Chapter XV: Fish and Amphibious Animals (2)

Fish spearing by the aid of fire has been practised in all parts of the world from the very earliest ages. Canoes or boats of light draught of water may be used. Pine knots, or any other resinous or fatty fuel, is usually made use of. A species of grate or fire pan is fixed so as to project beyond the bow, and the spearman stands ready with his weapon--such as is represented at Fig. 2, page 596--and strikes the fish when he sees him. Torches of reed or vegetable fibre bound together are often carried along the banks of rivers, or out on the wide sand shallows of certain seas, to effect the same object. Great numbers of turbot and small sturgeon are speared in this manner by the Tartars inhabiting the Russian shores of the Black Sea. Fig. 4, p. 604, is a set of grains for striking dolphins or small fish. The smaller pair of prongs screw on and off, or turn on a pivot, so that they can be laid flat with the others, and stow in less room. The line is made fast round the neck of the iron close by the barbs, and the end of the staff is heavily loaded with lead, so that when a fish is struck the weight turns up the points, and prevents any chance of its escape. Along the shallow beach of Walvisch Bay we used frequently to wade with a harpoon, striking sting-rays, flat sharks, fiddle or angel fish, or occasionally a more dainty sole in the shallow water; although not unfrequently sharks of larger size would cruise in our vicinity, and sometimes try to get between us and the shore. We found in striking the smaller fish that the great barb of the common harpoon would frequently either drive them out of its path with a superficial wound, or would cut through their sides without securing them; and we therefore took as a substitute a soft iron Kafir assegai, or spear (Fig. 5, p. 604), and, fitting it into a bamboo shaft, cut several barbs in each of its edges with a fine tenon saw, which caused it to hold all it penetrated.

The few Hottentots who maintain themselves in the vicinity of the bay do so partly by assisting in the fishery or in discharging the cargoes of vessels, and also in a great measure by spearing sand sharks and sting-rays in the shallows of the lagoon. For this purpose they use either sticks pointed and hardened in the fire, or the sharp straight horns of the gemsbok (_Oryx capensis_) set like a pike-head upon a stick; and, because they have to wade a great distance in the shallow waters, and it would be inconvenient to go ashore with every fish they kill, they set up a tripod of sticks near them, and on this they hang their prizes until they have accumulated enough to be worth carrying ashore to the women, whose task it is to clean and dry them for winter use.

The spear or javelin--launched from the hand, projected from a bow, dropped from a height overhead, or in some cases fired from a gun, and yet secured to a line--seems to be known in some form or other to most nations, whether civilised or barbarous.

The elaborate combinations of mechanical skill and scientific knowledge supplied to our whalers, and intended in some cases to be fired from swivels or shoulder guns, sometimes to destroy the creature in whose body they are buried by their explosive power, and sometimes to paralyse the vital energies by chemical compounds or by powerful poisons, are beyond the province of this work, and we shall take, therefore, as our type of this species of weapon the harpoon in its most simple and, as we believe, its most generally effective form, as used by whalers in every ocean that has yet been traversed. The weapon itself consists of two parts, the iron and the shaft, so fitted as to remain firmly united till the blow is struck, and then, when the strain comes upon the line, to separate from each other, so that there may be no danger of the barb being torn from its hold by the weight or leverage of the staff when violently swayed by the convulsive struggles of the whale.

The head of the harpoon is triangular, or perhaps more nearly heart-shaped, the point representing the apex, and the barbs the two sides of the base. Its size is about 3-1/2in. each way, or as large as the palm of a moderately-sized hand, and its thickness where it joins the shank nearly three-quarters of an inch, and from this it rounds off gradually, rather than tapers, to the edges. There are various opinions as to the metal of which it should be made; some prefer iron so soft that the back of a sailor's jack knife will scrape it to an edge, somewhat rough and anything but permanent, but yet sufficiently keen to cut through the skin and blubber into the flesh of the whale; others say soft steel which may be sharpened by a file; and some insist on having it edged with steel of the finest quality, and ground and set to as fine an edge as a razor. Each has its advantages. The fine keen edge of the last will be more certain to enter, and will pierce more deeply, but, if once blunted, it cannot be so readily sharpened by the simple appliances at the command of the sailor. Against this, however, it should be guarded by being kept in a leather sheath of such form that the edges cannot be blunted by contact with any portion of it, and at the same time cannot damage it by cutting the seams. It is well partially to fill this sheath with grease or tallow, in which the edge of the harpoon may be embedded, and so kept perfectly secure from rust.

Of the material of the shank there can be but one opinion. It should be of 1/2-inch iron of the best possible quality, smooth, even free from flaws, tough of fibre, and so pliable as to admit of being coiled round its own staff, uncoiled, and straightened again without breaking. It should be from 20in. to 2ft. in length, and should terminate in a conical socket to receive the shaft. The shaft should be of ash, hickory, or other strong and even-grained wood, 3in. in diameter, and generally about 5ft. long; though in one of full size it would be 6ft., and the iron part 3ft., making a total length of 9ft. A lanyard about 3ft. in length, and of 2-1/2in. rope, is attached to the shank by simply taking two turns of it tightly round the iron, and then returning and seizing the end down upon itself. The lanyard is "stopped" to the staff with spunyarn so tightly as to keep the point of the wood firmly pressed down into the iron socket under all ordinary circumstances, and in its farther end is spliced an eye, into which, when required for service, the line is hitched, the regular whale line being 2-1/2in. in circumference and 200 fathoms long; and when the whale is struck, and the line checked as the wounded animal darts away, the increased tension draws the staff from its socket, and it remains fast by the "stops" already mentioned to the lanyard, secure from being lost, and incapable by its leverage of loosening the hold of the barbed iron upon the flesh.

Many of the less frequented bays and harbours in our colonial possessions are frequented by whales and cetaceans of various kinds; and we have seen exciting chases even within the limits of the anchorage in Table Bay. The peculiar construction of the whale boat is well known. She is generally from 25ft. to 30ft. in length, 6ft. or 7ft. in breadth, and 2-1/2ft. or 3ft. deep, rising with a graceful sheer till the stem and stern would be from 4ft. to 5ft. high. She generally pulls five oars, the boat-steerer taking the bow, while the boat-header steers with a long oar or sweep, confined by a grummet to the stern-post. A tub, with the whale line coiled in it, is placed in the stern sheets; the harpoons, each properly sheathed, are hung in beckets in the bows, and near them are the lances. These are half-inch rods, 5ft. or 6ft. long, with one end flattened out to the shape and dimensions of the bowl of a large table-spoon, only that the narrow end is attached to the shank, while the broad one is forward, and is sharpened as the cutting edge. The other end of the iron has also a conical socket, in which a shaft of wood similar to that of the harpoon is fitted, making a weapon about 14ft. in length, to which is attached a lanyard of perhaps 20ft. to prevent its loss. The blades are also sheathed like those of the harpoons, not only to preserve their edge, but to prevent their accidentally cutting any of the crew; a broad-bladed knife is also kept handy in its sheath for the purpose of cutting the line should it be necessary.

Generally the whalers keep a man on watch upon some commanding height, or agree with the keeper of some signal station to hoist a private signal when a whale is in sight, and sometimes even to turn the advantage of his elevated position to account by signalising to the men in the boat the movements of the whale.

The end of the line is taken from its tub, led forward over the thwarts between the rowers, and bent on to the eye of the harpoon lanyard. As the boat approaches, the boat steerer lays in his oar and stands up, harpoon in hand, watching the most favourable moment to drive it with all his force, through skin and blubber, deep into the solid flesh, the boat sometimes actually touching the whale before the harpoon is launched. The oarsmen back the boat off as quickly as possible out of the reach of the sweeping tail, and the whale generally dives, then darts forward at full speed, sometimes below and sometimes at the surface of the water. The boat steerer now makes his way aft, and takes the steering oar, while the header goes forward and takes charge of the line. While the whale is strong it is allowed to run out, checked only by one turn round the bollard, while the boat is towed with almost alarming swiftness through the water; but as soon as he becomes weakened or slackens his speed another turn is taken, and the line checked as much as possible, or even hauled in, if it is safe to do so, water being freely used to keep the rope from burning when the line is running on the strain.

As soon as possible the boat is hauled close up to the whale, the long lances are thrust into his side, still further weakening him with wounds and loss of blood, until some vital organ is reached, and the condensed breath blown from his nostrils is crimsoned with his blood. Then the boat backs off till the death struggle is over, and the carcase of their mighty victim being taken in tow, is beached upon some convenient spot for cutting it up and trying down the blubber.

Of course the whale is towed head first, as in that position the involuntary action of the fins, moved by the ripple of the sea, helps the boatmen; while were they to attempt to tow him by the tail, the same action would not only neutralise all their efforts, but would most probably tow them in the opposite direction.

Few sailing vessels bound upon long voyages go to sea without a harpoon, a dolphin grains, and a shark hook; and the former is called into requisition whenever a shoal of porpoises are seen keeping way with the vessel, ever and anon letting her pass them, and then darting ahead to recover their position in advance. A rope, generally the end of the fore bowline, passing through its own block at the bowsprit end, is then bent on to the lanyard of the grains. One of the crew goes out on the martingale guys, and, having made a line fast about waist high to the martingale or dolphin striker, to give him a little additional support, stands watching the movement of the porpoises beneath. At length one comes directly under him, keeps the same course as the ship, and perhaps, for a moment, the same speed. He launches the grains, and, if his aim has been true, the porpoise is transfixed. The men at the inner part of the bowline haul on, and raise the victim clear of the water. The harpooner seizes the end of a rope previously laid near him, and passing it round the harpoon line quickly ties in it a running bowline knot. This he passes over the head of the porpoise, and tightens it at the juncture of the body with the tail; and not till then does he consider his prize secure. Of course in this case the sport, the trial of skill, the opportunity for displaying quickness of eye and skill in the management of the weapon, is the chief inducement; yet the capture is not without its value. The flesh of the warm-blooded porpoise is in reality fresh meat, and is sold as such among the lower classes in many foreign ports. Several gallons of oil may be obtained from one of moderate size, and the skin furnishes good tough leather for making thongs, or covering any portion of the rigging that needs serving with raw hide. Long narrow strips of the fish, when carefully cut out with a sharp knife, make a kind of porpoise biltong; this, when thoroughly aired by laying it in the sun, makes a fair kind of food. A kind of rissole is also made from the solid portions of the fish; these are cut into mincemeat, formed into balls of suitable size, and then fried. Steaks are also to be extemporised from the best cuts.

The hippopotamus harpoon of the Zambesi differs considerably from that just described. The iron is only 6in. or 8in. long, with a small barb at one end and a spike in the other, to stick loosely into a staff of light wood 2in. thick and about 5ft. long. The iron has a kind of knob or thickening in the centre to serve as a catch for the line, which is knotted round it. The line is about the thickness of a small lead line. It is very neatly and firmly twisted by hand from the fibres of plants and shrubs bordering the river, and is coiled tightly and evenly round the staff of the harpoon from end to end, so as to increase its thickness, and make it as large as can conveniently be grasped in the hand. The end of the line is securely stopped to the staff, which is secured from splitting by being bound round with small cord, with a kind of Turk's-head knot turned upon the end that receives the iron.

The hippopotami live in families or small herds of from half a dozen to twenty each, basking upon the sandbanks in the tropic sun, bathing in the depths and raising their clumsy-looking equine heads above the surface to look out, or taking nightly walks for miles into the country to crop the herbage of some favourite spot. Taking advantage of the prowling habits of the animal, the natives construct in his path or run, a harpoon trap or drop. The full-page illustration will serve to show the manner in which this contrivance is arranged. The instant the ground cord is detached from its hold by the advancing foot of the hippopotamus, the heavy beam holding the barbed iron drops with tremendous force, and fixes the spear-head deeply in the flesh beneath the tough skin of the victim, who rarely escapes with his life. A general hippopotamus hunt is not unfrequently undertaken, which is conducted as follows: The natives, having decided which herd they intend to attack, muster about half a dozen canoes, each carrying two men--a harpooner and a paddler; they close gradually and cautiously round the herd, and deliberately select their victim; closer and closer they draw in, till, as the semicircle of canoes narrows round them, the animals exhibit first curiosity and then alarm, and extreme caution is necessary to avoid so terrifying them as to make them break the line and take to flight instead of gazing at the advancing boats. When the animals dive, the canoes come on; when they rise or appear much alarmed, they stop, or approach but slowly. At length a fortunate harpooner finds himself near an animal; the hippopotamus dives, the canoe perhaps gains another length and is close upon him; when he again rises, the harpooner stands erect and next to naked, like a magnificent statue, in the bow, his upraised right hand grasping the harpoon, and his left a paddle, every muscle of his body as rigid and immovable as if he were in reality of bronze. The hippopotamus eyes him suspiciously; he seems to know that danger threatens him; but, like a cunning fencer, he waits the moment of the blow, and will not expose himself by prematurely attempting to avoid it. His instinct, however, is no match for the cunning of his enemies; the harpooner makes a feint of striking with the paddle; the animal starts aside to avoid the expected blow; and as he does so the hunter delivers the harpoon with all his force. The small barb penetrates the tough thick skin, and no power can draw it out again; the line uncoils; the light staff, sometimes even with a bladder attached, floats behind to mark his track; the wounded animal finds no rest; other harpoons are delivered; and as he becomes wearied with exertion, pain, terror, and irritation, opportunities are found to thrust at him with broad-bladed spears until he sinks beneath his wounds and dies.

The harpoon of Lake Ngami and the B[=o]-tlét-l[=e] River differs from that of the Zambesi, and more nearly resembles our own, except that, as iron is scarce and valuable, the head is still a mere spike, barbed at one end and pointed at the other, for insertion in a heavy beam of mimosa or kameel-doorn. The iron draws from the staff as soon as the barb pierces the thick hide, and the animal springs forward in its efforts to escape; but it is attached to the staff, not by a long line like the Zambesian, but by a short skein of twenty or thirty small cords of mimosa bark loosely twisted together, firmly seized or lashed to the iron at one end and to the staff at the other, and slightly stopped to it in the middle, still further to prevent any risk of fouling. The staff is of wood too heavy to float; a hole is bored in the upper end, and a short loop of strong rope woven or twisted into it, and to this loop is bent on the end of a stout rope of twisted palm leaves, which serves as the harpoon line, and is kept in the canoe, paid out or hauled in again like ours, and has beside the advantage of being so light that, even were the hunter to let go the end, it would float upon the surface, and eventually lead to the discovery of the animal. In consequence of this arrangement the chase of the hippopotamus nearly resembles that of the whale, differing chiefly in the fact that it is carried on in a freshwater river or a shallow lake, instead of the sea. When hippopotamus hunting on Lake Ngami the canoes approach with the same caution as those on the Zambesi, until the harpooner finds an opportunity to strike; then, when the wounded animal darts away, the canoe men hold on to the line, slacking it out when they are obliged, and gathering in as much as possible at every opportunity, and endeavouring to haul alongside as soon as they notice the first symptoms of fatigue, and use the formidable spear they carry for this especial service. This is, however, a task of difficulty and danger, for the irritated animal may turn and crush a tolerably large canoe in his tremendous jaws, and has been known, although not carnivorous, completely to sever the body of a man; more frequently, however, as the natives dexterously avoid his charge, he champs the staff of the harpoon, and endeavours to bite through the skein which connects it with the iron in his side. Were this a single rope he would soon liberate himself, but the small cords become entangled between his teeth, and, though he may cut through a few of them, others are sure to remain strong enough to hold him. Many canoes join in the chase, annoy him on every side, bewilder and weary him, and drive him at length into shallow water, where the hunters, carrying the line ashore, catch a turn round the nearest tree, yielding a little if his strength appears yet sufficient to tear out the barb, but always gathering it in as the assailants, some in canoes and others wading in the shallows, drive him nearer and nearer to the shore, inflicting wound after wound with their broad-bladed spears, till, spouting blood from his nostrils like a whale in its mortal agony, he ceases to resist, and becomes the prize of the hunters.

The carcase of an animal like this is indeed a valuable acquisition; the flesh of even a moderate-sized one is at least equal to that of three oxen, even after allowing for the wasteful manner in which wild flesh is generally consumed. His hide, 2in. in thickness on the neck and withers, is excellent as food, or profitable as an article of barter with the colonists, who make the great "agter zambocs," or whips for the after oxen of their waggon teams; while the tusks, which will frequently weigh 6lb. or 7lb. each, and sometimes more, are, or used recently to be, worth about 18s. per pound in London, though, since the introduction of mineral compositions for dental purposes, we believe the value of "Zeekoë" ivory has much declined.

The natives of Australia use spears of considerable length, varying from 10ft. to 12ft., and are also remarkable for the great distance to which they can throw them, attaining in some instances, we have been assured, to a distance of 270 yards, a range for which they are indebted to the use of the womera or throwing stick, an instrument that assumes different forms among various tribes, though its principle is the same in all. Those we had an opportunity of seeing in North Australia were rather narrow boards, 3in. wide, and little more than 1/2in. thick, so cut as to be conveniently grasped, and tapering from the handle till they were barely 3/4in. wide at the point, on which a little reverted piece of bone about the size of a cock's spur was affixed with gum and lashings of vegetable fibre, and the point of this just fitted a corresponding indentation in the end of the spear shaft.

The womera is about 30in. in length, and is held in the right hand, the forefinger of which sometimes grasps the spear also, to steady it until the moment before it is thrown, while the left hand supports the centre of the shaft, prevents the weight from depressing the point, and steadies and directs the aim.

The advantage gained by the use of the womera will be readily understood by anyone who will remember that the length of stroke is an important element in estimating the power of a steam engine. Suppose the length of a man's arm, from collar-bone to fist, to be 3ft., and the chord of the arc through which he is able to swing his body in the act of throwing 4ft., we shall have 10ft. as the length of his stroke; and if we add to this double the length of the womera, or 5ft., we shall find that he is able to apply propelling force to the weapon while it is passing through 15ft. of space, an advantage which naturally exhibits its corresponding effect in the increase of range. The spear point is generally charred to harden it.

The boomerang, a weapon whose apparently mysterious property of coming back to the hand that has thrown it, must be now much better understood in England than it was before the arrival of the Australian cricketers. It is a thin blade of wood, curved either sabre-like in the segment of a circle, or bent in the centre at an obtuse angle. But its peculiar property is that, owing to a slight twist or change in the plane of surface on either side the centre, it becomes in reality a segment of one turn in the flange of a screw of exceedingly small pitch, and if its length were indefinitely increased it would assume the form of the spiral springs used in candle lamps, or in the well known toy of Jack-in-the-box; and supposing a small segment of one turn cut from the wire of such a spring and flattened, without altering either its circumferential or its spiral curve, we should have an exact representation of the boomerang. Little more need be said of this weapon, as no one but a native could ever hope to use it effectively.

{Turtle spears.}

A very simple form of harpoon is used for spearing turtle by some Australians we fell in with near the Goulburu Islands. They had evidently been alongside European ships, and it was probably from this source that they had acquired the essential part of their harpoon--an iron spike about 6in. long, and pointed at both ends. To this was fastened a small line, which was also stopped to the staff--a light pole about 8ft. long--the remainder of the line being held loosely coiled in the hand. Sometimes the Australians use their paddle as a spear by having the blade end sharpened, barbed, and hardened.