Chapter III: Part 3

The game of chungke, however, will account for only a small part of the great number of stones of this form. The Indians of southern California, in manufacturing pottery, make the clay compact and smooth by holding a rounded and smooth stone against the inside.[75] The Fijians, in making pottery, use a small, round flat stone to shape the inside,[76] while the Indians of Guiana use ancient axes or smooth stones for polishing the clay in making their vessels.[77] According to Evans,[78] pitted disks were used as pestles, hammers, or mullers; a thick one with pitted ends was found in a mortar at Holyhead.[79] Under the head of pestles and of perforated stones further references will be found that may apply as well to this form of implements.

No kind of relic is more difficult to classify. From the smooth, symmetrical, highly-polished chungke stone they gradually merge into mullers, pestles, pitted stones, polishers, hammers,[80] ornaments, and the ordinary sinker or club-head, so that no dividing line is possible. Theories constructed on a basis of their use may be far from correct.

They present various forms and degrees of finish; many have the natural surface on both sides with the edge worked off by grinding or pecking, the latter being produced probably by use as a hammer; the sides may be ground down while the edge remains untouched; or the sides may be pecked and the edge ground, being probably of a thick pebble originally. Some of the finer grades, as chalcedony and quartz, that have received the highest finish, appear to have had all the work done by grinding or rubbing, as even those only slightly worked bear no signs of hammering or pecking. When of the harder materials they are generally made of water-worn pebbles as nearly the desired form as can be found; in fact, some specimens which are in their natural state, entirely unworked, require a very close examination to distinguish them from others whose whole surface has been artificially produced. In the jasper conglomerates from Arkansas, however, there is a regular series from a roughly chipped disk to one of the highest polish and symmetry. The larger ones of quartz, particularly those with concavities in the sides, must have been patiently wrought for years before brought to their present state. Many of the smaller ones, especially sandstone, seem to have been designed for grinding or polishing.

The following groups are represented in the collection:

_A._ Sides hollowed out, edge convex; 2 to 6 inches diameter, seven-eighths to 2¾ thick.

1. Edges of concavity sharp.

_a._ Cavity a regular curve from side to side. The type (figure 95) is of quartz, from Cherokee county, Georgia. There are also, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, one of sandstone, of which one side has been worked out by a flint, the little pits being distinctly visible, while the other side has natural surface; from Loudon county, Tennessee, one of quartzite, 6 inches diameter, which has been used as a mortar, the cavities being roughened, with their edges broken and scarred (the edge of the stone is battered entirely around midway between the sides as though used for a hammer); from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of quartzite, about the same size as last, with a slight pit in the center of each cavity, the edges of the concavity being considerably chipped, and the edge of the implement very smooth; from Polk county, Tennessee, one of quartzite, 3½ inches in diameter, with the edge polished except in one spot, where it shows marks of use as a hammer or pestle--it has been used also as a mortar, the edges of the concavity being much chipped and broken; one each from Craighead county, Arkansas, of novaculite; Randolph county, Illinois, of granite; Cherokee county, Georgia, of quartz; and Obion county, Tennessee, of sandstone. In the four last mentioned the entire surface is quite smooth or even highly polished.

_b._ With a small perforation at the center. The type is shown in figures 96 (of sandstone, from a grave in Union county, Illinois), and 97 (of granite, from Virginia). There is another specimen, of sandstone, from Red River county, Texas.

_c._ With a secondary depression in each cavity. Figure 98 (yellow quartz, highly polished, from Fulton county, Georgia) is typical. There is also one of quartzite, with a secondary depression in one side only, from Roane county, Tennessee, which may be supposed, from this and other imperfections, to be unfinished.

2. Edges of concavity rubbed off blunt. These are grouped simply by form, as the specimens from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and northeastern Kentucky are nearly all roughly finished, quite different from the smooth or polished ones from farther south. Some are worked out into the form of a ring, and there is every stage between that form and the flat disk whose sides show no trace of pecking. Figure 99 (quartzite, from Sevier county, Tennessee) illustrates a typical example, roughly worked but entirely perforated, and figure 97 shows the same type in another form.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Caldwell county, North Carolina| 1| | | | | |
|Crittenden county, Arkansas | | 1| | | | |
|Drew county, Arkansas | | | | 1| | |
|Randolph county, Illinois | | | 1| 2| | |
|Eastern Tennessee | 1| | | 1| | |
|Bartow county, Georgia | | | | 1| | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | 1| 1| 1|
|Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | 22| |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Quartz.
B = Novaculite.
C = Flint.
D = Quartzite.
E = Sandstone.
F = Granite.

_B._ Flat or slightly concave sides, edges straight and at right angles to the sides; diameter, 1⅝ to 5 inches. The type shown in figure 100 is of sandstone from Lauderdale county, Alabama.

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
|Lauderdale county, Alabama | 1| | | | |
|Mississippi county, Arkansas | | 1| 1| 1| |
|McMinn county, Tennessee | 1| | | | 4|
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Quartzite.
C = Very fine schist.
D = Yellow jasper.
E = Argillite.

_C._ Sides flat; edges straight, sometimes rounding off into the sides; diameter, 2¼ to 6 inches; thickness, three-quarters to 2¼ inches. A number from southeastern Tennessee, especially the smaller ones, are quite rough, being merely pecked or chipped into shape with no subsequent rubbing. Figure 101 (chalcedony, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee) represents the type. The material is variable.

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Southeastern Tennessee | | 5| 5| 1| 3| 1| | | 9|
|Western Tennessee | | 1| | | 1| | | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | 1| | | | | | 7| | 1|
|Mississippi county, Arkansas | | | | | | | | 1| |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Quartz.
B = Sandstone.
C = Argillite.
D = Chalcedony.
E = Limestone.
F = Marble.
G = Granite.
H = Jasper conglomerate.
I = Quartzite.

_D._ Like the last, except much smaller. Very few are polished over the entire surface; some are rubbed more or less on the edges or sides, but a majority have the edge rough as it was chipped or pecked out; many have either the edge or sides in the natural state. From those smoothly polished to those very rudely worked the gradation is such that no dividing line can be drawn. This is true, also, of the smaller specimens of other types. Some of the quartzite specimens are very loose in texture. From seven-eighths to 2 inches in diameter and one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch thick.

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 1| 54| 64| | | 32| 1| 12| 4| |
|Bartow county, Georgia | | 1| | 1| 1| 4| | | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | 2| | | | | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 7| | | | 20| | | | 1|
|Northeastern Kentucky | | 14| | | | | | 5| | |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Marble.
B = Sandstone.
C = Argillite.
D = Granite.
E = Red jasper.
F = Quartzite.
G = Micaceous sandstone.
H = Limestone.
I = Quartz.
J = Cannel coal.

_E._ Convex on both sides, edges straight. One of white quartz from Caldwell county, North Carolina, has the sides much curved, making the stone very thick in proportion to its width; there is a deep pit on each side, the entire surface being highly polished. Diameter, 2 to 3½ inches; thickness, three-fourths to an inch and a half. Illustrated by figure 102 (of porphyry, from a grave in Caldwell county, North Carolina).

+------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
| District. | A| B| C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M| N| O| P| Q| R| S|
+------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
|Eastern Arkansas | 3| 1| 1| 1| 4| 7| | 1| | | | 7| 1| | | 1| | | |
|Eastern Tennessee | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| (many of these | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| rough and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| entirely | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| without | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| polish) | | | 1| | |88|29| | 1| 1|31|27| 8| 1| 1| 2| | | |
|Kanawha valley, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| West Virginia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| (rough) | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | 1| 3| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|Union county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Mississippi | | | | | | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | | |
|Caldwell county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| North Carolina | | | | | | 1|10| | | | | 4| | | 1| 2| 1| 2| 1|
+------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+

KEY:
A = Yellow jasper.
B = Iron ore.
C = Mica schist.
D = Novaculite.
E = Jasper conglomerate.
F = Quartzite.
G = Quartz.
H = Hornblende.
I = Marble.
J = Clayey limestone.
K = Argillite.
L = Sandstone.
M = Limestone.
N = Sienite.
O = Granite.
P = Chalcedony.
Q = Steatite.
R = Black flint.
S = Porphyry.

_F._ Same form as the above; 1¼ to 2 inches in diameter, one-half to seven-eighths of an inch thick.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Elmore county, Alabama | | | | 2| 1| | | 1| | 1|
|Western North Carolina | | | | 1| | | 2| | | |
|Eastern Tennessee | | | | 2| | 1| 9| | 1| |
|Bartow county, Georgia | 1| 1| 1| 2| | | | | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | | 3| | | | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | | | 4| | | |
|Drew county, Arkansas | | | | 1| | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Jasper.
B = Mica schist.
C = Micaceous sandstone.
D = Quartzite.
E = Quartz.
F = Marble.
G = Argillite.
H = Sandstone.
I = Limestone.
J = Steatite.

_G._ Flat or slightly convex on one or both sides, edge straight, one side wider than the other. Some have the edge battered or chipped and it is always at the angle of the edge with the wider side. From 1⅝ to 3½ inches in diameter, and three-fourths to an inch and a half thick. The specimen shown in figure 103 (of compact quartzite, from Bartow county, Georgia) is typical. The material is quite diverse.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 2| 1| 2| | | 2| | 1| | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | 1| 3| | | | | | | |
|Bartow county, Georgia | | | | | | | 1| 1| | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | | 1| | | | | | |
|Caldwell county, North Carolina| | | | | 3| | | | 1| 1| 2|
|Mississippi county, Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | 1|
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Marble.
C = Quartzite.
D = Quartz hornblende.
E = Granite.
F = Quartz.
G = Compact quartzite.
H = Sienite.
I = Chalcedony.
J = Schist.
K = Flint.

There are also of this type, one of very hard black stone (not identified) from Red River county, Texas, three-fourths of an inch in diameter; one of barite from Bartow county, Georgia, one inch in diameter, three-fourths inch thick; and one of granite, from Chester county, South Carolina, an inch in diameter. There are also one of quartzite from Drew county, Arkansas, with a shallow pit on each side; one of the same material from southeastern Tennessee, with a deep pit gouged in smaller side; and from the same locality, three of quartzite, one of quartz, and one of sandstone, each with a deep pit in the larger side. All of these are small and none of them polished.

_H._ Convex sides and curved edges; size as in group _G_. The type (figure 104) is of quartz, from Caldwell county, North Carolina.

+--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Catahoula parish, Louisiana | | | | | | 1|
|Eastern Tennessee | | 1| 2| 3| | |
|Caldwell county, North Carolina | | 2| | | 1| |
|Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | 1| | | |
+--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Jasper conglomerate.
B = Quartz.
C = Limestone.
D = Quartzite.
E = Sandstone.
F = Conglomerate.

_I._ Same form, rough and not polished; 1 to 2¾ inches in diameter, one-half to 1 inch thick.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 50| | | 3| 11| 10|
|Northeastern Arkansas | 1| | 3| | | 3|
|Caldwell county, North Carolina| | | | | | 1|
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 36| 1| | | | |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Quartzite.
B = Flint.
C = Yellow jasper.
D = Argillite.
E = Quartz.
F = Sandstone.

_J._ Sides slightly convex, edge slightly curved; 2¼ to 3½ inches in diameter, three-quarters to an inch and a half thick.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Kanawha valley, West | 1| | | | | | | |
| Virginia (evidently | | | | | | | | |
| used for a hammerstone) | | | | | | | | |
|Eastern Tennessee | 2| 3| 4| 1| 2| 1| | |
|Lauderdale county, Tennessee | | | 1| | | | | |
|Caldwell county, North Carolina| | 2| | | | | 1| |
|Fulton county, Georgia | | | | | | | | 1|
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Quartz.
C = Quartzite.
D = Chalcedony.
E = Argillite.
F = Clayey limestone.
G = Steatite.
H = Sienite.

_K._ Sides flat; edges convex; roughly finished, no polish; 1⅛ to 2¼ inches in diameter, three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | 1|
|Eastern Tennessee | 4| 1| 7|
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Quartz.
C = Quartzite.

_L._ Not polished; roughly chipped edges; 2 to 3½ inches in diameter.

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
|Mississippi county, Arkansas | 1| 1| 1| 3|
|Bartow county, Georgia | | 1| | |
|Union county, Mississippi | 3| | | |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Quartzite.
C = Chalcedony.
D = Yellow jasper.

_M._ Edges V-shape; 1¾ to 2½ inches diameter, 1 to 1½ inches thick. The type (figure 105) is of granite, from Randolph county, Illinois, with insunk pecked sides and polished edge. A specimen from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is of flint, with only the edge worked; apparently a hammer. One from Craighead county, Arkansas, has flat sides and the entire surface polished; another from McMinn county, Tennessee, is also polished entire. A good specimen from Cocke county, Tennessee, is of flint, one side rubbed flat, the other a rounded cone, highly polished.

_N._ Sides hollowed out; edges straight or slightly curved; very thick; used as mortars, hammers, or pestles. This form gradually merges into disk-shaped, pitted, or entire dressed hammers, which in turn run into the ordinary hammerstones. The types are figures 106 (quartzite, from Bradley county, Tennessee) and 107 (quartzite, from Nicholas county, Kentucky). There are in this group from eastern Tennessee three of quartzite, 2¼ by 4½ inches, 4¼ by 5¾ inches, and 1¾ by 3¼ inches, and one of granite, 2¾ by 3 inches; from Caldwell county, North Carolina, one of granite; and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, three of quartzite. The last four are evidently hammers or pestles. In addition there is a specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, of ferruginous sandstone, 3 inches in diameter. On one side there is a pit and on the other a shallow, mortar-like cavity extending entirely across.

_O._ One side flat, the other rounded; of convenient size for grasping. In some the bottom is quite smooth. There is sometimes a pit in one or both sides, more frequently in the bottom. They were used as mullers or pestles; in the latter, either the side or the edge may have been the pounding surface. The line between these implements and the cylindrical, dome-topped pestles can not be drawn (see figure 91).

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 1| 2| | |
|Southwestern Wisconsin | 2| | 1| 1|
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | |
|Crittenden county, Arkansas | 1| | | |
|Jackson county, North Carolina| 1| | | |
|Warren county, Ohio | | | | 1|
|Savannah, Georgia | 2| 1| 2| 8|
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Quartzite.
B = Quartz.
C = Sandstone.
D = Granite.

_P._ Sides flat; edge convex; same size and use as last.

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
|Southeastern Tennessee | | 1 | 1 | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 3 | | 5 | |
|Warren county, Ohio | | | | 1 |
|Madison county, Alabama | | | 1 | |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Quartzite.
B = Quartz.
C = Sandstone.
D = Granite.

_Q._ From southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia there are many disk-shape fragments of pottery, small, thin, and coarse, with the edges roughly chipped; and from northeastern Kentucky there are similar pieces, except that they have been fashioned from fragments of limestone and sandstone. These specimens are illustrated by figure 108 (pottery, from a mound in Bartow county, Georgia).

SPUDS.

It has been a puzzle to archeologists to assign to any class the peculiar stones called “spuds.” They are usually of a comparatively soft material, carefully worked and polished, and bear no marks of rough usage. On the other hand, they seem too large for ornament. Perhaps their office may have been in some ceremony or game. Something similar in form seems to be denoted in the following extracts:

Col. James Smith[81] says, speaking of the Indians of western Pennsylvania, that as soon as the elm bark will strip in spring, the squaws, after finding a tree that will do, cut it down, and with a crooked stick, broad and sharp at the end, take the bark off the tree, and of this bark make vessels. The Twana Indians, who formerly lived at the south end of Hoods canal, Washington, in barking logs use a heavy iron implement about 3 feet long, widened and sharpened at the end;[82] and the tanbark workers of our day use an instrument of somewhat similar form.

The ordinary spud is too weak to endure such usage, though it is claimed by old people living in the Shenandoah valley, Virginia, that in the last century the Indians in that locality used an implement of this pattern for stripping the bark from trees. The implement may have been used in dressing hides, the hole being for attachment of a handle.

A celt of argillite, highly polished, from Loudon county, Tennessee, of the pattern shown in figure 64, has a neatly drilled cylindrical hole about a third of the way from the top; but such cases are unusual. The spuds may be divided into three general classes, as follows:

_A._ Blade circular in outline, including 180 degrees or more, or semielliptical with either axis transverse; sides of stem straight or slightly curved, parallel or slightly tapering to top, which is either straight or slightly rounded; shoulder nearly at right angles to stem, with sharp or rounded corners or sometimes barbed; stem and blade not differing greatly in length. The type of the class, presented in figure 109, is of clay slate, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee. The other six specimens in the collection were distributed as shown in the table.

+---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E |
+---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
|Western North Carolina | 1| 1| | | 1|
|Monroe county, Tennessee | | | 1| 1| |
|Phillips county, Arkansas | | | | | 1|
|Pulaski county, Arkansas | | | | | 1|
+---------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Green slate.
B = Mica-schist.
C = Compact quartzite.
D = Clay slate.
E = Quartzite.

_B._ Lower part of the blade a half circle or less; top square or slightly rounded; stem rapidly widening, with increasing curve to the blade, making an angle with it; stem and blade nearly the same length. A specimen of green slate, from Mississippi county, Arkansas, is illustrated in figure 110. Another, of compact quartzite, comes from Loudon county, Tennessee.

_C._ Handle or stem round; very much longer than the blade, which is semicircular or semielliptical, with square or barbed shoulders. Illustrated in figure 111 (probably of chloritic slate, from Prairie county, Arkansas).

PLUMMETS.

The specimens known as plummets vary considerably in form, size, and degree of finish, indicating diversity of purpose, and different writers have assigned to them various uses.

According to Abbott, one of these relics was found at Salem, in a mortar.[83] Stevens says, quoting from Schoolcraft, that the Pennacook Indians used sinkers very much like a plummet in shape.[84] In Florida very rough plummets with deep grooves are found in the shell mounds, which were no doubt used as sinkers. The Indians of southern California use them as medicine stones to bring rain; the Eskimo use similar stones as sinkers, but have them perforated at the end. The larger objects of this form may have been used as pestles.[85] They might be made very efficient in twisting thread, as they revolve for a considerable time when set in motion.

The general form is ovoid, sometimes quite slender, sometimes almost round; the ends may be either blunt or pointed. They may be grooved near the middle or near either the larger or smaller end. Some have two grooves, some are only partially grooved, while others have the groove extending lengthwise. There are forms that differ somewhat from this description, but such are rare.

Many small and otherwise unworked waterworn pebbles and pieces of steatite pots from southeastern Tennessee and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, have grooves near the middle or near one end; they were probably applied to some of the uses for which plummets were intended.

The plummets in the Bureau collection may be grouped as follows:

_A._ Grooved near smaller end. The types are illustrated in figure 112 (sandy limestone, from a mound in Catahoula parish, Louisiana), and figure 113 (hematite, double grooved, with notches cut in various places, from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia). Other specimens are, one from Arkansas county, Arkansas, of sandstone, and one each from Brown and Randolph counties, Illinois, both of hematite.

_B._ Grooved near larger end. A good example, of hematite, is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, with a second groove partially around the middle.

_C._ Grooved near the middle. The class is represented by a beautiful specimen (figure 114) of hematite, with the groove much polished and irregular, and a deep notch cut in one end, from Ross county, Ohio. Another specimen, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is a double conical implement of hematite, elliptical in section with both ends ground off on flatter sides only.

_D._ Grooved lengthwise. This class includes a plummet of quartzite, from Yellowstone park (figure 115), and another of hematite, much shorter than the Yellowstone specimen and with blunt ends, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia.

_E._ Grooveless. A good specimen (figure 116) is of quartz and mica, elliptical in section, pointed at ends with one end perforated, from Yellowstone park; another, from Randolph county, Illinois, of hematite, rough, perhaps unfinished.

_F._ Double cone, with one end ground off flat and hollowed out. The type (figure 117) is of granite, one of three from Savannah, Georgia.

_G._ Top flattened and hollowed out; sides incurving to the middle; lower half a hemisphere. The class is represented by figure 118 (quartzite, from Randolph county, Illinois), and figure 119 (sandstone, from Adams county, Ohio). From Kanawha valley there is one of hematite, similar in form to the last.

_H._ Ovoid, with the smaller end ground off flat.[86] A good specimen of this class (figure 120) is of magnetite, from Caldwell county, North Carolina. From Savannah, Georgia, there are two of sandstone, both smaller than the type and rough; from Kanawha valley there is one of quartzite, nearly half ground away, leaving almost a hemisphere; and from eastern Tennessee there are one of magnetite and one of quartzite, the latter nearly round.

_I._ Cylindrical. A unique specimen, from a mound in Loudon county, Tennessee, is illustrated in figure 121. It is of sandstone; a short cylinder with incurved sides, each end terminating in a blunt cone.

Figure 122 represents a piece of smoothly dressed steatite from Desha county, Arkansas, with a two-thirds round section, the ends rounded, with a groove near one end, which may be classed with the plummets. There are pieces of sandstone from the same locality which connect this pattern with the simpler “boat-form” stones, except that the flat side is ground smooth instead of being hollowed. This is only one of numerous examples where the shapes of implements whose “typical forms” seem utterly dissimilar merge into one another so gradually that no line of demarkation can be drawn.

CONES.

The relics known as “cones” have the base flat and the side curving slightly; usually the curve extends regularly over the top, but sometimes the apex is rubbed off flat. The conic surface may form an angle with the base, or the line of junction may be rounded into a curve. They vary considerably in thickness, some being nearly flat, others having a height equal to the diameter of the base. One of steatite from Savannah, as also one of sandstone from Kanawha valley, has a slight pit or depression on the flat side. Among the best examples are one (figure 123) of steatite from Bradley county, Tennessee, and another (figure 124) of hematite from Loudon county, in the same state; one (figure 125) of compact quartzite from a mound in Ogle county, Illinois, and a fourth specimen (figure 126) of granite from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. The distribution is as follows:

FIG. 125.--Cone.

FIG. 126.--Cone.

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 3 | 4 | | | |
|Ogle county, Illinois | | | 1 | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | | | |
|Haywood county, North Carolina| | 1 | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 1 | | 1 | 1 |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Steatite.
B = Hematite.
C = Compact quartzite.
D = Granite.
E = Sandstone.

HEMISPHERES.

Hemispheric stones, like the cones, can receive a name only from the form and not from any known or imagined use to which they could have been applied.

All such specimens in the collection, except one, are from Kanawha valley, and of hematite; many if not most of them have been ground down from the nodule, and were probably paint stones originally; at least, the material rubbed from them was used as paint while the maker had their final form in view. One, however, has been pecked into shape and is entirely without polish. In all, the base is flat and varies in outline from almost a circle to a narrow ellipse. A section of the stone parallel to either axis of the base varies from a little more to a little less than a semicircle. Typical forms, both from Bracken county, Kentucky, are illustrated in figure 127.

The specimen, illustrated in figure 128 (yellow quartz, from a mound in Kanawha valley) is intermediate between cones and hemispheres. The sides are polished, while the flat bottom and rounded top are roughened. As it has faint red stains, it may have been used as a paint-muller.

PAINT STONES.

The articles known as paint stones scarcely come under the head of implements. Some of the hematite pieces are incipient celts, hemispheres, or cones; but most of them were used merely to furnish paint, at any rate until rubbed down quite small. They are of every degree of firmness, some being as brittle as dry clay, others like iron. Most pieces in the collection are from Kanawha valley, but others are from southeastern Tennessee, northeastern Arkansas, and Caldwell county, North Carolina. From the last-named section, as well as from Chester county, South Carolina, and McMinn county, Tennessee, come pieces of graphite more or less rubbed; and one has been sent in from Elmore county, Alabama.

The specimen illustrated in figure 129, from a mound, is a good example of the manner in which the harder hematite was ground.

CEREMONIAL STONES.

FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES.

The so-called “ceremonial stones” are variously subdivided and named by different writers. They are supposed to have been devoted to religious, superstitious, medical, emblematic, or ceremonial purposes; to be badges of authority, insignia of rank, tokens of valorous deeds, or perhaps some sort of heraldic device; in short, the uses to which they might, in their different forms, be assigned, are limited only by the imagination.

According to Nilsson the ancient Scandinavians wore “victory stones” suspended around their necks,[87] and the Eskimo wear charms and amulets to bring success in fishing and hunting.[88] Adair (1775) says that the American Archi-magus wore a breastplate made of a white conch-shell, with two holes bored in the middle of it, through which he put the ends of an otter-skin strap and fastened a buck-horn button to the outside of each.[89] An explanation of the purpose of many of the smaller perforated stones also may be found in Nilsson’s remark[90] that the small ovoid or ellipsoid ones were used as buttons; a string being tied to the robe at one end, run through the hole and tied in a knot.

The various Indians of Guiana in their leisure hours often fashion highly ornamental weapons and implements which they never use except ceremonially, but keep proudly at home for show.[91]

So, too, the Yurok and Hupa Indians of California, as well as some of the tribes of Oregon, have very large spearheads or knives, which are not designed for use, but only to be produced on the occasion of a great dance. The larger weapons are wrapped in skin to protect the hand; the smaller ones are glued to a handle. Some are said to be 15 inches long.[92] The Oregon Indians believed the possession of a large obsidian knife brought long life and prosperity to the tribe owning it.[93]

Some of the wild tribes of the interior have something which they regard as the Jews did the Ark of the Covenant. Sometimes it is known; again it is kept secret. The Cheyenne had a bundle of arrows; the Ute a little stone image, and the Osage a similar stone.[94] The Kiowa had a carved wooden image, representing a human face; the Ute captured it, and the Kiowa offered very great rewards for its return; but the Ute, believing the Kiowa powerless to harm them so long as it was retained, refused to give it up.[95]

The North Carolina Indians, when they went to war, carried with them their idol, of which they told incredible stories and asked counsel;[96] and as a token of rank or authority, the Virginia Indians suspended on their breasts, by a string of beads about their neck, a square plate of copper.[97] These were worn as badges of authority. The native tribes, from our first acquaintance with them, evinced a fondness for insignia of this kind.[98]

Simply for convenience the ceremonial stones in the Bureau collection will here be divided into two general classes. The first, comprising those pierced through the shortest diameter, will be called gorgets, which name, like that of celt, has no particular meaning, but is in common use. The second class will comprise all others, which will have some name that may or may not be suitable to their form, but by which they are usually called. In this class are included boat-shape stones, banner stones, picks, spool-shape ornaments, and bird-shape stones, as well as engraved tablets or stones.[99]

GORGETS.

The relics commonly called gorgets have been found in Europe; they may be convex on one side, concave on the other, and are supposed to be for bracers.[100] It is said that the Miami Indians wore similar plates of stone to protect their wrists from the bowstring.[101] Herndon and Gibbon remark that a gold ornament in shape like a gorget, but not pierced, is worn on the forehead by some of the Amazon Indians.[102] According to Schoolcraft the so-called gorgets were sometimes used as twine-twisters;[103] but Abbott holds that while some may have been twine-twisters, or may have been used for condensing sinews or evening bowstrings (that is, reducing the strings to a uniform diameter), most were simply ornaments, as they are generally found on the breast of a buried body.[104] Stevens is even more conservative, holding that they were neither twine-twisters nor devices for condensing sinews or evening bowstrings, as they show no marks of wear in the holes.[105]

Some writers suppose the gorgets to have been shuttles; but this supposition can hardly be entertained, although it is true, according to Chase, that the Oregon Indians passed thread with a curved bone needle.[106] As twine-twisters they would be about as awkward as anything that could be devised. As to evening bowstrings, it would seem that if a string were too large in places to pass through a hole it could not be pulled through; pounding and rolling the wet string with a smooth stone, or some such means, would be the remedy. The bracer theory is plausible; but no one seems ever to have seen a gorget used for this purpose.

Few of the gorgets in the Bureau collection show such marks of wear around the edges of the hole as would be made by a cord; but the majority are thus worn at the middle, where the hole is smallest. Some specimens among every lot are not perforated, or only partially so; the drilling seems to have been the last stage of the work. The hole is almost always drilled from both sides, and the few in which it goes entirely through from one side would probably have had it enlarged later from the other. A number are fragments of larger gorgets, the pieces having been redrilled.

Some of the specimens have various notches and incised lines, the latter being sometimes in tolerably regular order; but there is not the slightest indication that these marks had any meaning or were intended for any other purpose than to add to the ornamental appearance of the stone.

If they were to be worn at the belt or on any part of the dress they could easily have been fastened by a knotted string, or if the wearer desired he could have an ornamental button of some kind. If suspended around the neck, in order to make them lie flat against the breast they probably had a short cord passed through the perforation and tied above the top of the object, the suspending cord being passed through the loop thus formed.

The principal division is into group _A_ with one hole and group _B_ with two holes, though in many cases this forms the only difference between two specimens.

_A._ General outline rectangular, or perhaps slightly elliptical, sometimes with one end somewhat narrower than the other, or with one end rounded off, or with the corners slightly rounded. Perforation commonly near one end. The form is represented by the specimen with two perforations illustrated in figure 133, which otherwise fully answers the description. The argillite specimens have the broader ends striated as though used for rubbing or scraping, but in other respects conform to those of other materials. The materials are generally the softer rocks, as shown in the accompanying table:

+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E |
+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 2 | 3 | 2 | | 3 |
|Wilkes county, North Carolina| | | | 1 | |
|Knox county, Ohio | | 1 | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia| | 7 | 2 | | |
+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Steatite.
B = Slate.
C = Sandstone.
D = Schist.
E = Argillite.

A related type is rectangular or with incurved sides (forming either a regular or broken curve) and rounded ends, and differs in having the perforation near the center. The same pattern sometimes has two holes. It is illustrated in figure 130 (striped slate, from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia). There are also from the same place one each of slate, cannel coal, and clay slate, and from eastern Tennessee one each of slate, shale, and clay slate.

There are a number of small pebbles, thin and flat, with a hole drilled near the edge, from southeastern Tennessee, North Carolina, and southeastern Arkansas. One of these, from Caldwell county, North Carolina, is of banded slate; the others are of clay slate or sandstone. Two of them have straight and zigzag lines on both faces, and notches around the edge.

Allied to these are a number of pieces of flat stone from southeastern Tennessee, Kanawha valley, and North Carolina, with the faces partially rubbed down smooth, the edges being untouched. They are of slate, talc, or argillite.

From southeastern Tennessee and North Carolina there are several pieces of steatite, which may have been for sinkers. Some have a hole near one end, others a hole at each end, while still others are not perforated. All have been worked over the entire surface, and some of them are well polished. One of these is represented in figure 131.

_B._ Gorgets with two holes. Of these there are several subdivisions, differing more or less widely in form. They are as follows:

1. Thick, with both the sides and the ends incurved or reel-shape; faces flat or slightly convex. This form is represented by the specimen shown in figure 132, from a mound, Knox county, Ohio. There is another from the same place, a third from Kanawha valley, and a fourth from Butler county, Ohio; all of green slate.

2. Rectangular, or with sides or ends, or both, slightly curved, either convex or concave; faces flat. Shown in figure 133 (green slate, from a grave in Kanawha valley, West Virginia).

+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Nicholas county, Kentucky, | | 1| | | | |
| with ends V-shaped | | | | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia| 11| 3| 3| | | |
|Eastern Tennessee | 6| 1| 1| 1| | |
|Ogle county, Illinois | 1| | | | | |
|Forsyth county, Georgia | | | | | | 1 |
|Haywood county, N.C. | | | | | 1| |
|Davidson county, N.C. | | | | | | 1 |
|Chautauqua county, N.Y. | 1| | | | | |
+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Slate.
B = Limestone.
C = Sandstone.
D = Shale.
E = Argillite.
F = Fine quartzite.

3. Widest at middle, with single or double curve from end to end; very thin; both sides flat.

+--------------------------------+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C |
+--------------------------------+---+---+---+
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1 | 4 | |
|Davidson county, North Carolina | 1 | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | 1 |
|Eastern Tennessee | 5 | | 1 |
+--------------------------------+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Slate.
B = Sandstone.
C = Schist.

4. Same outline but thicker; one face flat, the other convex. Represented by figure 134 (shale, from Jackson county, Illinois). The distribution of the form is as follows:

+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | | 2| | 3| 1| 1| |
|Haywood county, North Carolina | | | 1| 2| | | |
|Davidson county, North Carolina| | 1| | | | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | 2| 2| | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 1| | | | | | |
|Jackson county, Illinois | | | | | | | 1|
|Desha county, Arkansas | 1| | | 1| | | |
+-------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

A = Sandstone.
B = Slate.
C = Schist.
D = Steatite.
E = Talc.
F = Argillite.
G = Shale.

5. Same outline, but quite thick, approaching the “boat-shape” stones in form. In some the flat side is slightly hollowed out. A majority of them are not perforated. The type (figure 135) is of sandstone, from a mound at Adelphi, Ohio.

There are also, from Butler county, Ohio, Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Savannah, Georgia, one each of slate; from Ross county, Ohio, two, and from Kanawha valley, and Cocke county, Tennessee, one each, all of sandstone. There are two (of sandstone and slate) from Kanawha valley, which differ from the others in having the sides parallel, giving them a semicylindrical form.

The pattern of the specimen illustrated in figure 136 (striped slate, from Butler county, Ohio, of which a number have been found in that state), may be classed between the gorgets and the boat-shape stones. The shorter end of the object has, sometimes, a projection or enlargement at the top, apparently for suspension, although no perforated examples have been found.

BANNER STONES.

Under the head of “banner stones” are placed ornaments having the ends at right angles to the perforation. The hole is drilled in a midrib, from which the faces slope by either straight or curved lines to the edges. The two halves of the stone are symmetrical. In most specimens one face is flatter than the other, even plane in some cases. Some specimens are finished to a high polish, before the hole is started; others have the hole completed with the exterior more or less unfinished. The specimens in the Bureau collection may be classified as follows:

_A._ Rectangular or trapezoidal, with sides and ends sometimes slightly curved inward or outward.

_B._ Reel-shape.

_C._ Crescentic.

_D._ Butterfly pattern.

The last three varieties may be considered as only modifications of the simple rectangular banner stones. By rounding off the corners of the articles or dressing them to sharp points, by cutting away portions from the sides or by trimming away the central portions at either or both ends of the perforations, all these different forms may be produced.

_A._ A typical specimen is illustrated in figure 137. It is of slate, and was taken from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Another good example, shown in figure 138, is of sandy slate, from a grave in Monroe county, Tennessee. The geographic range of this type is wide, though the objects are not abundant.

+----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1| 1| | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 2| | | |
|Hancock county, Illinois | 1| | | | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | 1| 3| | 1| 1| |
|Eastern Tennessee | | | 2| 1| 1| 1|
+----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Granite.
B = Steatite.
C = Slate.
D = Sandstone.
E = Compact quartzite.
F = Diorite.

_B._ The reel-shape banner stones are somewhat variable, but are fairly illustrated in figure 139, representing a specimen of argillite from Sevier county, Tennessee.

A related form has the middle cut from one end, leaving two horn-like projections extending parallel with the hole. An example of this form, shown in figure 140, is of banded slate, from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia.

_C._ The crescentic banner stones might better be termed “semilunar,” since most of them are flat at one end and curved at the other. Occasionally one has both ends curved and parallel, the sides also slightly curved, making the article reniform. Others have the ends straight and parallel, with the sides curved or like the zone of a circle. Two have a midrib for the hole, with the sides dressed down quite thin, as with the butterfly gorgets. All were finished in form before the drilling was done, though some had not received their final polish. The type is illustrated in figures 141 (steatite, from northwestern North Carolina), 142 (pagodite, from Rhea county, Tennessee), and 143 (sandstone, from Jefferson county, Tennessee). The last form is sometimes called a perforated ax, but the material and fragile make exclude it from every class except the ceremonial stones.

+---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Savannah, Georgia | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | |
|Western North Carolina | 2 | | | | 1 | |
|Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1 | | | | | |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | | 2 |
|Eastern Tennessee | | 1 | | | 2 | |
+---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Steatite.
B = Slate.
C = Granite.
D = Reddle.
E = Pagodite.
F = Talc.

_D._ The “butterfly” gorgets are so named from their resemblance to a butterfly with expanded wings. The sides or wings are usually quite thin, either semicircular or like a spherical triangle in outline. The perforated mid-rib is shorter than the wings and carefully worked. A good example, shown in figure 144, is of ferruginous quartz from Monongahela, Pennsylvania, and that illustrated in figure 145 is of banded slate from Kanawha valley. There is also one of the latter material from Lewis county, Kentucky.

An aberrant form is elliptical in section at the middle, round or nearly so at the ends, the sides expanding rapidly from end to middle by double curves. It is represented by figure 146 (ferruginous quartz, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia), and by a specimen of quartzite from Union county, Mississippi.

BOAT-SHAPE STONES.

There are two types of relics, perhaps ceremonial, for which no use has been determined, and which are named from their general resemblance to the form of a boat. They are as follows:[107]

_A._ With flat face more or less hollowed, sides triangular and parallel. A number are not perforated. The type is shown in figure 147 (striped slate, from Davidson county, North Carolina).

+--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D | E | F |
+--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|Davidson county, North Carolina | | 1| | | | |
|Southeastern Arkansas | 1| | 2| 1| | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | | | | | 1|
|Eastern Tennessee | | | 1| | 1| 1|
+--------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Compact quartzite.
B = Slate.
C = Sandstone.
D = Porphyry.
E = Barite.
F = Steatite.

_B._ Coming to a point at each end; flat side, deeply hollowed; perforations near the ends, with a groove between them in which the suspending cord rested. Some have a flattened projection in which the groove is made. The type (figure 148) is of steatite, from a grave in Sullivan county, Tennessee. The distribution is as follows:

+------------------------+---+---+
| District. | A | B |
+------------------------+---+---+
|Central North Carolina | 3| |
|Eastern Tennessee | 2| 1|
|Savannah, Georgia | | 1|
+------------------------+---+---+

KEY:
A = Steatite.
B = Slate.

PICKS.

The relics known as picks from their form and not at all from their function vary considerably in size. Not all are perforated. A good example, shown in figure 150, is of striped slate, from Knox county, Ohio. There are also in the collection, from Union county, Mississippi, one specimen of greenstone; from Jackson county, North Carolina, one of slate, and from Montgomery county, North Carolina, one each of steatite and slate. The last named is the half of a larger one that was broken at the part drilled, and has had a hole drilled near the larger end of this fragment, which has not been reworked.

SPOOL-SHAPE ORNAMENTS.

Relics of spool shape, probably ornamental rather than industrially useful, are not uncommon in copper, though very rare in stone. The specimen shown in figure 151 is of sandstone, from Jackson county, Arkansas. There are also, from Prairie and Lonoke counties, one each of sandstone, and from Jackson county two of the same material; from Clark county there is one of pinkish slate, with the stem drilled between and parallel to the faces, the others with stems drilled lengthwise.

BIRD-SHAPE STONES.

Stone relics of bird form are quite common north of the Ohio river, but are exceedingly rare south of that stream. A good example, shown in figure 152, is of granite, from Vernon county, Wisconsin, and the collection embraces another specimen, of sandstone, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia.

According to Gillman, bird-shape stones were worn on the head by the Indian women, but only after marriage.[108] Abbott[109] quotes Col. Charles Whittlesey to the effect that they were worn by Indian women to denote pregnancy, and from William Penn that when squaws were ready to marry they wore something on their heads to indicate the fact. Jones[110] quotes from De Bry that the conjurers among the Virginia Indians wore a small, black bird above one of their ears as a badge of their office.

SHAFT RUBBERS.

The shaft of an arrow is straightened by wetting and immersing it in hot sand and ashes, and bringing into shape by the hand and eye. To reduce the short crooks and knobs it is drawn between two rough grit stones, each of which has a slight groove in it; coarse sand is also used to increase the friction.[111]

Again, a rock has a groove cut into it as wide as the shaft and two or three times as deep. Into this the crooked part of the shaft is forced, and by heating or steaming becomes flexible and can be easily made straight, which shape it will retain when dry.[112]

A somewhat different device for the same purpose appears in the Bureau collection. It is illustrated in figure 153 (of fine sandstone); there was another part to correspond with that shown. The specimen is from Monongahela, Pennsylvania.

TUBES.

As the use of stone tubes by the Indians has given rise to considerable discussion, the following references to the various ways in which they have been employed may help to settle it.