Chapter VII: Part 7

The Barons, as may be supposed, exercised unlimited power within their domains, as the Sovereign never interposed in questions between the Lord and his vassals, so long as the chief rendered the services required by the Crown. Hence the power of each Baron was absolute within his dominions; and from his acts there was no appeal, much less redress. He even affected Royalty by obliging his principal vassals to give attendance upon him, in like manner as he and the other Barons paid court to the King, and by establishing Courts and Judges of his own to administer justice to his vassals. In short, every Barony was a miniature Kingdom, with an army of retainers, a train of officials, and other insignia of State grandeur corresponding with the wealth and power of the chief. To maintain this condition, the Baron was under the necessity of raising a large revenue from his Barony; and as a great display of power was essential for the chief, his exactions from the vassals and all within his power were consequently heavy. This revenue was obtained from heriots, fines, and tolls; which being arbitrary, the amount depended on the want which called it forth, or on the conscience of the chief. A heriot of the best horse, or certain head of cattle, or a fine of so many marks, were payable to the Baron on the marriage or death of his vassal, and on each fresh succession to the fief. These exactions were not confined to the immediate vassals and villains, but extended to the whole population within the limits of the Barony. The towns were in this era small, consisting principally of villages, which, as they were situate within some Barony, were equally subjected to fiscal burdens. These, in addition to heavy fines demanded for any building, liberty, or encroachment on the manor, consisted of tolls and duties imposed on the exportation or importation of goods, and on the sale of horses, cattle, or stock which, to increase the revenue, were prohibited being sold outside the vills, or except in the fairs and markets there licensed to be held, whereupon the tolls attached. By this means the Baron raised a considerable revenue to support his power and state. But as the Baron was more hostile to the trading community or the population of towns, than to his own military vassals and tenants on the soil, as being less serviceable to his warlike power, and more antagonistic to, and discontented with his seignioral privileges,--he imposed on the former heavier fiscal burdens, and spared no opportunity of oppressing them with the most odious extortions. The military and mercantile spirits have always been antagonistic and hostile, and the germs of that great conflict which has since existed, and in recent times been so grandly developed between the two elements, are plainly discernible in this era--the cradle of its history.

But as the boroughs increased, the towns multiplied, and commerce extended, an antagonistic principle or element to the powers and privileges of the feudal nobility grew up. The reigning power having so much cause for dread of the Barons, was desirous of conciliating the burgher nobility, or the population of towns, and from time to time made large concessions or grants in their favor. This was done as much to foster a rival power or influence to the feudal nobility, as to win over the towns to the interest of the King. These grants consisted in charters of incorporation, that the towns might be freed from the rule of the landed nobility, and might accomplish their own government; and grants of fairs, and markets, and tolls, as well as the rights of representation in parliament. Thus in times past the Kings of Britain were often in friendlier alliance with the towns and burgher nobility, than with the feudal Barons and landed aristocracy. By this means the power and privileges of the feudal nobility, which up to the fifteenth century were nearly absolute and uncontrollable, were much reduced, and are in the present reign nearly taken away. This result has been owing almost entirely to the growing importance, influence, and intelligence of the burgher or trading population. It is thus that in political society as in nature and the material world, results are accomplished by the antagonistic operation and conflict of rival or opposing principles, elements, or influences.

The other great influence which counteracted the feudal spirit from an earlier period, and mitigated its severities, was religion, or the Church. This was natural and inevitable; for the overwhelming influence of religion over the human mind in all ages and nations is the universal deduction of history. It appears to strike its root even the deeper, in proportion to the strength and ruggedness of the mind on which it operates, as plants are more luxuriant from the rankness of the soil where they grow. The fulminations of Sinai or the dulcet harps of Zion have seldom failed in moving the heart of man, and exciting its tenderest and best emotions. We find this verified even in the darkest times, and among the most ferocious nations. Clovis, Charlemange, and William of Normandy are magnificent illustrations. The first, from being one of the most ruthless and savage warriors and conquerors at the head of the Franks ever known in history, no sooner heard the preaching of the Gospel through the instrumentality of his wife Clotilda, than he immediately embraced its truths, and by the most abject humility and self-denying sacrifices for the remainder of his life endeavored to atone for his past cruelties. His great successor, Charlemange, less barbarous and with higher capabilities, at the head of his Germans vanquished continental Europe after innumerable and ferocious wars; yet succumbed his lofty spirit to the influence of Christianity, and prepared by his sword a way for its missionaries. We also find that William the Conqueror, by the deepest penitence and remorse, and by large munificence to the Church, sought to make recompense for the cruelties and excesses of his reign.

It was therefore inevitable that in the middle ages the influence of the Church should operate on the feudal Barons, and soften the rigors of their power. In the vicinity of the Baronial castle arose a village, whose inhabitants were generally dependent on the Lord. In the village sprung up a church and a pastor. The village Priest generally ministered to the inmates of the castle, as well as to the inhabitants of the hamlet; and as learning, or even the rudiments of scholarship, were then confined to the clergy, the religious minister was also the secretary, teacher, and counsellor of the Baronial family. He thus acquired influence and mastery over the youth and age of the circle, and seldom failed to seize the advantage in imbuing them with his benign creed. Hence the contrast presented in those ages between the chieftain in the camp and field, where he was all vigor and ferocity, and in his own hall, where he displayed many virtues of the Christian life. Hence also the generally milder character of the heir apparent and future wielder of the Baronial power, than of the sire. To this source we may also in a great measure ascribe the diminishing severity of each succeeding Baron, and the much more humane and improved conduct and manners of the late than early chieftains.

But this is regarding religion in its private and spontaneous, yet in its best influence, in subduing the rigors of the feudal chiefs. It had a separate, more worldly, but yet powerful influence in the Church. Constantine the Great made the Church (which was previously a voluntary and spontaneous association of Christian people) a national and compulsory institution, and a fundamental part of the imperial fabric: he added it to the Roman Empire; succeeding Emperors maintained it; and it became a preponderating influence in the State. It was feared that after the irruption of the Barbarians and their conquest of the Empire, although private belief and individual creeds might remain and be preserved, yet the Church as a political element and fabric would inevitably fall and perish in the imperial ruin. But in this the anticipations of men failed; for we find that the Goths, Vandals, and Scythians were equally susceptible of the influence of the religion of Christ, which many of them and especially their chieftains embraced, and often aided its progress with the sword. We also find that as soon as the barbarian conquest of Rome settled into distinct nationalities and governments, the powers followed the example of the great Constantine, and added religion to the State, and constituted the Church a political fabric. In this manner, before and at the commencement of the middle ages, every European state had its National Church. This polity existed equally in Britain, where the Church became a rich and powerful corporation, often rivalling and occasionally transcending the feudal Barons in wealth, dignities, and influence. The Prelates of the Church were by law Barons of the realm. Anselm, in the reigns of William Rufus and the first Henry,--Thomas a Becket, in that of the second,--both Archbishops of Canterbury, and Cardinal Wolsey, in the reign of Henry the Eighth, are illustrations of the great wealth, power, and dignity which the ecclesiastical hierarchy from time to time enjoyed in this country.

The extensive wealth and influence of the Church excited the jealousy and enmity of the feudal Barons, between whom were continual disputes, which sometimes led to violence and war. In their progress we find the Bishops and dignitaries of the Church occasionally substitute the mitre by the helmet, and the crosier for the sword, and rivalling the feudal chieftains in their military exploits. We also find the Church generally allied with Royalty or the sovereign power in their differences with the feudal Barons; but occasionally with the latter in curbing the royal prerogative and power. The Church generally cast its influence into the scale of either power which might happen to be weakest, and for the purpose of counterbalancing the opposite power from which there was greatest apprehension and dread of usurpation and wrong. The ecclesiastical influence and power were also much courted and cherished in general by the Kings and Queens of Britain, as a support to themselves, and a restraint on the feudal chiefs; and they often, when practicable, seized opportunities of enriching the ecclesiastical order, and adding to their power. The Church also sometimes lent its aid and influence to the popular triumph and cause. It is, therefore, evident that the feudal system met with much antagonism and counteraction from the Church, and that its rigors were much diminished in consequence. The beneficial effects which followed were not always owing to the purest motives, or the benevolence of the Church; but more frequently from the desire of maintaining its own privileges and wealth. But the results to the nation and its liberties were the same as if the ecclesiastical hierarchy had been actuated by higher motives and a purer spirit; and the well-being of the community, was equally promoted.

The Church and the boroughs, in conjunction with the royal power, therefore served to subdue the feudal spirit, and restrain and diminish the powers and privileges of its chiefs.

The effects of the Commonwealth under Cromwell must also have struck fatally at the rigors of the feudal system, in common with many other oppressions, from which they never revived. The spirit of the Commonwealth was deeply hostile to all kinds of ancient tyrrany; and as the feudal law was one of the greatest, it received a serious check. The genius of Puritanism rebelled against the feudal distinctions, as the spirit of liberty which was then triumphant overcame its oppressions. The Baron could no longer at the sound of his horn assemble his ferocious retinue of vassals and retainers, to march to the conquest of political foes, or the suppression of uprising liberty. The Knight could no more ride abroad in his panoply of steel, feared and unopposed by a rabble of villeins and serfs. The spirit of the nation was aroused to its inmost depths in the great struggle for emancipation, and statesmen and warriors arose from its lowest estates. The popular Fairfax overcame the princely Rupert; while the great Commoner--Cromwell--overthrew Royalty itself. Chivalry had to surrender its crest at Newbury, Marston Moor, and Naseby, to popular bravery and religious zeal. The ancient order of things was entirely changed, and new institutions everywhere took its place, founded on the democratic power. Brewers and butchers now occupied the seats in the Senate formerly held by Barons and Knights; while Fleetwood and Harrison commanded the army of Manchester and Essex. No greater contrast existed than that of the Puritan captain with his skull cap, buff coat, and leather buskins, and the Cavalier with plumed hat, velvet cloak, and silk hose. Not more opposite were they in character than attire: the former a grave, stern, austere, gloomy, and religious democrat; the latter a gay, lively, free-thinking, licentious, and haughty aristocrat: the first was the impersonation of religious faith and prowess; the last of feudal pride. It was therefore inevitable, that in the course of that great struggle between the two elements which ended in the triumph of the popular cause and the establishment of the Commonwealth, feudal arrogance and oppression received a fatal shock.

The leading principle or idea embodied in the feudal system was that of a head, or chief, with dependence by the vassals and retainers. The same principle pervades our laws and institutions, and is in a great measure the fruit or effect of the feudal polity. Among other instances of its operation we may mention the law of primogeniture, the object being to create a family chief. The property qualifications necessary for parliamentary rights and representation, for the magistracy, and other stations of power and dignity, are illustrations of the same effect. The Peers sit and vote in the Upper House of Parliament as Barons of the Realm; while the Members for counties in the other House are returned as Knights of the Shire; and the Judges of the land are designated Barons of the Exchequer, or Knights' Justices; and the parliamentary Members for boroughs are styled Burgesses,--thus still retaining their feudal distinctions. The preponderance everywhere given to property in land, over wealth in money, trade, or other moveable goods, is a result of the same policy. Indeed it may be said, that the leading principles which govern property in this Kingdom, have their main origin and foundation in the feudal system; although the legislation of the last half century has done much to abolish the enormities with which it was theretofore disfigured.

But it may be asked, what were the effects of the system which we have briefly sketched? Were they good or evil? Did they advance or retard human society and civilization? These are difficult and important questions, in the solution of which probably few will entirely agree.

That the feudal state was rendered necessary by the circumstances of the period, we have, we think, sufficiently shown. That its influence has been in some respects beneficial is also incontestible. The predominant feature of the feudal dominion was force--physical force; and this was the only one suited and practicable for the barbarian population of Europe in the middle centuries. Reason and right were terms unknown and foreign to the masses then emerging from uncivilized life. Force was their own law, and by this must they themselves have been ruled. The Baron or Lord, in enforcing the severities of the feudal code, therefore instructed his vassals in a vocabulary which they understood; he governed them by the only suitable rod. To have addressed them as citizens, and moral and accountable beings, and to have explained to them their duties and rights from a description of the nature, condition, and destinies of man, would have been to have spoken to them in an unknown tongue--in a language they could not have understood.

Moreover the very relation in which the vassals stood to their Lord, and the services and duties which they were compelled to perform, taught them obedience--trained them to docility and submission. It induced them to reflect on others than themselves,--to regard the wants and rights of others beside their own. This was a great point gained in subduing and training the barbarian just leaving his roving life in the forest or on the mountain. This was a step to further improvement, and to a milder and more rational rule; by this he was trained for a gentler government, and better laws.

The feudal institutions gave birth to chivalry, which exercised so predominant a sway through the middle ages, and in what light soever it is regarded, was beneficial in its influences. It conjures up to our mind the brilliant scenes and magnificent achievements of the period, whether viewed in the enchanting pages of romance, or the more sober records of history. It brings before our minds the mail-clad warrior dispensing refined hospitality in his armor-hung hall, to a princely retinue of retainers and guests, or mounted on his fiery steed, pressing forward to the mortal encounters of honor. The Knight is equally interesting, whether we look at him armed to avenge in single combat the maiden's dishonor or orphan's wrong, or we follow him into the stately tournament, there to encounter in the perilous and sometimes fatal lists. In either case we see displayed the highest qualities of man--courage, honor, dignity, fidelity, skill, and manly strength. We find the same characteristics accompany him into the tented field, where amidst hills of carnage, and at the close of a doubtful day, the bleeding knight contends bravely under the shadow of the red-cross banner. The crusades were a magnificent effect of the religious aspiration of chivalry, whatsoever opinion may now be formed of the policy of those great contests. No sight more glorious can be imagined than the chivalry of the West marching triumphantly through the heart of Europe to avenge the wrongs and indignities of the Cross upon the Infidel, and contend against four-fold odds under the walls of Antioch and Jerusalem, to recover the Holy Sepulchre from the pollution of Moslem hands. Whatsoever opinion the sober philosophy of history may now pronounce on these great wars, they were dictated by the highest aspirations, and ennobled by the most heroic actions, and they stand out nobly on the headlands of the past as monuments of human grandeur.

Although we have only viewed the institution of chivalry in its outward and more attractive aspects, yet it inculcated a high code of personal morality, very beneficial in the feudal ages. In this era the law was feeble, and its administration so often fruitless, that the greatest restraint on power, and the best security for the rights of individuals, and more especially of the weak, was personal honor; and this in its highest sense was generally characteristic of the barons and knights. They as frequently armed to redress the wrongs of the weak as to avenge their own personal injuries. The maiden's wail, the orphan's cry, were to them the most potent spring of action for the most fatal rencontres. The faithless knight who might happen to injure virgin purity, or oppress unarmed and defenceless people, roused the resentment of the whole order of chivalry, and was pursued from castle to cloister, and from land to land, till his blood atoned for his lust or cruelty. Chivalry inculcated upon its members the highest honor, fidelity, truth, and justice; and in the absence of strong public law, administered equally with a powerful and impartial hand, formed the best code of law and morals in the feudal times. We find examples of faithless barons and recreant knights, as there are exceptions to every rule, and blots upon every picture; yet in the main the very code in which they were instructed, and the habits which they acquired had a most beneficial influence in the formation of their characters, and furnished many illustrious examples of human virtue, and public renown.

The feudal system was, moreover, fertile of the military spirit, and this in its fullest vigor was necessary for the defence of the nation, as well as of individuals, in the dark ages. The feudal polity was first established by the sagacious Conqueror, as a military structure to overawe the vanquished Saxon; and though its rigor became relaxed in after reigns, yet its very existence rested on military organization, and the education of the soldier was its chief aim; the cultivation of the soil and the pursuits of commerce, being regarded as secondary and inferior occupations, and were treated with disdain by the feudal chiefs. Hence the universal predominance of military power and rank in the middle ages, and their monopoly of distinction and wealth. Hence also the paucity of mercantile greatness in those times.

As the martial discipline and organization of his retainers and vassals was necessary to the supremacy of the Baron, so the co-operative forces of the Barons were necessary for the maintenance of the throne, and the safety of the kingdom. The former was in continual peril from domestic ambition and discord, and the latter from foreign foes. A Montfort and a Neville, a Percy and a Douglas, were only restrained from subverting the royal power, and grasping the sceptre in their own hands, by the support given by the other Barons to the sovereign,--evinced on many a well-fought field. The invasion of the kingdom by continental armies, was only prevented by the confederate array of the King and his Barons.

In the absence of that division of employment which in modern times produced a standing army, the feudal organization with its martial aspect alone supplied the nation with its defence. No sooner did the Frank or Northman display his banner on the wave, for the conquest of Britain, than hill signalled hill, from Devon to the Orkneys, to summon the united Barons to the defence of the realm. With such alacrity was the alarm obeyed, that before a hostile flag could be planted on the headlands of the island, the enemy was driven into the sea, or to the refuge of his ships; leaving full many behind to attest the folly of the expedition. Not less ready were the feudal chiefs to follow the British ensign into foreign wars, there to sustain the glory of its fame. Poietiers and Azincour, Steinkirk and Landen, Ramilies and Blenheim, witnessed the heroic prowess of English chivalry on their hard-fought fields, while the terrible charge of the British infantry passed into the proverbs of those lands. From this system sprang an Essex and a Raleigh, a Chandos and a Churchill, with other great captains of the British hosts, who, by the military organization and discipline which it afforded to the nation, were enabled during the reigns of the Plantagenets, the Tudors, and the Stuarts to preserve our soil inviolate from a foreign foe, and to force entire Europe into respect and homage of the British name.

It is also true that the Baron, his family, domestics, and retainers, were in this era the only persons who possessed any scholarship, learning, or even good manners. The interior of the castle was graced with beauty, order, and comparative refinement. There letters and learning were sought after, if not largely acquired. Good manners and regularity prevailed. The Baron himself spent much of his time in the bosom of his family, and must have been improved in the gentler circle which there assembled. He for a time lost the bluntness and ferocity of his warlike life. A priest, or minister of religion, was also generally an appendage of the castle; and his profession, being an improving, learned, and pacific one, must have acted beneficially on those with whom he associated. The instruction and example of the inmates of the castle must therefore have been beneficial to the whole feudal society around: to which may be added the historical fact that after the introduction of the feudal system, and by the sanction and encouragement of the Barons, were compiled the only literary works of the period of which we have any account. In the solitudes of the baronial castle were composed the only chronicles of that era which have descended to us. Within the walls of the castellated abode generally dwelt the priests, bards, and other literati of the time; where they had leisure and encouragement to pursue their avocations; and thence issued forth their chronicles, poems, and productions. These influences must, therefore, have tended greatly to the civilization and improvement of the whole feudal society.

On the other hand, we must not overlook the fact that the feudal state was decidedly hostile to general freedom--its very nature militated against general liberty--its existence was inconsistent with progress and the spread of freedom and intelligence. The continuance and influence of the feudal dominion depended on the passive submission of all the inhabitants of the domain. Every manifestation of discontent or uneasiness on the part of the latter was, therefore, watched by the chief with a jealous eye; every attempt at disobedience was punished with severity. The chief warded off all principles dangerous to his own monopoly of power. All struggles for general liberty were crushed with an unrelenting hand. The great and only desire of the Baron was to perpetuate the then existing system. Every attempt at amelioration was alike inimical to his wishes and power.

The feudal dominion was also extremely prejudicial to the nation in the inveterate hostility which it manifested to commerce, agriculture, and productive industry. Military power and strength being its chief aim, all pursuits which tended to divert the people from martial exercises and display were discouraged by the feudal chiefs. Hence the cultivation and improvement of the soil was but feebly prosecuted, while the pursuits of commerce and mercantile enterprise were opposed and repressed, from a suspicion of their antagonism to the feudal dominion. The Baron delighted in extensive chases, and parks studded with trees, and covered with brushwood, where game might take refuge; and in vast forests and barren uplands, where the deer and the hare might wander undisturbed; while the furrow of the corn-field and the hedge-row were restricted to the smallest dimensions consistent with the necessities of the population of the manor. The hound was more valued than the sheep-dog; the fowling-piece than the sickle; while herds of wild deer browsing the slopes were more estimated than the oxen on the plain. The huntsman and gamekeeper held higher rank than the ploughman and reaper; while all the prizes of ambition lay open to martial enterprise alone.

But to none was the hostility of the feudal chiefs more rancorous than to the pursuits of commerce. The most odious of sights was the tall chimney of a manufactory peering through the oak and elm of the chase; while the pollution of mills and workshops on the banks of pellucid streams was not to be borne. The mines of the mountain were closed, lest their produce might destroy the salmon and trout of the rivers; while houses and ships were left unbuilt, that the forests be not denuded of their stately timber.

The hostility of the feudal chiefs to mercantile progress was the more inveterate, from a feeling and knowledge of its antagonism to their own irresponsible power. Every manufactory which was set up bore a brow of hostility to the castle; while every town was in feud with the manor. In every war or tumult the towns and commercial villages ranged their forces in opposition to the Baron and his clan; and whensoever an opportunity offered for suppressing and subverting the feudal dominion and privileges, the mercantile community never failed to raise the axe and strike at their root.

The Barons, therefore, manifested the utmost dislike and hostility to the progress of manufactures and towns. Seldom could a fitting site for a village or manufactory be found except within the limits of a manor; and the lord, if he even conceded the liberty for the erection, never failed to burden the grant with exorbitant rents and exactions, and to fetter it with the most oppressive restrictions. These grants would never have been made, only for the temptation of gold. The feudal chiefs were, from their ostentatious power and display, mostly poor; and in exchange for a high rent or large purchase money, they were induced to grant tracts of land to the manufacturer and merchant, whose money capital was the only bait for the cupidity of the proprietor. Hence, from the reign of Edward the First onwards, the conflict of capital representing commerce, and territorial interest representing the lords of the soil. The former power, feeble at first, grew steadily under the more favorable reigns of succeeding monarchs, and in modern times has made such strides, as to equal, if not surpass, the ancient dominion of the fief.

Moreover, the excessive power of the Barons was full of danger to the peace and security of the realm. Where the dominion and government of the mass of the people were in so few hands, the peril of the nation was great from the discontent or ambition of one or more of the chiefs. A Mowbray, Bohun, Mortimer, or Clifford, could at the head of his clan disarrange the affairs of the entire kingdom, and plunge the nation into war. This danger was also increased from the turbulent disposition of the Barons. The feudal chiefs dwelt apart in the strongholds of their castles, and the solitude of their manors, and exercised unlimited dominion and sovereignty over the inhabitants of their domains. Their mode of life and irresponsible power generated an independence and insubordination which could ill brook restraint or abridgment even from the sovereign, setting aside from another chieftain, and which often broke out in open rebellion, defying even the power of the crown. Hence the insurrection of a Leicester, a Warwick, and a Northumberland, which required the utmost force of the sovereign and his confederate Barons to subdue. Hence also the intestine commotions and civil wars which were so prevalent in the feudal ages, and which from time to time paralysed the progress of the nation, and occasioned the sacrifice of innumerable lives.

The feudal dominion was, in the last place, very unfavorable to art, science, and discovery. Its chiefs had little leisure from foreign wars and domestic tumult for their prosecution, and had less inclination to encourage their promotion by others. Their attention was absorbed in schemes of territorial aggrandisement and political intrigue, as to devote little time to the improvement of the mind. The only learning which they patronised was the mummeries of monkish superstition and priestly adulation. True science was neglected, or even discouraged. We do not find one name throughout the dark and stormy reigns of the Plantagenets which may rank in the first class of scientific merit. We must descend to the Tudors before we meet with any light to dispel the Egyptian darkness which enveloped science. It was the reign of the virgin Queen Elizabeth which was embellished by that galaxy of illustrious stars in the firmament of discovery, which mapped out new and more useful paths for investigation, and will shed everlasting light upon science. It was in this epoch when the feudal dominion had been shorn of much or most of its pristine glory, and when commerce and manufactures were encouraged, and the liberty of the subject was more secure--that a Bacon, a Raleigh, a Camden and a Davis, arose to delight and bless mankind with their magnificent discoveries. The paths shadowed out by these great names were afterwards pursued under still more auspicious reigns, throughout which we find a joint alliance and equal progress between mercantile grandeur and civil freedom, and their hand-maiden science. In these latter times we meet with a Newton, a Davy, a Watt, and a Stephenson, whose discoveries and works have yoked matter to accomplish the purposes of man, and made the elements tributary to his designs. It is likewise more than probable that had the human mind in modern times not emancipated itself from feudal servility and thraldom, Britain and the world would have been deprived of these universal blessings, and our own glorious island would at present hold little or no higher rank in Europe than benighted Spain, or the Italian peninsula.

Now that the pomp, glory, and circumstance of the feudal state have passed away, we may leisurely look back on its history, contemplate its features, and observe its effects and tendencies. In this retrospect we are encouraged by the better condition of the age in which we live, and the brightening prospects of the future. But in all our inquiries and wanderings let us never forget that man has in all ages been inconstant, and human nature imperfect, and that the best of all institutions are probably those which approximate the laws that Solon gave to the Athenians; who said, "My laws are not the best ones possible, but they are the best which the Athenians can bear."

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Rev. John Davies, Walsoken Rectory, Wisbeach.

The Right Honourable the Earl of Powis, Powis Castle, Welshpool.

The Right Honourable Lord Llanover, Llanover Park, Abergavenny, 2 copies.

George Hammond Whalley, Esq., M.P., Plas Madoc, Ruabon.

Mr. Thomas Benbow, New York.

John Maurice Davies, Esq., Barrister at Law, Crygie, Aberystwith.

Rev. Richard Jenkins, B.A., Abermagwr Cottage, Crosswood Park, Aberystwith.

W. P. R. Powell, Esq., M.P., Nanteos, Aberystwith, 3 Copies.

Rev. David Williams, Llanedwy Rectory, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire.

Lady Augusta E. Marshall, Ruabon, 2 copies

Rev. Charles Williams, D.D., Principal of Jesus College, Oxford.

Rev. D. Silvan Evans, Llangian, Pwllheli.

--J. Williams, (_Ab Ithel_,) Llanymowddwy Rectory.

--Lewis Evans, Head Master of Ystradmeirig School, Cardiganshire, 2 copies.

--Owen Jones, Vicar of Towyn.

Thomas Wright, Esq., F. R. S., 14, Sydney Street, Brompton, London.

William Jones, (_Gwrgant_,) 20, King's Arms Yard, London.

Rev. Robert Williams, M.A., Rhydycroesau, Oswestry.

George Osborne Morgan, Esq., 2, Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, London.

J. W. Szlumper, Esq., C. E. Milford Haven.

James Davies, Esq., Rhosrhydgaled, Aberystwith.

John Jones, Esq., Dinorben, St George's, St Asaph.

Mr. W. W. Jones, (_Gwilym o Fon_,) Towyn.

--Owen Mills, Llanidloes.

--T. J. Lloyd, Machynlleth.

Rev. James Griffiths, Vicar of Llangynmor, Carmarthen.

John Scott, Esq., Corbet Arms Hotel, Aberdovey.

Rev. Thomas Jones Hughes, Vicar of Llanasa, Holywell.

John Dendy, Esq., B.A., 36, York Street, Manchester.

Rev. D. Parry, B.A., Darowen Rectory, Machynlleth.

William Price, Esq., Llanffwyst, Abergavenny.

John Jones, Esq., 26, North Parade, Aberystwith.

John Evan Thomas, Esq., F.S.A., 7, Lower Belgrave Square, London.

Rev. Henry J. Evans, Curate of Dowlais.

--David Lloyd James, Vicar of Pontrobert, Montgomeryshire.

Mr. Richard Mills, the Green, Llanidloes.

Miss Sarah Mills, Llanidloes.

Thomas Stephens, Esq., Merthyr Tydvil.

W. H. Reece, Esq., F.A.S., New Street, Birmingham.

James Rees, Esq., Carnarvon.

Ensign E. Powell, Trewythen, Llandinam.

Mr. Thomas Hughes, 10, Croston Street, Liverpool.

Mr. D. J. Roderic, Llandovery.

--Evan Jones, Machynlleth.

--John Beavan, Newtown.

CONTENTS.

_The first figures refer to the Translations_, _the second to the Originals_.

A Poem by Owain Cyfeiliog 9, 99 A Poem by Howel-ap-Einion Lygliw 15, 104 An Ode of David Benfras to Llewelyn the 18, 107 Great A Poem to Llewelyn the Great, by Einion 20, 109 the son of Gwgan A Panegyric upon Owain Gwynedd, by 25, 114 Gwalchmai the son of Meilir An Elegy to Nest, the daughter of Howel, 27, 115 by Einion ab Gwalchmai A Poem to Llewelyn the Great, by 29, 117 Llywarch Brydydd y Moch An Ode to Llewelyn the last Prince of 36, 124 Wales, by Llygal Gwr A Poem entitled The Ode of the months, 42, 129 by Gwilym Ddu o Arfon A short account of Taliesin and Elphin 50 his Patron At Rhisiart Morys, Ysw., a'i Frodyr 89 At y Cymry 91 A Method how to retrieve the Ancient 133 British Language, &c. A Curious Commission issued by Queen 138 Elizabeth A Biographical sketch of Ieuan Prydydd 141 Hir An Elegy on his death by the Rev. R. 142 Williams A Paraphrase of the 137th Psalm, by the 143 Rev. E. Evans, (_Ieuan Prydydd Hir_) An Elegy to the Memory of Lleucu Llwyd, 173, 176 the fair nymph of Pennal, by Llewelyn Goch ap Meirig Hen A List of Subscribers 213 Dedication to Sir Roger Mostyn 5 De Bardis Dissertatio 57 Preface 7 Taliesin's Poem 54, 131 The Penitent Shepherd, by the Rev. E. 149 Evans, (_Ieuan Prydydd Hir_) The Feudal System, by J. Jenkins Esq. 181 The Welsh Works of Ieuan Prydydd Hir, 213 proposal to print them by Subscription Verses on seeing the ruins of Ivor 148 Hael's Palace, by the Rev. E. Evans, (_Ieuan Prydydd Hir_) CORRESPONDENCE. A Letter from Mr. Thomas, Carte, to the 149 Rev. E. Evans A Letter from the Rev. W. Wynn to the 159 Rev. E. Evans Letters from Mr. Lewis Morris to the 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, Rev. E. Evans 156, 157, 158 Letters from Bishop Percy to the Rev. E. 160, 162, 164, 166, 167, Evans 168

THE END.

EVERY VISITOR TO MID-WALES SHOULD PROCURE A COPY OF PRYSE'S HANDBOOK TO THE BRECONSHIRE AND RADNORSHIRE Mineral Springs.

* * * * *

Part I. (Breconshire) is from the pen of the Rev. James Rhys Jones (Kilsby.) Part II. (Radnorshire, &c.,) has been compiled by the Publisher. The two chapters on the Medicinal Properties of the Waters are from the pen of R. Richardson, Esq., L.F.P.S.G., Fellow of the Obstetrical Society of London, Surgeon, Rhayader.

* * * * *

Opinions of the Press.

"This is a very interesting little book; in a very small compass, it contains a great deal of useful and interesting information relative to the Welsh mineral springs, coupled with a variety of legendary and antiquarian lore; descriptions of scenery, and the various other adjuncts necessary to make up a good guide book. Every one who purposes visiting the springs should procure a copy, and even those who do not intend visiting the localities described, will find a variety of entertaining matter in this very agreeable and pleasant little book. We ought to mention that a portion of the work has been compiled by the Rev J. R. Jones, (late of Kilsby,) and that it contains a valuable chapter on the medicinal properties of the various springs, from the pen of R. Richardson, Esq., _Surgeon_, of Rhayader."--_Shropshire Conservative_

"The caprice of fashion has rendered famous many old corners of the earth, while others more deserving the notice of the great world lie hidden in unmerited obscurity, or at the most have obtained but a mere local celebrity. The spas of Germany are frequented by quite as many of the votaries of dissipation, and _Rouge et Noir_, as of the seekers after the blessings of health; but there are secluded valleys in our own country which are to the full as deserving of the visits of the lover of the beautiful, and the tired out workman in the world's great treadmill, while to the invalid they offer medicaments of nature's own composition, and scenes untainted by the follies of the frivolous, or the vices of the designing, who throng the gilded saloons of Hamburg and Baden to prey upon the gay and gilded butterflies of fashion. To such the little book whose title we quote above will prove a faithful, and we believe a welcome guide--for its unpretending pages contain not merely a great amount of information, but also a considerable fund of recreative reading. Almost every line of the chapters comprising the first part betrays the writer's well-know hand. Unlike as Charles Lamb and Carlyle are to each other, and unlike as he is to either, there is much in his style that reminds us of both; there is much of the genial quaint humour of the one, and much, very much, of the eccentricity of the other. There is no mistaking the pen, whether it is employed in graphically sketching with a few rapid touches the picturesque scenery of woodland glen, or wide expanse of solitary moor, or glorious mountain side grand with precipice, and beautiful with heather bloom--or whether it is rendering homage to the memory of some worthy of other days, who first saw light among those hills--or whether it is with the frolic humour of a Cerfantes giving a vivid word-picture of an exploring expedition, mounted on a batch of Abergwessin ponies--it is still ORIGINAL, and will be recognised all over Wales as wielded by no other hand than that of "Kilsby," by which designation the Rev. James Rhys Jones is by common consent distinguished from the ten thousand and one of his compatriots who rejoice in the same surname. We can scarcely conceive the possibility of his doing anything and not doing it _earnestly_, but this has evidently been a labour of love, for is it not a description of that Valley of the Irvon which he thus apostrophises?--

"'Thou birth-place and resting place of my humble forefathers, wisely and not too well have I loved thee; when I sojourned in the land of the noble and generous Saxon thou wert my thought by day and my dream by night; it was my uppermost wish to close my life in thy bosom; I have loved thee with a love second only to that of woman, and a passion which sober men pronounce madness: it matters not, for I can pray with the Westmoreland Bard, "Thou valley embrace me, and ye mountains shut me in."'

"The remaining portion of the book is chiefly a compilation, but one that has been well and judiciously performed. Mr. Pryse has succeeded in getting from a variety of sources pretty nearly every thing that can possibly interest, inform, or amuse, in connection not only with the mineral springs, but also with the beautiful district in which they are situated. For the invalid he has brought together the various analyses of the waters, made from time to time, with the opinions of medical men as to the best rules for their administration; for the scientific he has produced the opinions of geologists as to the causes of the impregnation of the waters, with their health-giving constituents; for the antiquarian he has collected all that remains of the annals of the ruined abbeys and castles within a wide circuit, especially all that is known of the history of the last hours of the gallant Llewellyn, last native Prince of Wales, whose sad fate has given such melancholy interest to the vicinity of Builth; and for the poet and the lover of the marvellous he has recorded the wondrous legends, which in days gone by, were supposed to account for the healing powers of the springs without resorting to the philosophic theories of the Murchisons or Richardsons of those times. In short, he has produced a "Handbook," the possession of which will doubly enhance the pleasure of a summer ramble amid the scenes which it describes."--_The Monmouthshire Merlin_.

* * * * *

This Handbook is got up in various styles, so as to suit the pockets of every visitor. In stiff paper covers the price is 1s. 6d.; bound in strong cloth boards the price is 2s.; bound in extra cloth, gilt edges, and lettered on the side, the price is 2s. 6d. All post free for value in stamps.

* * * * *

PUBLISHED & SOLD BY JOHN PRYSE, BOOKSELLER, LLANIDLOES, MONTGOMERY.

A List of Books Published or Sold by John Pryse, Bookseller, &c., Llanidloes, Montgomery. All post free for their value in stamps; when not to be had from a Bookseller, please send to the Publisher.

THE CAMBRIAN MINSTREL, by John Thomas, (Ieuan Ddu.) Small 4to, (Merthyr Tydfil, 1845,) in 13 Parts, paper covers, price 6s. 6d. "The Work is equally interesting to Welsh readers, as nearly all the matter contained is inserted in both languages."

A Melody for Cristmas or New Year's Eve, by R. Lowe, Price 1.5d.

Williams's Epitaphs for Grave-stones. Price 9d.

The Inundation of Cardigan Bay, by the Rev. G. Edwards, M.A., Price 9d

Will be published as soon as Subscribers' names are received for 400 copies, price Half-a-crown.

THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT BRITONS,

by the late Rev. Theophilus Evans, sometime vicar of Llangammarch, and discoverer of the Llanwrtyd Mineral Waters, &c. Translated from the Welsh, with notes from the works of modern writers. The book will be printed on good paper, and stitched in paper covers,

Will be published as soon as Subscribers' names are received for 250 copies, price 5s.

THE HISTORY OF WALES,

by Caradoc of Llancarvan, translated from the Welsh. The publisher has long noticed the want of a reprint of this most interesting History; it having become very scarce, he ventures to hope to have at once sufficient Subscribers to enable him to issue the book forthwith

DRYCH Y PRIF OESOEDD,

yn ddwy ran, Rhan I, sy'n traethu am hen Ach y Cymry, o ba le y daethant allan; y Rhyfeloedd a fu rhyngddynt a'r Rhufeinwyr, y Brithwyr, a'r Saeson; a'u Moesau cyn troi yn Gristionogion. Rhan II, sy'n traethu am Bregethiad a Chynydd yr Efengyl yn Mhrydain, Athrawiaeth y Brif Eglwys, a Moesau y Prif Gristionogion, Gan y Parch, Theophilus Evans, gynt vicar Llangammarch, yn ngwlad Fuellt a Dewi, yn Mrycheiniog. Yn nghyda Rhagarweiniad a nodau eglurhaol, gan y Parch, Rhys Gwesyn Jones, un o awdwyr y "Gwyddoniadur Cymreig," &c. Adargraffiad o'r argraffiad a gyhoeddwyd gan yr awdwr yn 1740, Pris mewn papur (i Danysgrifwyr) 2s, Cloth Gilt, 3s

The Love Songs and War Songs of the Ancient Britons,

BREEZES FROM THE WELSH MOUNTAINS

A Scrap Book of Cambrian Prose and Poetry, compiled by John Pryse. The book contains translated specimens of the works of the most eminent Welsh Bards, Warriors, and Philosophers. Price 1s, 6d

Y Llyfr Rhataf yn Nghymru!! Newydd ei Gyhoeddi, Pris 6c, Y CYFAILL I BAWB, Yn cynwys yr "Almanac Tragwyddol," y dull newydd i olchi dillad, wrth yr hwn y gellir cwblhau golohiad chwech wythnos cyn boreufwyd, Hefyd, yn agos i 300 o gyfarwyddiadau ereill yn dangos y ffordd oreu i drin anifeiliaid, ac i wheyd llawer iawn o bethau gwerthadwy, yn nghyda _chatalogues_ am filoedd o lyfrau, a hysbysiadau am lawer iawn o bethau nas gellir eu henwi yma. Y ffordd i gael y llyfr--rhowch 6 o stamps llythyrau (yn nghydag enw eich trigfa) mewn llythyr, wedi ei gyfeirio at John Pryse, Bookseller, Llanidloes, Montgomery, a chyda throad y post fe anfonir y llyfr yn rhydd.

IF YOU WISH TO RESTORE YOUR HEALTH AND INVIGORATE YOUR SPIRITS, you cannot do better than take a trip to one or other of the Welsh Mineral Springs. Before you leave home, send for a copy of Pryse's Handbook to the Breconshire and Radnorshire Mineral Springs, which contains the History of _Llandrindod_, _Llandegley_, _Llanwrtyd_, _and Builth Wells_, with full directions for using the _waters_ by a thoroughly qualified medical Gentleman; topographical, antiquarian, and geological notes and exerpts from the writings of the most eminent authors; an Hotel and Lodging-house directory; and descriptive journeys from nearly all the principal towns within a circle of 50 miles. The reader will also find in its pages much amusing and interesting reading for odd leisure hours, all of which is calculated to add to the enjoyment and amusement of the visitor and tourist. The book is neatly bound in cloth, and although it contains above 200 pages, it is not too bulky for the Lady's reticule or the Gentleman's pocket. _How to obtain it_,--Send 24 penny stamps to JOHN PRYSE, BOOKSELLER, LLANIDLOES, MONTGOMERY, and it will be sent Post free to any address.

A Short Familiar Catechism, by the late Rev. T. Charles, of Bala. Price 2d. or thirteen for 2s

Everett's Catechism, translated into English by the Rev. R. Thomas. Price 1d, or one hundred for 6s

The Mother's Gift, (Welsh or English,) 1d, or one hundred for 6s

English and Welsh Letter Writer. Price 6d, and 9d, in cloth, 3d, extra

The Welsh Interpreter. Price 6d, and 9d, bound in cloth, 3d, extra

Everybody's Friend; containing a valuable collection of Receipts, Proverbs, &c. Price 6d,

Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsg, (The Visions of the Sleeping Bard,) by E. Wynne, with Life, Price 1s.

Pughe's Beauties of English Poetry, with a literal translation of each piece into Welsh. Price 14 pence

Motives for Progression, by the late D. L. Pughe, with life. Price 6d

The Unity of the Christian Church, by the Rev. R. G. Jones. Price 6d

The Good Old Time is come at last, (Song & Music) by H. Jones. 2d

J. Jenkins, Esq. (Solicitor) on the Nature, &c. of Friendly Societies. 2d

The Vale of Taff, a Poem, by John Thomas, price 1s.; yr Arweinydd Cerddorol, gan R. Mills, pris 4s. 6d.; The Cambrian Melodist, price 6d.; the Educational State of Wales, by the Rev. J. R. Kilsby Jones, price 2d.; Gwaith Eos Ceiriog, pris 6s.; Testament W. Salisbury, pris 7s.; Williams's Gems of Choral and Sacred Music, price 3s.

A list of other Books gratis, and Post free.

The following Books are preparing for publication, subscribers' names for which will oblige. CANIADAU SEION A'R ATTODIAD, gan R. Mills, pris 12s.; GWAITH BARDDONAWL. DAVYDD AP GWILYM, gan Dr. Owen Pughe, pris 6s. 6d.; the CAMBRIAN TRAVELLER'S COMPANION--Biographical and Togographical Sketches, collected by John Pryse; price 1s. 6d.; the ENGLISH POETICAL WORKS OF IOLO MORGANWG, price 5s.

Footnotes:

{10a} Arwystli, the name of one of the cantreds of Powys.

{10b} Belyn, a great man from Lleyn in Carnarvonshire, mentioned in the Triades, and is said there to have fought with Edwin, king of the Northumbrians, in Bryn Cenau in Rhos, in the county of Denbigh; probably he was one of Cadwallon's generals; it is well known, and confessed by Beda himself, that that prince was a terrible scourge to the Saxons.

{11a} Garthan, the name of a fort or castle somewhere near the Severn.

{11b} This was the famous battle of Bangor-is-y-coed in Flintshire, after the murder of the monks, at the instigation of Austin, the first converter of the Saxons to Christianity. This is the account Humphrey Lloyd gives of that affair: "Ille vero [Augustinus S.] ob hanc contumeliam, & quod archiepiscopo Cantuariae a se constituto, & quod cum Romans ecclesia in quibusdam non convenirent, Anglorum odium ita in eos concivit, ut paulo post (ut dixi) ab Ethelfredo, Ethelberti, Cantiae regis, ob Augustino incitati, opera & auxiliis, monachi pacem petentes, crudeliter occisi; & postea Britanni duce Brochwelo Powisiae Rege, victi sunt, donec tandem Bletrusii Cornaviae ducis, Cadvanni Northwalliae, Mereduci Suthwalliae regum copiis adjuti, & Dunoti abbatis viri doctissimi concione animati, quique jussit (ut nostri annales referunt) ut unusquisque terram oscularetur, in memoriam communionis corporis Dominici, aquamque ex Deva fluvio manu haustam biberet, in memoriam sacratissim isanguinis Christi pro eis effusis, & ita communicati, memorabili proelio Saxones, occisis (ut Huntingtonensis refert) ex eis MLXVI. Cadvanumque in civitate Legionis regem creavere." Britan. Descript. Commentariolum, p. 90, & 91, Moses Williams's Edition. This battle is called in our annals sometimes Gwaith Caerlleon, that is, the battle of Chester, and is said to have been fought, A.D. 633.

{11c} We have no account at present, that I know of, who this Morach Vorvran was, nor the occasion of his joy and festivity, alluded to in this poem; probably it was upon the defeat of the Saxons at Bangor.

{11d} The name of a place, but where situated, I know not.