Chapter IV: Part 4

Schoolcraft observed that the Dakota Indians used a horn tube in bleeding; one end was set over the cut, and the other vigorously sucked.[113] Powers says that the Klamath Indians use tubes for smoking,[114] while H. H. Bancroft says that the Acaxees of Mexico employ “blowing through a hollow tube” for the cure of disease,[115] and also that the Indians of southern California inhale smoke of certain herbs through a tube to produce intoxication.[116] According to C. C. Jones the Florida and Virginia Indians used reeds in treating diseases by sucking or blowing through them, and also used them in cauterizing; and he observes that the Indians of Lower California employed similar processes, using stone tubes[117] instead of reeds. Hoffman illustrates the removal of disease through the agency of a tube of bone by a Jĕs´sakīd´ or medicine-man of the Ojibwa.[118] Read calls attention to the fact that the old Spanish writers describe a forked wooden tube, the prongs being inserted in the nostrils, while the other end was held over smoldering herbs, and suggests that the Indians may have used stone tubes in the same way.[119]

The Indian mode of inhaling smoke would produce the same result, whether drawn through the mouth or into the nostrils.

The use of stone tubes for astronomical purposes, which has been discovered by some imaginative writers, is, of course, absurd; nevertheless they are useful in viewing distant objects on a bright day, especially when looking toward the sun.

Nearly all of the tubes made of soft material with tapering perforation seem to have been gouged rather than drilled. Schumacher observes that the California Indians drilled their tubes from both ends and enlarged the hole from one end by scraping, the mouthpiece being made of a bird bone stuck on with asphaltum.[120]

There are five classes of stone tubes in the collection of the Bureau, as follows:

_A._ One end flattened and expanding into a wing on either side. This class is illustrated by figure 154 (from Kanawha valley, West Virginia). The corners of this specimen have been trimmed off; the typical form is indicated by the dotted lines. There are also from the same locality one of quartzite, and from Ross county, Ohio, one of sandstone.

_B._ Conical; the bore more tapering than the exterior. Represented by the specimen shown in figure 155, of sandstone, from a mound in Kanawha valley, West Virginia.

+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D |
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
|Sevier county, Tennessee | 1| | | |
|Savannah, Georgia | | 1| | |
|Western North Carolina | | 1| 1| |
|Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 2| | | 1|
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Steatite.
C = Slate.
D = Clay slate.

_C._ Hour-glass shape, usually but not always with a narrow ring or projection around the smallest part. Exterior with gently curving outlines; the perforation is usually in the form of a double cone, with the points at the smallest part of the tube, which may or may not be midway between the ends. A good specimen, illustrated in figure 156, is of steatite, from Sevier county, Tennessee.

_D._ Of nearly uniform diameter inside and out; section circular, elliptical, or flattened on one side. This form is exemplified by figure 157, a specimen from North Carolina. There are also one each from Caldwell, Haywood, and Montgomery counties, North Carolina, all of slate.

_E._ Round or elliptical in section, ¾ to 2½ inches long; probably beads. The collection includes specimens from Bradley county, Tennessee, of steatite; from Savannah, Georgia, of ferruginous sandstone; and from Union county, Mississippi, of jasper.

PIPES.

So much has been written concerning pipes that few references seem necessary, and none will be given except from Col. R. I. Dodge, who, after an experience of many years among the Plains Indians, says that the latter have different pipes for different occasions, as the medicine pipe, peace pipe, council pipe, and a pipe for common use. Each is sacred to its own purpose.[121]

In an article so highly prized by its owner, great pains would be expended to give an ornamental appearance to one which would be used on important ceremonial occasions; and it would be carved or worked in a manner gratifying to its maker or the one for whom it was intended. This fact, and the statement quoted above, will explain the great variety in form from a limited area. Still, in some sections of the country there are certain types that prevail, and may be in some cases peculiar to these localities; such, for instance, are the long stemmed pipes from western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee.

In many pipes of soft stone the bowl is gouged out instead of drilled.

The pipes in the Bureau collection embrace the following classes:

_A._ Stem with an elliptical or somewhat triangular section; the bowl near one end, leaving a projection in front; stem hole in long end. The form is shown in figure 158. From Caldwell county, North Carolina there are two similar pipes of steatite. Another, from Preston county, West Virginia, differs only in having the stem hole in the short end.

_B._ Same form of stem; no projection in front, the bottom of the stem curving up gradually into the front of the bowl. This type is represented by figure 159 (of steatite, from a mound in Loudon county, Tennessee). There are also, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, an example of talcose slate, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, one of steatite.

_C._ Stem having a midrib in which the hole is bored. One of steatite, from Caldwell county, North Carolina, has a prow; the others have not. Another of steatite from Loudon county, Tennessee, has a slender projection below the bowl, as if for a handle. The axis of the bowl and that of the stem meet at any angle between 100° and 170°. Figure 160 represents a typical specimen, of steatite, from a mound in Sullivan county, Tennessee. There are also, from Caldwell county, North Carolina, and Kanawha and Preston counties, West Virginia, one each, and from Sullivan county, Tennessee, two, all of steatite; and there is an example from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, of material not identified.

_D._ With bowls and stems either round or square; very large. A good example (figure 161) is of red sandstone, from southeastern Missouri; it is the only pipe in the entire collection of the Bureau on which is shown any attempt at ornamentation. From Jefferson county, Tennessee, and Savannah, Georgia, there are one each, of steatite.

_E._ Cylindrical bowl, with a square-edged groove around it near the middle, below which the bottom has a somewhat celt like form, with stem hole in one side. A small hole is drilled near the edge at the bottom, probably for the purpose of suspending feathers or other ornaments. The type is represented by figure 162 (of limestone, from Crawford county, Wisconsin). Pipes of the same form are found also in central Ohio.

_F._ Round stem from one-half inch to 10 inches long; bowl at extreme end, set on at various angles from nearly a right angle to almost a straight line. Good examples are illustrated in figure 163 (steatite, from Caldwell county, North Carolina) and 164 (also of steatite, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee). The other specimens in the collection are distributed as shown in the table:

+--------------------------------+---+---+
| District. | A | B |
+--------------------------------+---+---+
|Eastern Tennessee | 4| 7|
|Caldwell county, North Carolina | | 22|
|Chester county, South Carolina | | 1|
+--------------------------------+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Steatite.

_G._ Same form of stem, short, with flange around the top of the bowl. Represented by one of sandstone, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee (figure 165), and three of sandstone and two of marble from eastern Tennessee.

_H._ Small, stem more or less squared, bowl upright. There are two examples of this class from Monroe county, Tennessee, each having a flat projection or ridge on top of the stem, which is perforated for attachment of ornaments. The type, represented in figure 166, is of clay slate, from Monroe county, Tennessee. It will appear from the following table that the distribution of this form is limited:

+-----------------------+---+---+---+
|District. | A | B | C |
+-----------------------+---+---+---+
|Savannah, Georgia | 1| | |
|Eastern Tennessee | 1| 1| 2|
|Western North Carolina | | | 3|
+-----------------------+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Sandstone.
B = Clay slate.
C = Steatite.

_I._ Egg-shape bowl, stem hole in the side. One from Bradley county, Tennessee, of argillaceous limestone, has a hole drilled from end to end, but no stem hole. It may have been made so intentionally, or the drilling may have been carried too far and the specimen left unfinished. The type is of barite, from Sevier county, Tennessee (shown in figure 167). Another specimen, from McMinn county, Tennessee, is of argillaceous limestone.

_J._ Form like last, with a flange around the top of the bowl. A typical specimen, shown in figure 168, is of steatite, from Loudon county, Tennessee. There are, also, from Preston county, West Virginia, one of sandstone, and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, two of steatite.

_K._ Bowls egg-shape, but quite long and sometimes rather pointed at the bottom; stem hole in the side. This class includes the following: From Savannah, Georgia; Roane county, Tennessee; and Adams county, Ohio, one each of sandstone; from Holt county, Missouri, one of micaceous sandstone; from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, one of indurated red clay, possibly catlinite; and from Caldwell county, North Carolina, three of steatite.

CHIPPED STONE ARTICLES.

MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURE.

The chipped implements in the Bureau collection, are nearly always made of some form of flint or similar chalcedonic rock, as it is easily chipped and can be brought to a keen edge or point. Sometimes quartz, quartzite, argillite, or even a more granular rock is used; but this is infrequent, and is due to the scarcity of the more desirable material.

In the spades and hoes first to be considered the flaking seems to have been by percussion mainly, if not entirely; the same method appears to have been employed in obtaining flakes from blocks, to work into the smaller implements. Some of the processes used in making them will be hereinafter described.

SPADES.

It must be admitted that most Indians depended largely on agriculture for subsistence; some historical works that represent them as barbarous hunters, depending entirely on the chase, will, on the same page perhaps, relate how Virginia and New England pioneers were saved from starvation by supplies of corn, beans, and pumpkins obtained from the Indians. This being the case, some method of cultivation was necessary.

It is not to be inferred that “cultivation” implies all that is now meant by the term; the Indian seems merely to have worked the hill in which his corn was planted and not the whole surface of the field, a shallow hole being scooped out in which the grain was dropped, and as the stalk became larger the dirt was heaped up around it. The remains of many “Indian old fields” in various parts of the country show this, there being no long ridges as in cornfields of the present day, but only a great number of these detached hills. The great scarcity of implements suitable for such work argues nothing, for in most parts of the country stone easily worked and adapted to the purpose is unobtainable.

There are a few flint deposits found in southern Illinois in which the material occurs in nodules that can be made with even less work than a piece of wood into suitable implements; and in the country which may be considered as belonging to this archeologic district the flint hoes and spades are tolerably abundant. In other portions of the country, wood, the shoulder blades of large animals, and musselshells perforated for attachment to a handle, were formerly used; the shells are frequently found, but the other materials have long since disappeared.

Early observations on the industries of the aborigines are significant. Thus, according to De Forest, the Connecticut Indians used spades rudely constructed of wood, or of a large shell fastened to a wooden handle;[122] and Palmer[123] figures a hoe made of horn, 14 by 5 by one-fourth inches, in a wooden handle 5 feet long, which is split and slipped over the smaller end; such, with others of wood and stone, were used among the Utah Indians before iron was introduced. Dawson holds that they were probably prepared in large numbers for the planting time, when the whole tribe mustered to till the fields, and that when the work was over they were gathered and hidden in some safe place until the next season.[124] This may have been the case to some extent, but the specimens found in these hiding places seldom have marks of use, and it is more probable that they were the property either of persons living at a distance or of an individual manufacturer in some particular village, being thus concealed for safe-keeping until there was a demand for them or, perhaps, to await a convenient time for transportation. A sedentary tribe would have no more reason for hiding this than any other kind of property.

The chipped implements known as spades are frequently found buried in large numbers. Two caches were disclosed by high water in 1884, near Caseyville, Kentucky, containing, respectively, 57 and 75 specimens from 6 to 13 inches long.

The most common form is that having an oval or elliptical outline, with the ends either coming to a point or rounded. Long use of those having pointed ends would wear them off until they approached the others in form; but so many of both patterns show no evidence of use that this distinction must be considered intentional. The principal varieties are as follows:

_A._ Those with pointed ends. Figure 169 represents a typical specimen of yellow flint, from Union county, Illinois.

+----------------------------+---+---+
| District. | A | B |
+----------------------------+---+---+
|Southwestern Illinois | 2| 2|
|Southeastern Arkansas | 2| |
|Cheatham county, Tennessee | | 1|
|Union county, Mississippi | 1| |
+----------------------------+---+---+

KEY:
A = Yellow flint.
B = Grey flint.

_B._ Those with the ends rounded. Represented by figure 170 (yellow flint, from Union county, Illinois).

+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+
| District. | A | B | C | D |
+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+
|Southwestern Illinois | 2| 2| | |
|Cheatham county, Tennessee | | | 1| |
|Lauderdale county, Tennessee | 1| | | |
|Polk county, Tennessee | | | | |
|Lauderdale county, Alabama | | | | 4|
|Craighead county, Arkansas | 1| | | |
+-----------------------------+---+---+---+---+

KEY:
A = Yellow flint.
B = Grey flint.
C = Brown flint.
D = Argillite.

A specimen from Jackson county, Illinois, has had a portion of the edge broken squarely. The polish over this fractured surface shows that it was long used after breaking without being rechipped to a sharp edge. This indicates usage only in loose ground, as it evidently would be quite difficult to force the square, broken part into a hard soil or tough sod.

The specimens from Polk county, Tennessee, are pecked or chipped, or both, and are quite roughly made. They are neither scratched nor polished, and may be unfinished implements of some other class, though agreeing closely with the flint spades in shape and size.

_C._ A modification of the last form has the upper portion chipped away along the sides until it is ovoid, with a blunt point, leaving the lower part a regular curve. An example, shown in figure 171, is of grayish brown flint, from Scott county, Missouri. There are also one each from Mississippi county, Missouri, and Hopkins county, Kentucky, of the same material.

_D._ Like the above, but much shorter in ratio to the width, and with a flatter curve. The type, figure 172, is of yellow flint, from a mound in Obion county, Tennessee. There are also three from Union county, Illinois, one of them with almost the same dimensions.

_E._ Semicircular outline, with sides notched for securing the handle, as in arrowpoints and spearheads. Represented by figure 173, showing a specimen of gray flint from a mound in Mississippi county, Arkansas. There are four additional specimens, all from Union county, Illinois.

_F._ A related form, also notched for attachment of handle. Figure 174 represents an example of yellow flint, from Poinsett county, Arkansas, the only one of this shape in the collection.

From Jackson county, Illinois, there is a series beginning with a small scraper and a small scraper-like celt, and passing gradually into the large spades or digging-tools, there being a number of intermediate forms and sizes. Two specimens, only 6 inches long, have the glazed surface so characteristic of these implements, which could have been produced only by long-continued use in digging.

From a workshop at Mill creek, Union county, Illinois, there are a large number of pieces in every stage of work. Among them can be made series of all the different types here given, from the nodule in its natural state to the completed implement. Near by is a flint deposit showing extensive aboriginal quarrying.

Dawson,[125] in speaking of these implements, says: “The rudest of all rude implements, similar to the paleoliths of Europe, were used by the more settled and civilized agricultural nations.” While the majority of them are rude, simply because there was no necessity for elaborate work or fine finish in tools of this class, yet there are many specimens (as, for example, the one shown in figure 171) which in symmetry and workmanship will compare favorably with the larger specimens of other types, due regard being had to the fact that the coarse flint of which they are usually made does not admit of the most delicate execution.

TURTLEBACKS.

The singular name “turtleback” is suggested instantly on seeing a specimen of the class so designated by Abbott and others. As commonly used, it refers to rude or unfinished leaf-shape implements of any size, which may be found in great abundance almost anywhere. It is used here, however, to denote more especially the disks or almond-shaped pieces of flint or chert sometimes found cached in considerable numbers.

Perkins[126] records the discovery of such caches in Vermont; an exceptional case, as they are seldom found outside of the Mississippi valley. The southern portion of Illinois has furnished more than any other section; those found there are almost invariably made from nodules of bluish gray hornstone, the concentric lines being strongly marked.[127]

The Bureau has secured a large number from southern Illinois, ranging from 3½ to 7½ inches in length, some nearly circular, others having a length nearly twice the breadth. All have secondary chipping around the edges. Many of the larger ones and most of the smaller have the edges more or less worn or polished in such manner as would result from use as knives or scrapers. A typical specimen is shown in figure 175.

Stevens[128] denies in strongest terms that these relics are unfinished implements, saying it is the worst possible form into which flint could be chipped for carrying or for future work. On the other hand, Cheever[129] says the Indians of California usually carry a pouch of treasures, consisting of unfinished arrowheads or unworked stones, to be slowly wrought out when they are industriously inclined. Catlin, too, observed that the Apache sometimes carry bowlders of hornstone a long distance to obtain material for arrowheads;[130] and according to im Thurn, the various Indian tribes of Guiana have each their special manufacture and exchange with other tribes.[131] Tylor says:

Till lately the Patagonians, when they came on their journeys
to a place where suitable flint or obsidian was to be found,
would load themselves with a supply of lumps to chip into these
primitive currier’s scrapers.[132]

Both Jewitt[133] and Evans[134] say that stones of this character were used as sling-stones; but there is no evidence that North American Indians ever used slings. Speaking of similar stones, Tylor remarks:

They were used either as knives or scrapers; with the curved
side upward (or out) there would be no danger of cutting a hide
in skinning game, and they could be used to cut up the flesh;
while by putting the pointed end in the handle they could be
used as scrapers.[135]

The smoothed edge in so many specimens substantiates the last statement, while the theory that they are unfinished implements finds support in the fact that nearly all the nodules from which they are made have an ellipsoid form, and the present shape of the implement would result from chipping away the useless weathered surface to lessen the weight.

SMALLER CHIPPED IMPLEMENTS.

MATERIALS AND MODES OF MANUFACTURE.

In the remaining portion of this paper, which will treat of the smaller chipped implements, a plan somewhat different from that of the preceding part will be followed.

As already stated, these specimens are almost invariably made of some form of flint; this term including chalcedony, basanite, jasper, chert, hornstone, and similar rocks. So common is its use that the term “flints” is gradually being adopted as a name for all the different classes of arrowheads, knives, drills, etc. The exceptions are not numerous enough to justify separate classification, so no tables of material will be used. Further, the great abundance of such relics in all portions of the country makes useless any allusion to the number from any particular locality; about the only limitation to their discovery is the amount of time and care which one chooses to give.

Before entering on the description, some quotations may be given in regard to methods of making these chipped implements.

According to Evans, the Mexican Indians take a piece of obsidian in the left hand and press it firmly against the point of a small goathorn held in the right, and by moving it gently in different directions they chip off small flakes until the arrow is complete;[136] they also cut a notch in the end of a bone, into which the edge of the flake is inserted and a chip broken off by a sideways blow.[137] According to the same author, the Eskimo sometimes set the flake in a piece of split wood. The arrow is roughly chipped by blows with a hammer, either direct or with a punch interposed, and is then finished by pressing off fine chips with a point of antler set in an ivory handle.[138] Not only leaf-shape barbed arrows, but also ones either with or without the stem, can be produced by pressure with a point of antler; the former, however, are the more easily made, and were probably earlier in use.[139]

The Plains Indians lay the flat side of a flake of obsidian on a blanket, or other yielding substance, and with a knife nick off the edges rapidly. In their primitive state they probably used buckskin instead of the blankets, and pointed bone or horn instead of the knife.[140]

The Apache holds the flake or flint in his left hand, places his punch at the point where the chip is to be broken off, and it is struck by an assistant, thus knocking a chip from the under side; the flake is then turned and the process repeated, until the arrow is complete. The stone is held in the hand, as it can not be chipped on a hard substance.[141] A punch observed by Catlin in use by these Indians was a whale tooth 6 or 7 inches long, with one round and two flat sides. The Fuegians, according to the same authority, use a similar process and make as fine implements.[142]

The Eskimo make a spoon-shaped cavity in a log, lay the flake over it, and press along the margin, first on one side and then on the other, like setting a saw, until they form two sharp serrated edges. The working tool is a point of antler firmly bound into a piece of ivory. The same plan is used by widely separated peoples.[143]

Nilsson, in chipping out gun flints with a stone hammer, found it necessary to have the point operated on lie immediately above a point that rested on the rock “anvil” which he used.[144]

The Veeard or Wiyot of California used a pair of buck-horn pincers tied together with a thong at the point; they first hammered out the arrowhead in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nipped off one tiny fragment after another.[145] The Klamath cover the hand with a piece of buckskin to keep it from being cut, and lay a flake along the ball of the thumb, holding it firmly with the fingers. With a point of antler from 4 to 6 inches long, they press against the edge, thus removing scales from the opposite side; they turn the flake around and over frequently, to preserve symmetry.[146]

The Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, holds the edge of the flake against it, and with his stone hammer chips off flakes, finishing the base first, and gently chipping the whole arrow into shape. Both obsidian and glass are used.[147] The Shoshoni Indians used the same process.[148]

A Pit River Indian has been seen to make a very sharp and piercing arrow from a piece of quartz, with only a piece of round bone, one end of which was hemispherical with a small crease in it (as if made by a thread) one-sixteenth of an inch deep. The arrow was made by pressing off flakes by main strength, the crease being to prevent the bone from slipping, and affording no leverage.[149] John Smith (1607) says of the Powhatan Indian:

His arrowhead he maketh quickly, with a little bone, of any
splint of stone or glass.[150]

The Cloud River Indian used two deer prongs, one much smaller than the other, the points ground to the form of a square, sharp-pointed file. He had also some pieces of iron wire tied to sticks and ground in the same manner; these were better than the deer horn, because harder, and not needing to be sharpened so often. The flake was held firmly in the left hand, guarded by a piece of buckskin; he pressed off chips with the larger tool, turning the arrow end-for-end when done on one side, so as to keep the edge opposite the middle line. The notches for barbs were worked out in a similar manner with the smaller tool.[151]

Some of the California Indians prefer agate and obsidian for their implements, as the close grain admits more careful working. They use a tool with its working edge shaped like a glazier’s diamond (apparently a piece of bone or antler with a square-cut notch on the side); the flake is held in the left hand, while the nick in the side of the tool is used to chip small fragments.[152] Peale makes similar statements, and adds that the notches are of different sizes to suit the different stages of work.[153]

The Klamath Indians, according to Schumacher, have a slender stick 1½ feet long, with a piece of sea-lion tooth, or antler, fastened to the end of it. Holding one end under the arm to steady it, they take a flake in the left hand, wrapped in a piece of buckskin so as to leave only the edge exposed, and by pressure with the point of the tool break off flakes as large as necessary, the last being quite fine, to give sharp edges to the arrow. The notches are worked out by means of a point of bone 4 or 5 inches long, without a shaft.[154] Chase gives a similar account, but says that iron points have now taken the place of the bone or horn points formerly used.[155]

It may not be out of place in this connection to give a few quotations in regard to the length of time required for making an arrowhead.

According to the Marquis de Nadaillac, the Mexicans could turn out a hundred flint knives (probably only unworked obsidian flakes) an hour,[156] while Crook says that the Plains Indians with only a knife for nicking off the edges, will make from fifty to one hundred arrows in the same period.[157] Chase found that a Klamath Indian required five minutes to complete a perfect arrowhead;[158] though Stevens observes that a Shasta Indian spent an hour in chipping one from a flake of obsidian,[159] and Lubbock states that the most skillful Indian workmen can not hope to complete more than a single arrow in a day’s hard work.[160] Powers also speaks of the aborigines of California as "using that infinite patience which is characteristic of the Indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, upon a single piece;[161] and Tylor notes “that utter disregard of time that lets the Indian spend a month in making an arrow.”[162]

The last two references are probably to the large and finely worked pieces used for ceremonial or ornamental purposes.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE IMPLEMENTS.

The only practicable division of the greater part of the smaller flints is into stemmed and stemless, the former having a prolongation at the base for firmer attachment to a shaft or handle, the latter being of a triangular or oval shape. The stemmed implements may be barbed or not, and the stem either narrower or broader toward the end.

The name “arrowhead” so commonly applied, fits only the minority of specimens, as none but the smaller ones could be so used; the larger are too heavy. The longest stone arrowpoint in the extensive collection of arrows in the National Museum measures two and five-eighths inches in length and is narrow and thin. An arrowpoint two inches in length is seldom seen. The larger specimens were probably knives and spearheads; but it would be difficult to assign any certain use for a particular type, the markings on so many indicate usage for which their shape would seem to render them unsuitable. It is probable that a single specimen served a variety of purposes.

Wood, bone, and shell were also used to a considerable extent, in the manufacture of implements for which flint would seem much better adapted. Thus for fish spears the southern Indians used canes, sharp-pointed, barbed, and hardened in the fire,[163] while knives were formerly made of flint or cane; these are still used when the hunting knife has been lost.[164] The California Indians had arrows tipped with hard-pointed wood for common use, and with agate or obsidian for war.[165]

The accompanying diagram (figure 176) will render plain the different terms used in the following descriptions:

KEY:
_a_ Point.
_b_ Edge.
_c_ Face.
_d_ Bevel.[166]
_e_ Blade.
_f_ Tang.
_g_ Stem.
_h_ Base.
_i_ Notch.
_k_ Neck.
_m_ Barb, or shoulder.
]

The only difference between barb and shoulder is that the barb is prolonged toward the base. The shoulder is called squared or rounded according to whether the edge of the implement makes an angle or a curve where drawn in to form the stem.

In the stemless specimens the base is the end opposite the point.

A tapering stem means one narrowing toward the base; straight, one whose sides are parallel; and expanding, one which is widest at the base.

STEMLESS FLINTS.

CHARACTERS AND USES.

The stemless flints are triangular or oval in outline. For convenience they will be divided into those small enough for arrowpoints (not above 2½ inches long) and those which are too large for such purpose. The latter reach to the length of 7½ inches. They are chipped to a sharp edge all around. The ratio of width to length varies from 1:4 to 4:5.

These objects were mostly for use as knives, scrapers or spearheads. Some of the thicker ones were spikes for clubs. Abbott[167] mentions three triangular jasper implements 3 to 4 inches long from graves, associated with fragments of large bones which showed plainly that they had been used for clubs, and the Iroquois are known to have used a club with a sharp-pointed deer-horn about four inches long inserted in the lower side. Schoolcraft[168] illustrates a pointed stone with a square section (apparently of the class usually called “picks”), mounted in a club which is curved at the end to let the spike set in the end at a right angle to the handle; and Brickell observes that the North Carolina Indians used clubs or long poles, in the ends of which were fastened artificially sharpened stones, or horns of animals.[169] Morgan also notes that among the Iroquois rows of arrow-shaped chert heads about two feet in extent have been found lying side by side. They were set in a frame and fastened with thongs, forming a species of sword.[170] According to Tylor the Mexicans had a similar sword, with obsidian teeth gummed in holes in a war club,[171] and Bourke observed at Taos pueblo a similar weapon with iron teeth.[172] But the number of specimens found mounted indicates that most of them were used as knives or scrapers.

LARGER IMPLEMENTS.

_A._ With base and edges straight or slightly convex; corners square. The type illustrated in figure 177 is from Montgomery county, North Carolina. Similar forms come also from eastern Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern and central Kentucky; and Savannah, Georgia.

_B._ Base straight or nearly so; edges parallel most of the length, curving abruptly to a point; usually with one face less convex than the other, even quite flat, giving a plano-convex section; medium size. The specimen shown in figure 178, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is representative. Other examples come from eastern Tennessee; central North Carolina; northwestern Alabama; Kanawha valley; and southwestern Illinois.

_C._ Base straight or nearly so; corners square or slightly rounded; edges convex, curving gradually and regularly to the point; usually widest about one-third of the way above the base; varying much in width, and in length from 6½ inches down to the arrowpoint. A few of the largest have the edges slightly expanding at their junction with the base, for firmer attachment to a handle. The type is figure 179 (from Loudon county, Tennessee). Other specimens are from eastern Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Arkansas; central and northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; southwestern Illinois; and Coosa valley, Alabama.

_D._ Narrow and thick; up to 6 inches long; convex base; edges straight to the base, where they expand somewhat, giving the implement a bell shape. The largest specimen in the lot (figure 180) has both faces polished almost the entire length, a feature absent from all the others. This example is from Caldwell county, North Carolina. The form is found also in central and western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and northeastern Arkansas. Few of the flints occur in the collection except from the two localities first mentioned, where they are moderately abundant.

_E._ Elliptical outline; some very thin, others resembling celts. One from Kanawha valley has the projecting facets and ridges on one face very smooth from use, those on the other being still sharp, as when first chipped. The one figured has the edge worn smooth entirely around, seemingly from use as a cutting tool, the ends being most worn. Represented by figure 181 (from Dane county, Wisconsin). Found also in southern and southwestern Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Arkansas; central and western North Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; Kanawha valley; and South Carolina.

_F._ With the outline a continuous curve from the point entirely around, the base being regularly rounded. This is the model of the pointed oval or leaf-shape flint. Sometimes one face is flatter than the other, being less worked, or in a few cases the unaltered flat side of a flake. Usually they are quite symmetrical, but occasionally one edge is more curved than the other. The type illustrated in figure 182 is from Vernon county, Wisconsin. Other specimens are from western and central Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley; northeastern Kentucky; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northwestern and northeastern Georgia, and Savannah.

_G._ With convex edges and slightly convex base; being a medium between the triangular and the leaf-shape. Some are quite narrow and thick, others wide and thin; the former probably clubs or spearheads, the latter knives. A good example, shown in figure 183, is from Savannah, Georgia. Others are from central Arkansas; central Ohio; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; central North Carolina; southern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; northeastern Alabama; and South Carolina.

_H._ Pointed at each end; mostly elliptical, though sometimes widest near one end; from 5 to 12 inches long. Nearly all are thin and finely worked, with sharp edges. One from Cheatham county, Tennessee, has a deep notch on each edge about one-third of the way from one end, this end being somewhat rounded. The type (figure 184) is from Lonoke county, Arkansas. Other specimens are from central Arkansas, southwestern Illinois, northern and eastern Tennessee.

_I._ A similar pattern, but having one end continued into a narrow point, shown in figure 185, is from Bartow county, Georgia. Another of the same kind comes from Loudon county, Tennessee.

_J._ Similar to group _H_, but with the edges straight for more than half the length, probably to afford a more convenient hold for the hand. The form is shown in figure 186, representing a specimen from Mississippi county, Arkansas. Others are from northwestern Georgia, southwestern Illinois, and northeastern Arkansas. There are a few similar in method of chipping to those of group _I_, but smaller and very narrow, from eastern and western Tennessee and northeastern Arkansas.

_K._ Double-pointed or lenticular in outline; quite symmetrical; from 2 to 4 inches long; thin and well worked. Represented in northeastern Arkansas; South Carolina; central and western North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Scioto valley, and central Ohio; Kanawha valley; and northwestern Georgia.

_L._ With straight or concave base; edges diverging by straight or slightly convex lines for about half the length from the base, then curving to the point. There is considerable variation in the relative width of these, as well as the amount of concavity at the base. None with this outline of the edges has a convex base. From 2 to 6 inches long. The form is illustrated by figures 187 (from Lawrence county, Ohio), and 188 (from Blount county, Tennessee). In addition to the specimens figured, there is material in the collection from Scioto valley, Ohio; central and western North Carolina; Keokuk, Iowa; Brown county, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; southern Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia.

_M._ A modification of the last form in which the edge expands just at the base, forming a point at each corner or shoulder. Illustrated in figure 189. The specimen figured is from Forsyth county, Georgia. Others are from northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Wisconsin; and Kanawha valley.

SMALLER OBJECTS.

Small triangular or oval arrowpoints, differing from those previously described in being too small for any similar uses, few of them being so much as two inches in length, and varying from that size to not more than half an inch. Nearly all are very thin, though some of the narrower ones may have a diamond or thick lenticular section. Some are very slender, so much so that they are usually classed as perforators; others are equilateral. Both the base and edges may be straight, convex, or concave. A few have a shallow notch in each edge just above the corner; nearly all, however, have both base and edge continuous.

The groups and subdivisions which have been recognized among the smaller chipped flint objects in the Bureau collection may be enumerated as follows:

_A._ Concave base. The concavity may vary from almost a straight line to one-third the length of the flint. Usually symmetric, as in figures 190 and 191, though sometimes one tang or barb, if it may be called such, is longer than the other, as in figure 192. A very few have beveled or serrated edges.

1. Convex edges. The type, shown in figure 190, is from Jefferson county, Tennessee. Other specimens are from eastern Tennessee; Union county, Mississippi; northwestern Georgia, and Bibb county and Savannah in the same state; central and western North Carolina; Miami and Scioto valleys and central Ohio; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and southwestern Arkansas.

2. Straight edges, as in the specimen illustrated in figure 191, from Ouachita county, Arkansas. Similar specimens are found in northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Union county, Mississippi; and northeastern Kentucky.

3. Concave edges. This abundant form is illustrated in figures 192 (Cherokee county, Georgia), 193 (Caldwell county, North Carolina), and 194 (Washington county, Virginia). Other specimens are from northwestern Georgia and Savannah; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, Alabama. This subdivision of group _A_ is abundant, as well as widely distributed.

_B._ With straight bases. These are all small, the broad ones being short and the long ones slender. Most of them are both short and narrow.

1. Convex edges as in figures 195 (McMinn county, Tennessee) and 196 (Bradley county, Tennessee). The form is widely distributed, being represented by specimens from eastern Tennessee; northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; Union county, Mississippi; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; and western North Carolina.

2. Straight edges. Exemplified by the specimen shown in figure 197, from McMinn county, Tennessee. Found also in eastern Tennessee; northeastern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; Bartow county and Savannah, Georgia; South Carolina, and northeastern Kentucky.

3. Concave edges, as in figure 198 (from Bledsoe county, Tennessee). Other examples of this class are from eastern Tennessee; Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; western and central North Carolina; northeastern Alabama; southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia.

_C._ Convex bases. Less abundant than the preceding, and the forms representing it are less variable. Its sub-groups are as follows:

1. Convex edges. Some of these have a slight reverse curve at the base, giving a slight barb or shoulder. A few are widest at or near the middle, with bases somewhat pointed, but most of them are widest at the junction of the base and edges. They are mostly of the leaf-shaped type, but quite small. Figure 199 (Mississippi county, Arkansas) is a good example. Others are from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; northwestern Georgia; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois, and Miami valley, Ohio.

2. Edges concave or nearly straight. There are very few of this form, as nearly all with the base convex have the edges also convex. The type (figure 200) is from Lawrence county, Ohio; others are from Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; and southeastern and southwestern Arkansas.

Two exceptional forms, which may be considered modifications of the triangular, come from eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. The first, which is pentagonal, is shown in figure 201; the second, a medium between a perforator and a deeply serrated, triangular arrowpoint, is shown in figure 202.

While it is likely that the smaller flints, last described, were intended for arrows, it can not be stated with confidence whether they were for use in war or in hunting. It is said that some of the western Indians used barbless arrows with, long, tapering blades, firmly attached to the shaft, for hunting, while for war barbed arrows, only slightly attached, were employed.[173]

In many arrows with triangular points in the National Museum the sinew with which the flint is fastened to the shaft is brought over the corner or shoulder in such a way as to bind the point as firmly as could be done if it were barbed or stemmed, so that when the shaft is drawn from a wound the point must come with it. If an arrowhead of this form were inserted in a shaft, which was then wrapped behind the flint, the latter would remain in the wound when the shaft was withdrawn.

There is no reason for supposing that only the larger points were used for war purposes; the greater penetrating power of the thin, sharp ones would seem to fit them especially for such work, and it is probable that the smaller straight or tapering-stemmed flints (next to be described) were also utilized for this purpose, as they could be easily detached. Those with expanding stem may have been used for hunting, as they could be permanently fastened to the shaft.

STEMMED FLINTS.

The abundant and variable material of this class may roughly be grouped by form into two divisions, in the first of which the stem is tapering or straight, while in the second the stem is generally expanding.

STRAIGHT OR TAPER STEMS.

_A._ Square or rounded shoulders; stem concave at base; edges usually convex, rarely straight or concave. Nearly all are of quartzite or coarse flint, roughly worked, the one illustrated (figure 203) being above the average, and are mostly from western North Carolina and the adjacent portions of South Carolina and Tennessee. All of them exceed three inches in length. Those from Savannah, Georgia, are usually much wider relative to the length than the specimens in the Bureau collection from other localities.

The specimen figured is from Montgomery county, North Carolina; others are from western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and northwestern Georgia and Savannah.

_B._ Similar to the last, except that the base is straight or convex, instead of concave. Large size, and nearly all of rough finish; mostly of argillite or flint, a few of quartzite. Varying considerably in width, as well as in thickness, some having almost a diamond section, others wide and thin, the latter generally having the edges worked quite sharp. Some are made from a large flake which has been dressed on one side only. One from Montgomery county, North Carolina, has the end opposite the stem worked round and sharp, similar to the blunt arrowheads, but its size excludes it from this class. From Savannah there are several which are chipped very thin, and smoothly finished, but they are exceptional; some from this locality are very large, reaching 5 by 3 inches, while others are almost as wide as they are long.

The specimens of this form are chiefly from western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Illinois; northwestern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and central Ohio.

_C._ Of the same general form as the last, but much smaller, and finely worked. Most seem to be intended for arrowheads. The specimen illustrated in figure 204 is from Caldwell county, North Carolina; others are from South Carolina; western and central North Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Miami valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; northwestern and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; and southeastern Arkansas.

_D._ Convex edges; stem usually tapering with straight base, though it is noticeable that some are straight with convex base. Resembling the last in form, but slender; from 1¾ to 4¼ inches long. From western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and Savannah, Georgia.

_E._ Differing from specimen shown in figure 203, in having the edges expand at the shoulders in a projection or point, and varying more in size, some being small enough for arrowheads. All from Savannah (including the example shown in figure 205) are of smoother finish than those from other sections, and are usually larger, ranging from 2½ to 4½ inches long. There are some from this locality with base straight or convex. Found also in western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and northeastern Alabama; Brown county, Illinois; northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern Georgia.

_F._ Edge having a double curve, being convex toward the point, and curving outward at the shoulders. Few of them are barbed, though many have the shoulder much expanded. Base sometimes convex or concave, but more often straight; in a few it is somewhat pointed. In most of the smaller specimens the base is notched, but of these none are over 2½ inches long. Stem tapering or expanding, rarely straight. A few have the base rubbed smooth and dull, or even polished (this feature appears in other forms, as noted); it seems to result from use as a knife or scraper, but the implement as a whole does not appear to be adapted to such use. None of them are over 3½ inches long, except a few from Savannah; all from there are wide, but from other places the longer ones are all narrow.

The specimens illustrated (figures 206 and 207) are from Madison county, Alabama, and Kanawha valley, respectively. Others are from northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; Catahoula parish, Louisiana; western and central North Carolina; southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; South Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; and Miami valley, Ohio.

_G._ Convex edges; sharp points; stem always long and tapering; base somewhat pointed, or outline of whole stem forming a regular curve. Some slightly barbed, but mostly with only a small shoulder. The specimens vary much in size, and also in delicacy of workmanship. Classed by function the group would probably be divided among several. The example shown in figure 208 is from Jackson county, Illinois. Others come from southwestern Illinois; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; Kanawha valley; northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; western and central Arkansas; and southern Wisconsin.

_H._ Similar to group _G_, save that the edges are straight while the stem is somewhat shorter. All the specimens are small. Found in western North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and southeastern Arkansas.

_I._ Differing from group _G_ in having concave sides; none are barbed, and some have very wide shoulders. Nearly all are large. Two from Savannah have the base straight, all the others being of the common type. The type (fairly exemplified in figure 209) is from Union county, Illinois, and others come from southwestern Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; western North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.

_J._ Lozenge or diamond shape; the four edges straight or nearly so, varying a little toward convexity or concavity. In some the base does not come to a point but is rounded or truncated; sometimes, though seldom, there is a slight shoulder. From 1¼ to 3½ inches long. A typical example, shown in figure 210, is from Chester county, South Carolina. Additional material is from South Carolina; Kanawha valley; Brown and Ogle counties, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; western North Carolina; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, Alabama.

_K._ Edges usually convex, sometimes nearly straight, gradually rounding off into the stem, which may be straight, tapering, or slightly expanding; base straight or slightly convex. All of these are narrow, mostly thick, and none over two inches long. The type (figure 211) is from Bledsoe county, Tennessee; others are from eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; northwestern Georgia; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; and northeastern and southeastern Arkansas.

_L._ Edges convex, a very few being straight; shoulders square or somewhat rounded, in two or three somewhat expanding. Stem usually straight, sometimes tapering; base straight or convex. Varying much in size and relative width, being from 1¼ to 4½ inches long, and from ¾ to 2½ inches wide; some slender, others broad. Nearly all are quite roughly made. Illustrated in figure 212 (from Cherokee county, Georgia).

Like many other forms of small chipped implements, the distribution in this type is wide. It comes from northwestern Georgia and about Savannah; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; Miami valley, Ohio; southwestern Illinois; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; and southwestern Arkansas.

_M._ Convex edges; sharp points; very slight shoulders; stem tapering by curved lines; base convex or somewhat pointed. All made of quartz, quartzite, or coarse flint, and differing from the following group only in being very slender and, owing to the material employed, much more roughly finished. Found in western North Carolina, in South Carolina, and in southwestern Arkansas.

_N._ Convex edges; remarkably symmetrical outline; most specimens finely finished; slight shoulders; tapering stem, with convex base, the whole stem having a quite regularly curved outline. From 2 to 4½ inches long.

The type which is shown in figure 213 is from Dane county, Wisconsin. This group also is widely distributed, being found in southern and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio, and the central part of the same state; northeastern, central, and southeastern Arkansas; western North Carolina; and Kanawha valley.