Chapter XVIII: Palanquins, Stretchers, Ambulances, Etc (2)

With native servants, very much must depend upon the custom of the country in which they are hired. Among some of the superior tribes, if men are well chosen, they may be left to perform their own duty in their own way; an occasional expression of approval from the master, and half an hour's chat with them now and then, to show that, though he trusts them, he is not careless of his own interests nor unmindful of theirs, being nearly all that is required; while the power of withholding a good character or making a deduction from their pay at the end of the journey is enough to restrain any irregularity they might be tempted to. Sometimes they may be hired from the chiefs, who then transfers to the master, for the time being, his authority over them, and looks to him for the safe return of his men at the end of the stipulated time. In this case the traveller becomes _pro tempore_ their chief, and may exercise his power in summary punishment of a culprit, or may reserve his right to appeal to the actual chief on his return. In other cases, as with Lascars or other natives of India, a gang may be hired with their own Serang, or Tindal, to whom all orders respecting them should be given, and from whom they will submit to any amount of punishment, though they would resent it as an insult, only to be atoned with blood, if inflicted by a white man. The Kroomen of the coast near Sierra Leone, who are usually employed on board our men-of-war, are generally engaged in this manner. We had twelve on the Zambesi expedition, under a very fine head man, called Tom Jumbo.

When our little steamer, the _Ma Robert_ (which, if not the best constructed, was certainly the best abused little vessel afloat) was put together on the Zambesi, Mr. Rae, the engineer, took some trouble to train Tom Coffee (a Krooman) to act as stoker and general assistant. Tom had, however, a will of his own; and, proving refractory, was brought before Dr. Livingstone, who, from motives of humanity, instead of ordering him corporal punishment, put him off duty and stopped his pay. The Kroomen gathered in serious consultation over the sentence, and at length deputed Jumbo to appeal against it: "The Kroomen," said he, "do not understand being put off duty; they come to work, and they must work. I will see to that, and they will expect their pay when this voyage is done. If they are insolent or lazy, or deserve punishment, tell me of it, and I will flog them; they 'savey' that, but they do not 'savey' stoppage of their pay." Mr. Rae also felt the sentence press rather heavily upon him. None of the other men were fit, without fresh instruction, to take Tom's place; and as the duties of chief engineer, with those of stoker and assistant, were rather too onerous for one individual, he was fain to join in the request that Coffee should be set to work again.

In some places it is almost impossible to avoid the employment of slave labour in some form or other; for even though the master do not, as of course no Englishman with proper feeling will, retain a man in compulsory bondage, or sell him for profit when his term of servitude is expired, it is in some countries impossible to hire a free labourer; and to give a man his liberty immediately after he has been purchased from his chief, or master, would only deprive the hirer or purchaser of all benefit during the expected period of service. This is particularly the case in some of the countries bordering upon the upper branches of the Nile. A well-known traveller in that region was once taxed with slave trading; he indignantly denied the charge. He had bought men of their chief, as everyone who required servants was obliged to do; but he challenged proof that he had ever detained one in bondage or sold him again when his service was completed.

An English military officer, in the same dilemma, bought men; he was a kind master, he found them good servants, and when he required them no longer he made them presents and set them free. A sudden cloud darkened every brow. Had they not served him well? What fault had they committed that he should now discard them, and turn them adrift, without providing them another master?

We once met in Dielli, the capital of the Portuguese settlement in the island of Timor, an English captain who, moved by compassion at the miserable condition of some prisoners in the hands of Malay pirates, yielded to their entreaties, and purchased some of them; and on arrival at the first British port he went ashore to consult the magistrate as to the proper manner of giving them their liberty. "You cannot give them their liberty," said he, "they are free already; and, though you have acted from motives of humanity, you had better let them go as quietly as possible, for not only is your purchase of no effect, but you have brought yourself into some danger by making it."

In South Africa the English travellers, or traders, very properly refuse to have anything to do with the purchase of slaves, though men and boys will come to them desiring to be bought. A friend of ours had an offer of this kind made while we were together; but though it would have been very advantageous to have a couple of lads who, in a short time, would have been well qualified to act as interpreters, he declined the offer.

On a previous occasion, however, when a boy had begged hard that he would buy him he refused, but told the lad to go and make the best bargain he could for his own liberty; the price was handed over to him, he ransomed himself, and joyfully returned to enter the service of his new master.

Frequently a white man picks up some miserable, neglected child, lets it sit by his fire, and huddle among his servants, getting a share of their food; and if he be, as he ought, a kind-hearted fellow, an occasional pat upon the woolly head and a tit bit from himself. When its condition is improved, he perhaps sets it to some trifling work; but no sooner is it supposed to have become useful than down come the parents or brothers, or some impostors who represent themselves as such, and threaten to take the child away unless they are properly paid for allowing him to keep it.

In Damara land especially such cases were common; and we became quite accustomed to hear the native servant girls telling each other, as a matter of very little importance, that such a one had "thrown her child into the fire that morning." Not that the statement was to be taken literally; but rather that the mother had just abandoned it, and the poor creature had crawled towards the fire for warmth, and so scorched itself.

There were also some natives who had a great facility for establishing a relationship with these unfortunates; and two or three had gained quite a reputation for their skill in discovering some genealogical affinity with anyone that had become the pet of a European supposed to be able to afford to pay for the luxury of keeping it.

In the Portuguese settlements on the Lower Zambesi a modified form of slavery exists, totally distinct from, and unconnected with, the slave trade, and rendered much more endurable by the fact that the slaves, or, more properly, serfs or bondsmen, are subjects of the Crown, and may not be removed from the colony, an ordinance, however, respecting which something may be said on both sides; for, if it prevents subjects being sold as slaves into foreign bondage, it is sometimes assigned as a reason for not legally marrying a native woman; that if a man were to do so, he could not take her from the country, and, not being allowed to leave her, would thus pass upon himself a sentence of confinement there for life.

With regard to the question of servitude under the Crown, the position of a slave seems to be that he cannot change his master, and his master cannot discharge or sell him, except under certain restrictions.

During the Livingstone expedition we were frequently served by slaves lent or hired to us by their masters. One of these, Katura, lent us by Major Sicard, the commandant, who always addressed him as Vossa Merc[=e]e, or Mister, acted as our house steward, and had under him Jos[=e], the _cuisinier_, who became highly indignant if any of us razeed his many-syllabled title into "cook." Katura had a position to maintain, and he understood it; he was not only a steward, but a plucky little fellow, and the first dead man we sketched there (whose corpse will be seen in the picture of Mazaro Mutu, in Dr. Livingstone's second book) was one of his shooting. Although a slave he had rights of his own, and was well aware of them. Sometimes he would bring us a few eggs, and when we offered to pay for them proudly remarked that the "ova katura" were not for sale, but he had no objection to accept a present; neither would he agree to put a price on any service we asked him to do for us; we made him a present of navy serge--enough to make a "frock" of. Next morning he told us that his master wanted it, and asked us how much calico he should demand in return. We told him three yards for one of the serge; the major demurred to this, and Katura refused him the serge, and after a month or six weeks made the bargain on his own terms, and asked us for a foot rule that he might measure the calico he had received. "A queer sort of slavery this!" said a Yankee friend, to whom we afterwards related the circumstance.

The following valuable hints on travel were communicated by Captain Stuart, the Australian explorer, to Mr. A. Gregory, on his taking command of the expedition before referred to in this work, and in which we took part. In order to render the directions as concise as possible, we have, in repeating them, avoided the repetition of the leader's name, &c. In other respects we give the directions, words of advice, and hints, in Captain Stuart's own words. In communicating them, he says:--

"Mr. Augustus Gregory, not being a military man, and not, perhaps, having acquired the habits of caution peculiar to that service, I venture to put together a few hints for his consideration, which I would fain hope may be of use to him, and for offering which my past experience in the field of discovery, and my anxious desire to promote the success of the undertaking in which he is embarked, must be my apology.

"I would recommend the leader to come to a strict understanding with his men before he engages them to conform to the terms of the agreement I have drawn up, and which is a copy of that which I made the men sign who accompanied me on my central expedition. It is the only means, when at a distance from home, to keep the men in order and subjection. I found it most efficacious on one occasion; when, one of the men having misconducted himself, I struck his name off the pay list, reduced his supply of provisions, and only reinstated him at the earnest solicitation of his comrades and on their guarantee that he should not offend again.

"The commanding officer should have his camp always compact. His sheep in the centre of it, and the drays flanking the sheepfold with the tents at the angles. I would caution him never to be without a guard. Let him give his men to understand that he will never dispense with the guard. I never did but on one occasion, which might well have been excused, and on that one occasion I was robbed. Mr. Gregory may rest assured that his safety at all times, whether in the presence of natives or not, depends on this necessary vigilance.

"I have been peculiarly fortunate in my intercourse with the natives. I believe the reason of this is that I have always put myself in their position, and deemed the alarm and vehemence they have exhibited at the approach of men and beasts they had never seen before as only natural. Instead of approaching nearer, I have given them time to recover from their amazement before I have separated myself from my men, and walked singly and unarmed towards them, and sat quietly down on the ground, until they had lowered their spears and appeared pacified. One of the natives is sure to advance and sit down as I had done, and so, by gradual approaches, we at length sat down side by side. But it is long before the native raises his eyes to look at you. I have always respected their customs in this respect, and am happy to say that I never failed. Treat the natives kindly, and they will so treat you. On no account did I allow my men to have any intercourse either with the men or women. This I interdicted under the severest penalties. The leader should not remain too long in one spot. He will understand that familiarity subdues fear.

"I would recommend him to have a respectable and responsible storekeeper, who should have a tent with the overseer of stock. The provision should be weighed out weekly to the men, and stock taken once a month, and a return of what has been issued and what remains given by the storekeeper to him. Such regularity inspires confidence.

"If the commander should follow a river into the desert, he will most probably find it assume a chain of ponds, and ultimately disappear in a vast plain. I would beg of him in such case not to move on his party until he has ascertained that there is water in front of him. He can have no idea how soon he can place himself in jeopardy.

"I know not that I can give Mr. Gregory any further friendly hint. Doubtless he is experienced in all the arrangements of an expedition, and he may be assured he has my best prayers for his success.

"The following general rules for the treatment of Indians, given by Dr. Brown, may also be useful in reference to other tribes, though a traveller's behaviour to a barbarous or savage people must, to a great extent, depend on circumstances--his position in the tribe and the customs of the nation, which ought never to be wantonly outraged. These rules were partially drawn up for me at an early date of my residence among the North-West American Indians by a gentleman whom to mention would be to name, perhaps, the most celebrated of all the _eeries_ of the fur trade. I afterwards added and amended them by my own experience.

1. Never pass an Indian village in the night if you suspect any
mischief. They will be sure to find you out, and then, like all
bullies, seeing that you are afraid of them, will act upon that
knowledge.

2. If you suspect mischief, camp outside at a distance, and pass in
daylight; you can then see better what you are about.

3. If you come to a village where you think there is likely to be an
attack made on you, go into the chief's lodge, and, if possible, into
one where there are a number of women and children. If their sense of
hospitality does not prevent them from molesting you, they know that
when white men are attacked bullets fly about, and some may strike
the women and children. It is an axiom that no man likes to put his
head down a gun-barrel.

4. Trust to an Indian's _honour_, and you are tolerably safe--you
and your goods; but not to his _honesty_, for he will steal the ears
off your head, unless you are very skilful in making a _cache_. If
in a neighbourhood where there are Indians, you had far better leave
your goods in their charge until you come back; you will generally
find them safe; but if they find your _cache_--their honesty being
doubted, and having no honourable scruples--they will be sure to
clean it out.

5. Never appear to be afraid of them.

6. Never give them one cent less or one cent more than you bargained
for--_as a right_. If you do, they will think it only yielding to
them, and then imagine you have cheated them at first. You may give
a small present if you like. It is a custom the Hudson's Bay Company
have introduced of giving after a trade has been completed a small
"potlatch," or gift, of their free accord, according to the value of
the goods traded. Those Indians who have traded with the Hudson's Bay
Company expect it.

7. In making presents, take into consideration their wants; only make
presents where you may expect a return; they do that with you; and
goodness of heart is only thrown away. Never calculate on this last
weakness.

8. In making presents for conciliatory purposes, always make them
to the head people; never mind the smaller tribes' men. Be sure,
however, that it _is_ the chief you are making presents to, and not
some forward and impudent fellow, who is usually the first to accost
you at the outskirts of a village. The chief generally retires on his
dignity, and wants to be sought out. Secure the head man's regard,
and you need not mind the favour of the smaller ones; but even if you
had abundance of goods to distribute, you would be sure to create
red blood and heart burnings by one man's present being better than
another, or supposed to be, &c.

9. I have generally adopted the practice, when I had not much to
give, of giving it to the children. If you win the children, you win
the mother, and of course the father. A little present goes a long
way with the children. If you give it to the mother, you often excite
the father's jealousy, and frustrate your purpose. Always remember,
in addition, that a savage values a man's generosity, &c., according
to the size of his presents, and act accordingly.

10. Never allow the natives to eat with you as your equal. As a rule,
play the great man with them.

11. If a savage is travelling with you, give him food whenever he
wants it. Food given when he wishes it is of ten times more value
than when he gets it when he does not need it, or is not hungry.
Consult his wishes in this respect.

12. Never attempt to gain anything by force; always by persuasion,
argument, and _presents_.

13. Notwithstanding all you will be told about the value of a medical
knowledge in travelling among savages, I have generally found it of
very little benefit, and frequently, when put in practice, of real
detriment. An Indian will never come to you unless when at death's
door and he has lost confidence in his own sorcerers. You may give
him some medicine, and perhaps in nine cases out of ten the patient
dies, as he would have done anyhow. Their professional jealousy is
raised, and you are accused by the "medicine men" of killing the
person; and the worst of the matter is, it is often believed by the
credulous people. If the man recovers, it is rarely that you get the
credit of it. It is the medicine men who have done it. With surgery
it is somewhat different. If the operation is one not involving any
very serious consequences if unsuccessful, by all means perform it.
They then _see_ the working of your superior knowledge before their
eyes.

14. Be just and firm, patient and equanimous with them. Display no
anger or violent and passionate gestures, and never be very prone to
notice insults.

15. Never say you will do a thing and not do it. Never threaten to do
anything unless you intend to do it.

16. No people notice the weakness and moral shortcomings of a man
quicker than savages; therefore beware, especially _in re foeminâ_.

17. Try by all means to learn the customs and social etiquette of the
people; for nothing raises you more in their estimation than this
knowledge, or enables you to see when you are slighted.

18. If you are attacked, and at the _last extremity_ have to fire,
take to the bush. An Indian does not like to venture in. He knows
there is a man there and a gun, and that somebody may be shot, and
that somebody may be himself.

19. If you have a watch at night, never stand near the fire; for then
you are only giving the man a chance to fire at you.

20. Always, and above everything, remember that the hearts of all
mankind are the same, and that all the difference between one and
another is merely the overlay caused by etiquette, custom, and
education; at heart they are the same.

"There are many arts which might be mentioned as useful in treating with Indians; but, as these depend upon a knowledge of the particular tribal customs, these _general_ rules must suffice."