprisingly discordant results, and probably they will be of very little service in improving our knowledge of the distance of the sun. In the midst of all this uncertainty of late work, in ordinary methods two ways of studying the problem show results almost exactly alike. They are obtained from late improved measures of the velocity of light, and from measures by the heliometer. The parallax from these sources is 8.794". The Brazilian results of transit of Venus for 1882, by Wolf and Andre, recently published, make the parallax 8.808". The American reductions for the last transit are not yet completed.

From the above brief statement of results, it seems that the value of the solar parallax is likely to be a trifle under 8.80", rather than above it, making the distance of the sun probably very near 93,000,000 miles.

The next most important problem pertaining to the sun is its constitution, which is usually considered under four heads:

1. The central portion, thought to be made up chiefly of intensely heated gases.

2. That part which is seen by the aid of the telescope, called the photosphere, consisting of a "shell of luminous clouds formed by the cooling and condensation of the condensible vapors at the surface where exposed to the cold of outer space." (Young.)

3. Outside of the photosphere is a shallow stratum, called the chromosphere, "composed mainly of uncondensible gases (conspicuously hydrogen) left behind by the formation of the photospheric clouds, and bearing something the same relation to them that the oxygen and nitrogen of our own atmosphere do to our own clouds." (Young.) And--

4. The corona, which is the beautiful halo seen, with the naked eye, outside of all, during the time of a total eclipse of the sun. This curious halo with all its streamers and rifts is thought to be composed chiefly of an incandescent material, in a far more attenuated state than that of hydrogen, the rarest gas known, because it yields freely in the spectroscope a certain line, 1474 K, which most agree can mean nothing else, although no one knows what the gas or metallic vapor is. Hydrogen is also found in the corona extending to the height of 600,000 miles above the photosphere, and possibly 1,200,000 miles. Suspended in this mixture of vapors, and "falling into, or projected from, the sun is a large quantity of solid or liquid material, which is at such a temperature as to be self-luminous. It is this which yields the continuous spectrum, free from dark lines.

"Besides these components in the outer envelope, there is present matter which reflects or diffuses light much as our own atmosphere does.

"To this is attributed the partial radial polarization of the corona. The streamers and rifts indicate matter repelled, in various quantities, from the sun by forces which may be electrical." (Hastings.)

These are the views advanced by astronomers and physicists, as theories or working hypotheses, until something better or more certain can be known. They are not held as facts by any, because of insufficient proof to establish them as such, and because there are very grave objections to some of them which are at present unanswerable.

For example, the spectroscope shows that the gaseous pressure at the limit of the chromosphere is very small, although that is at the base of an atmosphere from 600,000 to 1,200,000 miles deep, and under the influence of a force of gravity more than twenty-seven times as great as that in action at the surface of the earth.

Optically, the atmosphere of the earth ceases at a height of forty-five miles, but bodies at twice that altitude, moving at the rate of twenty-seven miles per second, meet resistance of air enough to render them incandescent almost instantly. But the evidence seems clear that, far within the corona, the resistance to moving bodies is much less than in our atmosphere at a height of sixty miles. The great comet of 1882 passed through the coronal atmosphere within 300,000 miles of the sun, with a velocity one hundred and eighty times that of the earth in its orbit. The comet was not stopped, nor destroyed, nor its orbit disturbed, as subsequent observations showed. The same thing was true, so far as known, of the comet of 1843, which passed still nearer the solar surface. These facts are troublesome to explain on the hypothesis of a coronal atmosphere.

Still further: if the sun be surrounded by a gaseous envelope, its density, as aforesaid, ought to diminish from the solar surface outward to its upper limits; but the fact is, the material of 1474 K line always appears in the spectrum of chromosphere, which would seem to indicate, by its place, that it is as much more dense than hydrogen as is magnesium vapor, or even the vapor of iron. But the evidence of the spectroscope makes this 1474 K material far less dense than that of hydrogen, and this is a contradiction that is very troublesome to the student of solar physics.

In studying the polarization of the light of the corona, it is clear that the amount of polarized light reflected from a particle at the surface of the sun is nothing, "because the luminous source there is a surface with an angular subtense of 180 deg.;" hence polarization of the corona near the limb of the moon ought to be small, farther away, larger. But observation shows that the contrary is true, _i. e._, the percent. of polarized light increases as the corona is observed nearer the limb of the moon during totality.

These are a few of the difficult questions that stand in the way of accepting the foregoing theories as facts pertaining to, or well grounded knowledge of, the constitution of the sun. They are by no means all, or possibly the most important ones. They are certainly among those that are receiving very general attention at the hands of physicists at the present time.--_Sidereal Messenger._

CHANGES IN THE STELLAR HEAVENS.

By J. E. GORE, F.R.A.S., Honorary Associate and Vice-President of the
Liverpool Astronomical Society.

If we look up at the starry heavens on a clear, moonless night, all seems still, lifeless, and devoid of energy and motion. All of us are--or at least should be--familiar with the apparent diurnal motion of the star sphere, caused by the actual rotation of the earth on its axis, and with the slower annual motion, due to the earth's revolution round the sun, which brings different constellations into view at different seasons of the year. These motions, due to the great and universal law of gravitation, discovered and so ably expounded by the famous Sir Isaac Newton, are of course wonderful and orderly in their regularity, and bear silent testimony to the amazing power, majesty, and goodness of a great and glorious Creator. There are, however, other motions and changes, even still more wonderful, going on in the depths of space, which, though unperceived by the ordinary observer, have been revealed to the eye and contemplation of the astronomer by the accurate instruments and methods of research which modern science has placed at his disposal. Some accounts of these marvelous discoveries may prove of interest to the reader. The "fixed stars" are so called because they apparently hold a fixed position with reference to each other on the concave surface of the celestial vault, and do not, as far as the unaided eye can judge, change their relative positions as the planets do. Many stars have, however, what is technically called a "proper motion," which, though of course very minute, and only to be detected by the aid of refined and accurate instruments, yet accumulate in the course of ages, and sensibly alter their position in the sky. The largest "proper motion" hitherto detected (about seven seconds of arc per annum) is that of a small star in the constellation Ursa Major, known to astronomers as No. 1830 of Groonbridge's catalogue. It has been calculated that this star is rushing through space with the amazing and almost inconceivable velocity of 200 miles per second!--a velocity which would carry it from the earth to the sun in about 5-1/2 days and to the moon in 20 minutes! The well-known double star 61 Cygni has a proper motion of about five seconds of arc per annum, both components moving through space together. This is, as far as yet known, the nearest star to the earth in the northern hemisphere. Its parallax, as determined by Sir R. S. Ball, is 0.4676 of a second of arc, and by Prof. Pritchard (by photography) 0.43 of a second. Taking the mean of these values, its distance from the earth would be about 460,000 times the earth's mean distance from the sun, and its actual velocity about 33 miles per second. This is, of course, the motion at right angles to the line of sight, but as it may also have a motion _in_ the line of sight, either to or from the eye, its real velocity is probably greater than this. The remarkable triple star 40 Eridani has a proper motion of four seconds annually. The components are a fourth magnitude star accompanied by a distant double companion which is a binary (or revolving double star), and accompanies the bright star in its flight through space. There are two other faint and distant companions which do not partake in the motion of the ternary star. In the year 1864 the bright star was situated to the east of a line joining these faint companions, but owing to its large proper motion it is now to the west of them. In the case of the triple star Struve 1516, one of the companions, which was to the west of the primary star in 1831, is, owing to the proper motion of the bright star, now to the east of it. Prof. Asaph Hall has found a parallax for 40 Eridani of 0.223 of a second. This, combined with the observed proper motion, indicates an actual velocity of about 54 miles per second. The star Mu Cassiopeiae has also a large proper motion. This star, about 4,000 years ago, must have been close to Alpha Cassiopeiae, and might have been so seen by the ancient astronomers. The proper motion of the bright star Arcturus is so considerable that in the course of about 30,000 years it will be near the equator, and about 10 deg. to the north of the bright star Spica, from which it is at present separated by over 30 deg. These motions are of course those which take place across the face of the sky. There are, however, motions in the line of sight--both toward and from the eye--which have of late years been revealed to us by the spectroscope, that wonderful instrument of modern scientific research, by the aid of which several new metals have been discovered, and which has been found so useful in chemical analysis, and even in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer process. Some years since, Dr. Huggins, the eminent spectroscopist, found that the bright star Sirius, "the monarch of the skies," was receding from the earth at the rate of about 20 miles a second. Later observations at Greenwich Observatory showed that this motion was gradually diminishing, and within the last few years it has been found that the motion of recession has been actually changed into a motion of approach, showing that this giant sun is probably traveling in a mighty orbit round some as yet unknown center of gravity.

From a consideration of stellar proper motions, it has been concluded that the sun--and therefore the whole solar system--is moving through space. Recent investigations make the velocity of translation about 19 miles per second (30 kilometers). The Greenwich observations place the "apex of the solar motion" (as the point toward which the sun is moving is called) between Rho and Sigma Cygni, while Dr. Huggins' results fix a point near Beta Cephei. Both these points are near the Milky Way.

There are other startling changes which have occasionally taken place among the stars, and which must be looked upon almost in the light of catastrophes. At rare intervals in the history of astronomy "temporary" or "new" stars have suddenly blazed out in the heavens which were previously either unknown to astronomers, or else were invisible, except in the telescope. Some of these were of great brilliancy. In A.D. 173 a bright star is recorded in the Chinese annals as having appeared between Alpha and Beta Centauri (two bright stars in the southern hemisphere). It remained visible for seven or eight months, and is described as resembling "a large bamboo mat" (!)--a not very lucid description. It is worthy of remark that there exists at the present time, close to the spot indicated, an interesting variable star, which may possibly be identical with the bright star of the second century. Perhaps the most remarkable of these wonderful objects was that observed by the famous Tycho Brahe in 1572, in Cassiopeia, and called the "Pilgrim." It was so brilliant that it rivaled the planet Venus at its brightest, and was visible at noonday. It remained visible for over a year and then disappeared.

A small star close to its recorded position has been observed in recent years, and as it is thought to be slightly variable in its light, it may possibly be identical with the long lost star of Tycho Brahe. Another new star of almost equal brilliancy was observed in October, 1604, in Ophiuchus, a few degrees southeast of the star Eta Ophiuchi. The planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were close together in this vicinity, and one evening Mostlin, a pupil of Kepler's, remarked that a new and very brilliant star had joined the group. When first seen it was white, and exceeded in brightness Mars and Jupiter, and was even thought to rival Venus in splendor! It gradually diminished, however, and in six months was not equal in luster to Saturn; in March, 1606, it had entirely disappeared. In 1670 a star of the third magnitude was observed by Anthelm near Beta Cygni. It remained visible for about two years, and increased and diminished several times before it finally disappeared. Flamsteed's star, No. 11 of Vulpecula, has been supposed to be identical with Anthelm's star, but Baily could not find that such a star exists. A small star has, however, been observed at Greenwich within one minute of arc of the place assigned to the temporary star by Picard's observations.

Variability has been suspected in this faint star, and according to Hind it has a hazy, ill-defined appearance about it, which may perhaps suggest that it may be a small planetary nebula, similar to Schmidt's new star of 1876 in Cygnus. A small new star was observed by Hind in Ophiuchus on April 28, 1848. When first noticed it was about the fifth magnitude. It afterward rose to about fourth magnitude, but very soon faded away, and, although still visible in the telescope, has become very faint in recent years. A new star of seventh magnitude was found by Pogson on May 28, 1860, in the well-known star cluster known as 80 Messier in Scorpio. The light of the star when first seen obscured the light of the nebula. On June 10 the star had nearly disappeared, and the nebula was again seen shining with great brilliancy.

A very interesting temporary star--known as the "Blaze Star"--suddenly appeared in Corona Borealis in May, 1866. It was first seen by the late Mr. Birmingham, of Tuam, Ireland, on the night of May 12, when it was of the second magnitude and equal in brightness to Alphecca, the brightest star in the well-known "Coronet." It must have made its appearance very suddenly, for Dr. Schmidt, the director of the Athens observatory, stated that he was observing this region of the heavens a few hours previously, and noticed nothing unusual. It rapidly diminished in brightness, and on May 24 of the same year was reduced to nearly the ninth magnitude. It was soon discovered that the star had been previously observed, and its place registered by the great German astronomer, Argelander, as of magnitude 9-1/2, so that it is possibly a variable star of irregular period and fitful variability. When near its maximum brilliancy, its light was examined by Dr. Huggins with the spectroscope, which showed the bright lines of incandescent hydrogen gas in addition to the ordinary stellar spectrum. This implies that the great increase in its light was due to a sudden outburst of hydrogen in the star's atmosphere. Some observers remarked that when viewed with the naked eye it decidedly twinkled more than other stars in the neighborhood, which rendered a correct estimate of its relative brightness somewhat difficult. During the years 1866 to 1876, Schmidt detected variations of light which seemed to show a period of about 94 days, and these observations were confirmed by Schonfeld.

On the evening of November 24, 1876, the late Dr. Schmidt, of Athens, discovered a new star of the third magnitude, near Rho Cygni, in a spot where he was certain that no bright star was visible four nights previously. When first seen, it was somewhat brighter than Eta Pegasi. It did not, however, remain long at this degree of brightness, but rapidly decreased, and on November 30 had faded to fifth magnitude. It afterward diminished very regularly, and in September, 1885, was estimated only fifteenth magnitude with the 15-1/2 inch refractor of Mr. Wigglesworth's observatory. The star was examined with the spectroscope a few days after its discovery, and showed bright lines similar to the "Blaze Star" in the Northern Crown. One of these bright lines was believed to be identical with Kirchhoff's No. 1474, which has been observed in the spectrum of the solar corona during total eclipses of the sun. This star would seem to be quite new, as there is no star in any of the catalogues in its position. In September, 1877, it was examined with the spectroscope at Lord Crawford's observatory, and its light was found to be almost entirely monochromatic (of only one color), showing that the star "had changed into a planetary nebula of small angular diameter" (!)