Chapter XIII: TECHNOLOGY.--Future Prospects for Gas Companies.--By Mr (3)

Native coal fields will become more valuable, and we will not pay tribute to other States, as heretofore. The change from illuminating coal gas to fuel gas will perhaps be a slow one, owing to the conservatism of gas companies and imperfected details; but eventually it will be brought about in spite of all obstacles. If a company is operated as pictured, it will furnish arc lighting, incandescent electric lighting, and electric motors, fuel gas, incandescent gas lighting, and gas engines.

Gas will be made on a larger scale, with less dirt and nuisance, and without that laboriousness now made necessary. Valves, levers, and push buttons will displace scoop, drawing hook, and wheelbarrow, and the employees will no longer be known as "gas house terriers," but will become elevated to a higher plane. The officers of the company will also of necessity have to be more active and alert, and the rule of thumb will be at a discount. Now let us see where the gas man will be who fails to occupy these new fields of pasture green.

He will, of course, go on making coal gas in the old way; he will still wrestle with stopped stand pipes, steam jet exhausters, naphthaline, etc., and worry over how much a bushel of coke weighs. He will try to convince his customers that he knows better than they do what they want, and that anything but his gas is of no account. He will keep on cutting out items from the newspapers whenever he finds it recorded that an electric light somewhere failed to flicker.

He will still maintain that there is not a company in the country making anything out of electric lighting, and that it is only a matter of time when some fellow slips into his town and, noting things, works up an arc light company, captures the street lighting and some of our friend's best consumers. The price of gas is lowered; all kinds of patent gas burners are invested in to recapture those lost consumers; a fight ensues, factions are made in the town, and the arc light company adds an incandescent plant to the arc light, and captures more of our friend's consumers. To cap the climax, another fellow comes along and proposes to supply fuel gas to the citizens, gets a franchise, puts in pipes and services, and our friend wakes up some fine morning to find that what the electric light fellow has left him in the shape of lighting has been captured by the fellow with the fuel gas plant, who puts in the incandescent gas burners.

Evidence is cropping up all around us that tends to this change. We find manufacturers of fireclay goods now making carbons for electric lighting; we also find gas fixture manufacturers now making and selling electric wires of all kinds, besides other apparatus connected with the electrical field. Manufacturers of meters have not yet devised a meter for measuring electrical currents, but perhaps it would pay them to devote a portion of their time to studying one out. As far as the present meter business is concerned, I think, if this transformation of the gas business is brought about, the demand for gas meters would be quadrupled and the use of the larger sizes of meters would be made necessary; but if accuracy could be insured with a much smaller meter with quicker action, I think it would be better adapted for the purpose. Fuel gas, if it can be manufactured at a price at which it could be sold with profit at a lower or as low price as coal, would prove a larger field than all the kinds of lighting put together, and is certainly worth our while to investigate thoroughly. The owners of the smallest houses of our cities would become our patrons, and a small profit per thousand would represent a wide margin when taking into consideration the large amount that would be consumed.

But is the fuel gas practical, and has there been sufficient progress made to date to warrant gas companies taking hold of it with any assurance of success?

In the first place, what assurance do we require? Do we want some one to come along and guarantee us a profit of 20 per cent. on our investment if we enter the field? If so, the patentees of the different processes might just as well negotiate with the shoe maker as with the gas company. I think all the assurance we want in the premises is that with certain apparatus we can get certain results from a ton of coal (the kind of coal being specified), or that from a ton of coal we can get a certain amount of available deliverable heat units.

The balance we should be capable of working out ourselves, such as labor, leakage, cost of gas at consumers' meters, and such other data that we certainly should be more familiar with than any one else.

Of course, the fuel gas will have to have an odor, and must be delivered at a proper pressure; and proper appliances for governing supply and insuring perfect safety will have to be calculated on. In fact, the gas man must try to improve on methods adopted, and do his best to hasten the day when solid fuel in our homes shall be no more--in other words, we have to take hold of the fuel gas business in its infancy or it will get weaned away from us.

Mr. McMillin, with others, has given us some figures on fuel gas which have been verified by practical tests. For instance, he gives us as his opinion that a mixed gas is more adapted for all-round purposes than either coal or water gas alone.

From experiments made we find that from a ton of bituminous coal, making a mixed gas, we can realize as salable gas 63 or 64 per cent. of the total heat units in the original ton of coal, or about 17,000,000 heat units, besides a residue of heat sufficient to produce the steam for making the above amount.

Of this mixture 20 per cent. is coal gas, made in the ordinary way, which is the only objectionable feature the writer can see in the process. I am inclined to think that Mr. McMillin rather strained a point here in order not to alarm coal gas men, or else to avoid a too radical change in the apparatus now in vogue for making coal gas.

By his statement we find that in water gas, labor and repairs cost but 7 cents per M, while coal gas costs for the same items 15 cents per M. Of course, the proportion of coal gas made by the old method is of more value in heat units than the water gas made by the new method; but what I wished to suggest was this, that if the whole process be made in the cupola as water gas is now made, whether the result would be the same number, or nearly so, of heat units in amount of gas made, with a large reduction in labor making the coal gas cost no more than the water gas for the item of labor repairs. If the mixture can be made in this manner, and I have some assurance that it can be done successfully, then I think it would pay any company to abandon the use of the present style of gas benches, and use the space now occupied by them with more improved apparatus, rather than use them at a loss, simply because we have them on hand.

We have pictured an ideal burner for our homes in the fore part of this paper, and I cannot refrain from holding up to your view this ideal fuel, which has no smoke, no dirt, no ashes, and entails on the housewife no extra labor, can be regulated automatically to one steady temperature, and does not require a workingman, after doing a hard day's work, to come home and find a ton of coal dumped on the front sidewalk, which has to be wheeled or carried in before night comes on.

Now that we have seen an ideal street light, an ideal house light, and an ideal fuel, we will endeavor to show you an ideal gas company; and we cannot do it in a more concise way than to say that an ideal gas company is one that keeps all these ideal commodities for sale at a reasonable price.

This may look visionary on my part to some of you, perhaps all of you; but, nevertheless, I feel that this is the place and time to talk over "our future prospects," and if this paper is the cause of any one investigating the subjects spoken of or bringing forth discussion regarding the same, I shall feel I have not written in vain.

THE APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO LIGHTING AND WORKING.[5]

By W. H. PREECE, F.R.S.

LECTURE I.

I appear before you to give a short course of two lectures on the application of electricity to lighting and working. To-night I shall confine my attention entirely to lighting, and if we succeed in getting through our subject, we shall devote ourselves next Wednesday to the application of electricity for working tramways, to the transmission of power for various purposes, and generally to working.

[5] Two juvenile lectures recently delivered before the Society of Arts, London.--_From the Journal of the Society._

Many people imagine the electric light to be a cold light. It is a delusion. It is called a cold light because in many of its forms it gives what we may call a cheerless light; it has not got the warmth, the comfortable look, of other artificial means of illumination.

The electric light owes its existence to the intense heat that the electric current produces, and heat lies at the root of every system of artificial illumination. For instance, suppose we take a common match and light it, we light it simply because by the friction of the two surfaces together we generate heat, the heat burns the substance of which the match is made. We are able to light a common candle because we have applied heat to the wick, the heat liquefies the wax of which the candle is made, the wax is decomposed, it combines with the oxygen of the air, intense heat is produced at that point, carbon is consumed, and the consequence is light. So with all our various modes of artificial illumination. Gas, as you are well aware, produces intense heat, and the result of that heat is light. There are various ways in which gas is applied to produce heat and the necessary consequence--light. Here is a Sellon gas burner, in which the combustion of gas raises the temperature of a fine platinum cap, and the result is, as you see, a very beautiful light. In one lamp we have a cap or mantle, in the other case there is merely a flat disk gauze of platinum. The combustion of the gas produces intense heat, which raises the network to a very high state of temperature, though in the present case the light is not so good as it should be, probably through the pressure in the supply main not being sufficiently great.

In another case we have a gas jet surrounded with a network of some vegetable matter, linen or cambric, steeped in a solution of salts of zirconium, and a few other rare earths, and the intense heat of the gas causes a very high temperature, and, as you see, a very brilliant effect is produced.

You will see from this that in all cases of artificial illumination bodies have to be raised to a high state of temperature. I hold in my hand a piece of magnesium wire; it is really flat magnesium tape, but it is called wire. If I heat that, you will observe that a very brilliant light is produced, due to the very high temperature at which it burns. Now, if I take a lump of coal and heat it--it requires to be raised to a certain temperature before the oxygen is directed upon it--and subject it to a jet of oxygen, you will see that it burns with very much more intense light than you are accustomed to in the ordinary fire. If I take a piece of iron wire and place it in a jar of oxygen, you see what a very brilliant effect the combination of oxygen and iron produces through the iron being raised to a very high temperature.

I have now shown you that in order to produce light we must, by some means or other, raise the temperature of a body. But the high temperature that we have to deal with is not that produced by the combination of the oxygen of the air and carbon, and other bodies such as I have shown you, but it is produced by the aid of the electric current. In all these cases the result of the combustion you have seen has been to remove oxygen from the air, but now I want to show you how a body can be raised to a high state of temperature without combustion of any kind. In front of me I have a fine platinum wire. In my hand I hold a wire that is in connection with a battery upstairs, the other wire in connection with the battery is attached to the far end of the fine platinum wire; now, when I make contact with the near end of the platinum wire, you observe that the wire is raised to redness, its temperature is high, and as I reduce the length of the platinum wire it gets brighter and brighter, the amount of electricity passing through it is greater and greater, and presently the wire is fused. I should have pointed out that as the quantity of heat generated in a wire increases, so does the color of the light. When heat is applied to a body, that body is first warmed, then it gets gradually hotter and hotter, until it becomes red hot, and the first color that appears is always red. The temperature is further raised, and the body assumes the color of orange, then at a little higher temperature it appears yellow, and so the different colors of the rainbow are perceived according to the different temperatures to which the body tested with is raised. Now, I want to show you the most intense form in which heat can be produced on this earth. There is no hotter object that we can obtain than that of the electric arc. I will try and produce this arc. You observe that when I bring these two pieces of carbon together, a current of electricity passes between them, and the passage of the current of electricity between them creates such an intense temperature that a brilliant white light, as you see, is produced. Incandescent particles of carbon pass between the two points, forming a sort of bridge or arch, which is called the electric arc. But the temperature of this arc is, as I said before, the highest temperature that we can produce; it has been measured, and is found to be 8,500 deg. Fahr. That is a temperature that can hardly be conceived; the melting point of iron is only about 1,200 deg. Fahr.; the melting point of platinum, which is one of the most refractory metals we have, is about 3,000 deg. Fahr.; but here in the arc we have the intense temperature that nothing can withstand, equal to 8,500 deg. Fahr. The color is really due to the combustion that takes place between the materials forming the arc. I have just used two pieces of carbon, but I will now try other materials--copper, iron, and zinc. You will see a difference in the color of the light, due to the fact that metal is burned in the arc instead of carbon. Every metal has its own distinct and particular color, and the presence of the different metals can be detected by the character of the small arcs produced.

I have shown you that we have two modes of producing intense heat, and therefore light, by electricity. I want now to show you how we produce electricity. The first essential for the production of electricity with a hand machine like this is a good dinner. The energy provided by beef or mutton enables the operator to turn the big wheel of the machine, whence motion is transmitted to the apparatus for producing the electricity. This machine when rotated causes a coil of copper wire to be whirled in a magnetic field, and that rotation of the coil in a magnetic field converts the energy derived from the grass and from the mutton through the machine into electric currents; those electric currents flow through wires that are under the table, they will appear in the two wires I hold in my hand, and will, I hope, reappear in the little glow-lamps I have before me in the shape of heat, and then of light when I attach the wires. The light of the glow-lamp is of just the same form of energy as that which passed from the sun to the earth, and by beginning backward from the lamps we have light, heat, electric currents, mechanical motion, food or fuel in the shape of mutton, grass on the South Downs, to the sun. Whichever way it is taken, you will find there is direct action between the sun and the glow-lamp. The lamps are now burning, and you see that we are able to produce electricity to our hearts' content. Down-stairs there is a gas-engine; the gas-engine is at work; the gas-engine works because the gas supplies energy which, stored up in the bowels of the earth in the form of coal for ages and ages, has been extracted; it has been converted into gas at the large gas works down the River Thames, it has been brought up here, it is burned in the gas-engine, and produces energy in the gas-engine exactly in the same way as the mutton or beef produced energy just now. There is a dynamo down-stairs exactly like the dynamo that we have upon the platform, and the current that is produced is exactly as the current we just obtained, and is sending electricity through all the lamps in this room. The currents of electricity passing through the lamps are producing intense heat, the heat is producing the incandescence of a fine carbon filament, such as I will show you directly, and the consequence is that we are now being lighted in this room by the energy that unmistakably and undisputably arrived on this earth millions of years ago in the form of sunshine.

We can store up the energy in batteries. I shall show you to-night two or three different forms of battery. Here is what is called a primary battery. The only difference between a primary battery and a secondary battery is this, that a primary battery consists of chemical elements that at once combine and produce electricity by combustion, whereas a secondary battery involves some anterior electrical action, which prepares the surfaces of two bodies to put them in exactly the same condition as a primary battery. Here is a primary battery known as the Schanschieff, which is charged with a solution of sulphate of mercury, and into that sulphate of mercury we will dip plates of zinc and plates of carbon. Zinc has a greater affinity for the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of mercury than mercury has; the sulphuric acid will at once combine with the zinc; it will burn the zinc just as the gas burned just now, but instead of burning with heat and light in the battery, it burns in the form of electricity, which appears in the glow-lamps attached. You see that the moment the zinc and carbons are placed in the cell electricity is produced, and the lamp is lighted. The form of battery from which we are drawing our electricity to-night is the accumulator, or the storage or secondary battery. The secondary battery simply consists of plates or "grids," as they are called, one filled with litharge, and the other with red lead; the one becomes pure lead, the other becomes peroxide of lead; the plates are combined in this form, and then placed in a glass cell, and upstairs there are 52 of these E.P.S. cells, which have been charged all day long by the gas-engine of which I spoke, and which now contain a store of electricity that I shall make considerable use of to-night before I finish.

I showed you the form of electric light which we call the arc, and I have here to-night two or three different forms of arc lamps, which I will show in action. But I want you to see this arc light for yourselves, and I want you to feel, as I feel, that in all nature there is nothing more wonderful and nothing more beautiful than the action of electric currents in the arc. The light is, as I attempted to show you, the very same light that came from the sun. I can show you that it is of the same character as the light of the sun, and in the lantern on the table there is an arc lamp the light of which we will throw on the paper before me in the form of a spectrum. There you see the spectrum in all its purity; the spectrum from the sun is no purer as regards light than what you now see. There you see all the colors of the rainbow, and I had intended, if it were possible, to show you in the first experiment, in which we raised platinum wire to incandescence, that the first color would be the red, then the orange, then the yellow, then the green, then the blue, then the indigo, and lastly the violet. Beyond the violet there are rays of light which we cannot see; they are the rays that produce the photographic pictures, and, had time permitted it, we would probably have taken to-night a picture by means of the arc lamps, but it requires a long time to do so, and it really is no more interesting than an ordinary photographic picture. There are all the different colors of the rainbow. Those who are anxious to remember the order of the colors can very easily do so if they will remember this simple sentence, "Read over your good book in verse." The first letter of each word in that sentence gives the first letter of the color in the order of the spectrum. It would be a very good thing if some of our artists were to study and remember the colors of the rainbow, for it is an extremely rare thing indeed to find a picture with the colors of the rainbow properly depicted, sometimes they are upside down, sometimes they are mixed, and if you discuss the fact with an artist, he will say, "I do not care about your science. I simply paint my own impressions."

I will now show you the arc in another form. We are to-night connected in this room--I have told you there is a gas-engine down-stairs; there are also secondary batteries upstairs--but we are in connection with the Grosvenor Gallery in Bond Street. The Grosvenor Gallery has a central station where a very large dynamo is at work, from which electricity is supplied to different parts of London; many thousand lamps are fed, in a great many clubs, theaters, and private houses; they are all lit up by the currents generated underneath the Grosvenor Gallery. The Grosvenor Gallery Company, through their engineer, Mr. Ferranti, have very kindly undertaken to supply us to-night with a current. The current is supposed to be a very dangerous one, in reality it is not; there is no electric current that has ever been produced that is one-tenth as dangerous as a steam boiler, and all these currents, however immense they may be, are very simply controlled, and very easily brought within the region of safety. There is no doubt that with the apparatus that is now being handled in this room, if anybody were deliberately to put one wire in his mouth and the other in his hand, he would have the funeral service performed over him in two or three days; but those who know what they are about no more handle electric light wires carelessly than they put their hands in a furnace or their noses in boiling water. We acquire experience by practice, and we know by this time pretty well how to deal with electric currents. Now, you see in the lower arrangement there that safety catches are being put in, which render any accident quite impossible. Passing through each of those boxes there is what is called a "cut-out" safety fuse, or safety valve, and should, from any accident, anything go wrong in this theater, or in any way with the system outside the theater, the safety fuses would burst, and would so remove all danger from inside. The switch has now been turned, and by it the current from the Grosvenor Gallery has been brought within our reach. You see an arc light produced by it, and you see how intensely bright and brilliant that light is. I do not want you so much to see that light itself, but I want you to see its projection, or picture; and if Mr. Wickham will kindly direct it on that white paper, at the end of the room furthest from the table, you will see a picture of the carbons which are now emitting that intense and brilliant light. You will see that between what appears to you as the top carbon (but which is in reality the bottom carbon of the two) and the bottom one there is playing, apparently, a shower of minute fragments of something, but which are in reality innumerable minute flashes of lightning, there is a constant uninterrupted shower of electric shocks passing, that produce that intense brilliancy, and that very bright appearance. There is intense commotion, a terrible surging about of matter in a molten condition. Well, that arc that you see is produced by the currents from the Grosvenor Gallery. They are alternating currents of electricity, currents that are constantly and suddenly circulating backward and forward. The arc that we have at this other end of the room is a direct current one, and it is now projected on to another sheet of paper, where you see a different form of are altogether. This arc is produced by the direct current from a battery. You will see the form is quite different from that in the alternate current arc. You heard a peculiar hissing sound just now; that is a peculiar phenomenon in arc lamps that has attracted a good deal of attention from physicists, but nobody has yet arrived at a satisfactory conclusion as to the cause. The lamp sometimes sings and sometimes hisses, and while thus behaving it produces an intense and variable inverse electro-motive force, that has to be overcome before the current can produce a steady and silent arc. You will notice in the upper carbon of this form of lamp a kind of cup, or "crater." The lower carbon forms a kind of point, a raised surface, and between the two there is on the projection that which appears as a glow, but which in reality has very intense heat, reaching, as I told you, a temperature of 8,500 deg. Fahr. In those two projections you have, I think, within my experience for the first time, been shown in public an alternate current arc and a direct current arc at the same time, so that you are really able to see what I do not think most people have seen before.

There are a great many different arc lamps. I have not time to bring before you all the various lamps that I might have secured for your inspection. There is the Brush lamp, that for a long time lit up the streets of our city, and I sincerely hope very soon is going to light up the city again. There was the Jablochkoff lamp, that lighted up our Thames Embankment, and which can be seen, on going down the Strand, at the Tivoli Restaurant, not far from here. The offices of the _Daily Telegraph_, in Fleet Street, and many other places, are lighted up by different lamps, many of them excellent. Our experience of the last two or three years at the exhibitions has taught us that there are a great many different kinds of arc lamps, but all these arc lamps are lamps so constructed that they cause the pair of carbons to be fed, to be kept together, as they consume, at the same rate as they do consume. The mechanism is of great delicacy, it acts with great promptitude, and the one that we have here to-night is one of the last and one of the best; it is known as the Brockie-Pell lamp. The lamp now at work is a Brockie-Pell, and for those who are interested, a diagram representing it is upon the wall, and its operation I shall be very happy to explain after the lecture; it feeds with great rapidity, with great convenience, and is one of the steadiest lamps we have.

There are objections to the arc light; it is extremely dazzling and irritating to the eye. Although the arc lamps we have here to-night are of the very best of their kind, and are certainly almost steady, still they have little irregularities in their action, and worst of all, they throw intense shadows. The light from them is not very well diffused, still the light is very brilliant, and it raises the envy of a good many people. For instance, the Brush Company were once establishing a light in the neighborhood of Cork, and an Irish farmer was remarkably struck by the appearance and the steadiness of the light, so he came to the engineer in charge and asked him, as a great favor, if he could kindly tell him where he got his oil from.

I must now go from this to the next branch, the glow-lamp, the lamp that is burning so steadily and so nicely above us. For this lamp we do not use platinum, such as I heated before you just now, but we use carbon, so fine that although I have probably one hundred or more in my hand, they feel no heavier than a feather. These extremely fine filaments of carbon are made with very great care from cotton. I cannot show you the whole operation of making carbons and some of the preliminary operations connected with the making of the lamp; but owing to the kindness of the Anglo-American Brush Company, their manager, Mr. Sillar, is here to-night, and we shall have the pleasure of seeing how the whole operation of the manufacture of one of these glow lamps, such as we have above us now, is carried out. The carbons have already been formed, but the first process is that the cotton fiber is carefully tied and wrapped around pieces of carbon, as you see. It is then placed in a furnace and carbonized. After being thus prepared, a glass tube of special quality selected for the purpose is used to form the glass globe. Mr. Donaldson will take a piece of the glass tube before you, and will blow it into the shape similar to the lamp I hold, which is of the very familiar pear-like form. The carbon filament will then be fixed in the glass bulb, the latter will be exhausted and sealed, and the whole process be passed through before your eyes. I must first of all show you why it is necessary to take all this care. We have in front of the board one of these carbon filaments suspended, and we will now pass a current through it, and the carbon filament is raised to incandescence, it combines with the oxygen of the air, it is at once consumed, and, as you saw, we only had a light for a few seconds. Now, in order to make that light permanent, it is necessary to inclose the carbon filament in a glass globe, and to exhaust from that glass globe all the air, or as much of it as possible, and then, instead of having a life of a few seconds, the life of a lamp frequently continues for 4,000 or 5,000 hours. The first process, as I said, in making an incandescent lamp, after the carbon filament has been prepared, is that of blowing a glass bulb. The blowpipe has now been put on, and the intense heat of the Bunsen burner raises the glass to incandescence, to a soft, plastic condition, so plastic that the manipulator can do with it just whatever he likes. Having got the glass to this particular shape, the filament will be placed inside it, first of all mounting the filament, which is an operation requiring a great deal of care and great skill in handling. It is an extremely pretty operation, and I beg to call your attention to it. The carbon is fixed inside a fine spiral of platinum, which is at the same time subjected to an intense current which decomposes the oil or the hydrocarbon in which it is placed, the carbon deposits on the carbon filament, and cements it to the platinum spiral. That is called mounting the filament. When that is done, the filament is fixed in the glass globe, and the platinum and glass are fused together. The brilliance of the platinum can be seen during this operation, and it is very pretty. I do not know how it would have been possible for us to have glow-lamps if it had not been for the fact that the coefficients or rates of expansion of platinum and glass are practically exactly the same, and the result is that when the platinum and glass are combined together, as they are in a glow-lamp, the two contract and expand at the same rate, and the result is there is no leakage; if there had been leakage through the glass, it would have been quite impossible to have made a glow-lamp. The success of a glow-lamp depends upon the vacuum produced, and the next process is to cement the lamp so far to a vacuum tube connected to a mercurial air-pump. The one before you is Mr. Lane Fox's. It would have been also impossible to have produced these beautiful glow-lamps without the mercurial air-pump, so that the success of electric lighting and its perfection depend upon, first, the similarity of expansion of glass and platinum, and secondly upon our power of producing a vacuum. As it takes ten minutes or a quarter of an hour to carry out the process of exhaustion, I will proceed with other portions of my subject, and presently, when the time is ready, Mr. Sillar will inform me, and we will light up the lamp that has been made before you this evening, and, I hope, with success. The operation we have just seen is one that has been just as interesting to me as it has been to you. There are very few who are permitted to see this operation. We once had it before in this hall when General Webber read a paper on glow-lamps, but with that exception I am not aware that the manufacture of glow-lamps has ever been shown in public before. It is most wonderful to watch the marvelous way in which glass can be twisted and turned to our ways and to our wants, and the skill with which the blower is able to manipulate glass in its plastic condition, and to shape it in any form he likes, is an operation which never ceases to excite one's wonderment. The form of lamp that is being made before us is of the ordinary size that we see used generally, but there are a great many different sizes of glow-lamps. For instance, here is a very small lamp; above me you will see, if I may call the small one a dwarf, there is a giant glow-lamp. It is a lamp invented by the Honorable Charles Parsons, it is made by the Sunbeam Lamp Company, of Gateshead, and is called the Sunbeam lamp; it has the same proportion to an ordinary lamp that an ostrich egg has to a hen's egg, and the light from it is of equally large proportion, as you see now the current has been turned on to it. It gives a light of four hundred candles, but it is rather too brilliant I see by your faces, and we will go back to our old friends of the ordinary size. There are also above us lamps of various sizes; there is a five-candle, ten-candle, sixteen-candle, twenty-candle, and a hundred-candle lamp. Here also are a fifty-candle Swan lamp, a sixteen-candle Swan, and an eight-candle Swan lamp. There are the ordinary sixteen-candle lamp; these are being burned from the Grosvenor Gallery. Here is a miner's lamp, which is supplied with a current by the Schanschieff battery, the same as I showed you at first. The peculiarity of this arrangement is that when the battery is turned upside down the light goes off, the zincs and carbons occupy one half of the cell, and the solution the other half, the zincs and carbons being at the bottom, and the battery is not excited unless contact is made with the carbons and zinc. Such a battery as this will maintain its lamp for 12 or 13 hours. There are several forms of the Schanschieff battery. Here is a portable form, and lamp connected with it by a flexible wire, which can be used when traveling; or in the night, when you want to know the time, you can have a lamp and battery like this by your bedside, and you can turn it upside down, and produce a light, see the hour, and turn the battery back.

These glow-lamps are used for different purposes and ways. They may be used with care, they may be used recklessly; their duration depends a good deal upon the care with which they are used. A practiced eye, one who is accustomed to deal with electric lamps, can tell at a glance when the lamp is raised to a proper incandescence; but there is a point in all lamps that is a sign of danger, and indicates "breakers (or breakage) ahead." Whenever in an electric light installation a glow-lamp begins to show a blue effect, then breakers are ahead; the current must be reduced or other steps taken. I want to show you this blue effect, which is extremely pretty, and I want you to see the gradual stages through which a lamp passes from long life to death, or rather to a very short and merry life. We can make the life of a lamp just exactly what we like; we can make a lamp last a minute, or we can make it last a hundred years, and the number of years of its duration is simply dependent upon the current employed. I have here a glow-lamp, and I pass a current through it. There is no blue effect at present; the current is increased, and the carbon filament is raised to a high state of incandescence. In such a state it would not last for a long time, not more than ten minutes or a quarter of an hour; but it does not show the blue effect yet. On further increasing the current the blue effect appears, though I doubt whether it is visible to many of the audience; a little more current is put on, and the blue effect is very marked, the globe itself looks very brilliant, and--there--the current has been increased until the filament has parted.

It is always better, when making an observation or experiment, to know what you are going to see, so that you can direct your attention to exactly what is being done or to what you want to know. If I put another lamp through the same experiment, you will be better able to understand this blue effect, and see just that point where the lamp is about to give out. The current is now on, and is being gradually increased; the lamp is now intensely blue, and--there--it has gone in the same way exactly as the other one did. The way in which lamps burst is sometimes very beautiful; they disintegrate, they seem to volatilize, and the substance of the lamp is projected with great force against the side of the globe. On the table there are several beautiful specimens showing this effect.

The glow-lamp in process of manufacture before you is now being unsealed from the pump; it is now exhausted, and we will pass a current through it so as to raise it to incandescence. The current is now on, and you see the lamp burns with full brilliancy. The next experiment is rather a cruel one, because it is willful destruction. I will not destroy the lamp that has just been made before us, for I will keep it as a memento of this evening. I want to show the safety of the electric lamp. Many people imagine that there is a great deal of danger about it. I will take a handkerchief, and in it place a lighted lamp, when, on the globe being broken, the carbon filament instantly goes out, and there is no damage to the handkerchief, or the slightest appearance of scorching or heating upon it. On breaking that lamp you heard a report. That is due to the vacuum, which, on sudden rupture, the air rushes in to fill. These lamps will not only burn in air, but will actually burn in water. Here I have a lamp which on placing in a bowl of water continues alight in the water just as well as in the air. You can imagine what an immense boon that is to our divers and others who unfortunately have to work under water for our benefit.

I will not attempt to occupy your time in speaking of the beauties of this wonderful light, how it removes really poison from our air, how it is very good for sore eyes, because it burns with such steadiness that those who work under it really never find, in any shape or form, any inconvenience or discomfort to the eyes. It is extremely cleanly; it does not fill the air we breathe with noxious fumes. People are little aware of it, but it is a very simple calculation to show that thirty gas burners produce a gallon of water in an hour, so that if you have thirty burners in a shop, for instance, alight for six hours, six gallons of water are produced and the water can very often be seen running down the cold windows of shops. That water absorbs sulphur and sulphuric acid, and when deposited on books and decorations destroys them. If we could only get the electric light cheap, delivered at our doors, then everybody who has an idea of luxury and comfort would at once take it.

I want now to show you some of the dodges of the electric light. First I will show you that by the action of a cut-out an excess of current is prevented from injuring the lamps. A cut-out is inserted so as to protect a group of lamps here, and on a large current being sent you hear a crack, and the lamps have gone out; the safety fuse has perished in performing its duty. To prove this we will renew the cut-out, and on the proper current being turned on, you see the lamps are sound. Here is an electric cigar lighter. I raise this up and the wire in front of it comes to a state of incandescence, and I have there, as you see, sufficient heat to light my cigarette. Some years ago, I had my daughter's doll house, which was furnished by herself, fitted up with the electric light, and I thought that some of my younger hearers to-night, who were still in the doll age, would appreciate the way in which a doll's house can be lighted up by electricity. You now see the doll's house illuminated; it has a hall door lamp which lights up on the opening of the door; the house has rooms furnished, occupied with handsome dolls, and fitted with every kind of contrivance; the doll who occupies the drawing room has the convenience of a portable lamp, which she can move about wherever she likes, and each room and the kitchen has a particular form of lamp.

I have also here a model of that famous ship the Captain, which was wrecked off Cape Finisterre. The model has been fitted with electric light, and you now see the mast head-light, the red light for the port side, and the green light for the starboard side; there are high jinks going on in the saloon by the aid of the electric light, and there is also a search light which can be used for looking for the advance of the enemy. A beautiful phosphorescent effect is produced upon the water, which is covered with blue cotton wool, in which a lamp is placed, causing really a very pretty illustration of what the phosphorescence of the sea is like.

Here I have an apparatus for heating curling tongs by electricity; here is a flat iron treated in the same way, and here is a kettle in which the current is carried to boil water. I travel a good deal, and I always carry in my traveling bag a battery like this, which is one of Pitkin's secondary batteries; it is light and extremely convenient. I can strap it on my shoulder like an opera glass. To this is attached a reading lamp which I fix in my waistcoat, and to the astonishment of my fellow travelers, when the shades of evening are beginning to set, I take out the lamp and put it in operation--so. My reading lamp is thus provided, and it is fixed in the most convenient position, for the light falls just where it is wanted, it does not offend the eye, and enables me to read the smallest print. I have always got with me my own light, perhaps much to the annoyance of my fellow passengers, and with the electric light machinery at my own house, I have little or no trouble in recharging the battery, or keeping it in order. The Pitkin battery is also applied to a miner's lamp.

EFFECT OF CHLORINE ON THE ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE OF A VOLTAIC COUPLE.[6]

By D. G. GORE, F.R.S.

If the electro-motive force of a small voltaic couple of unamalgamated magnesium and platinum and distilled water is balanced through the coil of a moderately sensitive galvanometer of about 100 ohms resistance, by means of that of a small Daniells cell, plus that of a sufficient number of couples of iron and German silver of a suitable thermo-electric pile (see Proc. Birm. Phil. Soc., vol. iv., p. 130), the degree of potential being noted, and sufficiently minute quantities of very dilute chlorine water are then added in succession to the distilled water, the degree of electro-motive force of the couple is not affected until a certain definite proportion of chlorine has been added; the potential then suddenly commences to increase, and continues to do so with each further addition within a certain limit. Instead of making the experiment by adding chlorine water, it may be made by gradually diluting a very weak aqueous solution of chlorine.

[6] Read before the Royal Society, May 3, 1888.

The minimum proportion of chlorine necessary to cause this sudden change of electro-motive force is extremely small; in my experiments it has been one part in 17,000 million parts of water;[7] or less than 1/7000 part of that required to yield a barely perceptible opacity in ten times the bulk of a solution of sal-ammoniac by means of nitrate of silver. The quantity of liquid required for acting upon the couple is small, and it would be easy to detect the effect of the above proportion or of less than one ten-thousand millionth part of a grain of chlorine in one tenth of a cubic centimeter of distilled water by this process. The same kind of action occurs with other electrolytes, but requires larger proportions of dissolved substance.

[7] As one part of chlorine in 17,612 million parts of water had no visible effect, and one in 17,000 million had a distinct effect, the influence of the difference, or of one part in 500,000 millions, has been detected.

As the degree of sensitiveness of the method appears extreme, I add the following remarks: The original solution of washed chlorine in distilled water was prepared in a dark place by the usual method from hydrochloric acid and manganic oxide, and was kept in an opaque, well-stoppered bottle in the dark. The strength of this liquid was found by means of volumetric analysis with a standard solution of argentic nitrate in the usual manner. The accuracy of the silver solution being proved by means of a known weight of pure chloride of sodium. The chlorine liquid contained 2.3 milligrammes or 0.03565 grain of chlorine per cubic centimeter, and was just about three-fourths saturated.

One tenth of a cubic centimeter of this solution ("No. 1") or 0.003565 grain of chlorine was added to 9.9 c. c. of distilled water and mixed. One cubic centimeter of this second liquid ("No. 2"), or 0.0003565 grain of chlorine, was added to 99 c. c. of water and mixed; the resulting liquid ("No. 3") contained 0.000003565 grain of chlorine per cubic centim. To make the solutions ("No. 4") for exciting voltaic couple, successive portions of 1/10 or 1/20 c. c. of "No. 3" liquid were added to 900 cubic centimeters of distilled water and mixed.

I have employed the foregoing method for examining the states and degrees of combination of dissolved substances in electrolytes, and am also investigating its various relations.

THE WIMSHURST INFLUENCE MACHINE.

In our last number we gave illustrations of this machine, in which 12 plates 30 in. in diameter are used, and sparks nearly 14 in. in length are obtained. The engraving, from photographs, shows sparks 13-1/2 in. in length, obtained from this machine.

SANITATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

This subject was prominently considered by Dr. H. P. Walcott, of Boston, in his address on state medicine, at the meeting of the American Medical Association recently. The vital statistics of Massachusetts, he said, showed a declining death rate for the last thirty-six years, under the influence of state sanitation. The most marked decrease had been observed in the mortality from zymotic diseases; there had been a less decided reduction of that from constitutional diseases; that from local diseases had increased; and that from mental diseases and from violence had remained stationary. In 1876 there was not a single death from small-pox. Typhoid fever had diminished most in cities having a good system of sewerage and water supply, and least in towns without such improvements. Diphtheria, which reached its maximum in 1877, had since declined, until it now caused only one per cent. of the total mortality. Ovariotomy saved more lives than any other surgical operation, but, taking Somerville as a basis of calculation, the ascertained results of preventive medicine had saved more lives in ten years, among thirty thousand people, than ovariotomy would save in the same time among two millions. Great attention was given to small-pox, which had killed but 5,500 persons in Massachusetts in thirty-six years, and to cholera, which had destroyed only 2,000; but too little heed was given to scarlet fever, with its mortality of 37,000, and to typhoid fever, with its mortality of 45,000.--_N. Y. Med. Jour._

THE CARE OF THE EYES.[8]

By Prof. DAVID WEBSTER, M.D.

SPECTACLES.