Chapter XI: Globes of the Second Half of the Seventeenth Century (2)

We have no definite information as to the circumstances attending Coronelli's first interest in globe construction. It appears that his first work in this line, a pair of large manuscript globes, opened immediately to him a path to fame, for these had come to adorn the library of the Duke of Parma to whom the French Cardinal, d'Estrées, in the year 1680 had occasion to pay a visit and they immediately won the cardinal's interest. A pair of such globes, thought he, for so runs the story, would be a source of great delight to His Majesty the French King, Louis XIV. Learning that the construction of still larger globes was altogether possible, but that their removal from Italy to France would be attended with great difficulty, he persuaded Coronelli to accept an invitation to take up a residence in Paris, there to direct the construction of a terrestrial and a celestial globe, sparing neither labor nor expense that they might be worthy of presentation to the Grand Monarch. If Olearius could construct a globe ten feet and more in diameter for Duke Frederick of Holstein, and Weigel one of similar dimensions for the demonstration of his theories, why, thought Coronelli, should I not undertake the preparation of those at least fifteen feet in diameter, which in all the details of globe construction should be made to surpass any that had hitherto been conceived? The author himself has given us the first though brief description of his completed work,[94] and the royal astronomer, La Hire, supplemented this description in his little volume published in the year 1704, when the globes had been placed in the Château Marly.[95] In the author's own account he alludes to the globes as having been constructed at Paris under his direction, and by order of the Most Eminent Cardinal d'Estrées, for the service of His Most Christian Majesty. Great care was especially exercised in the construction of the machinery designed for the rotation of the spheres, the author being especially proud of the fact that, so delicate was this mechanism, each could be set in motion by a single finger. He further gives us to understand that each sphere was so well fashioned "one could design upon its surface all the degrees in the manner in which a turner designs any circle on a ball without having it removed from the turner's lathe," and that the material of which they were constructed was so solid and so well joined that each was able to sustain the weight of thirty men. Each was furnished with a door through which a considerable number of persons might enter at one time, their presence within affecting in no wise the solidity of construction. Each was covered with fine canvas so carefully laid on that none of the joints could be seen, giving a surface smooth as ivory. The meridian and horizon circles were of bronze, the whole being supported by columns which were richly ornamented. In the base, between the four columns supporting the meridian circles, large compasses were placed, being so designed as properly to indicate the needle's declination.

On the celestial globe the greater and the lesser circles were represented in gilt bronze, and were so graduated for both latitude and longitude, ascension and declination, that it was made easy for an astronomer to pass from one co-ordinate to the other without the aid of trigonometry. On a fine background of ultramarine the several constellations with their respective figures were represented, each of the planets and fixed stars being gilded in order to give it due prominence. The author so designed his star map as to represent the appearance of the heavens at the time of the birth of the Grand Monarch,[96] as is told in the following dedication engraved on a brass tablet and attached to the surface of the sphere: "A l'Auguste Majesté de Louis le Grand l'Invincible, l'Heureux, le Sage, le Conquerant. Cesar Cardinal d'Estrées a consacré ce globe celeste, ou toutes les etoilles du firmament, et les planetes sont placées au lieu mesme, ou elles estoient a la naissance de ce Glorieux Monarque, afin de conserver a l'eternite une image fixe de cette heureuse disposition, sous laquelle la France a receu le plus grand present, que le ciel ait iamais fait a la terre. M.DC.LXXXIII." "To His August Majesty Louis the Great, the Invincible, the Happy, the Wise, the Conquering. Cesar Cardinal d'Estrées has dedicated this celestial globe, on which all the stars of heaven and the planets are placed in the same position in which they were at the birth of the Glorious Monarch, in order to preserve throughout eternity a fixed image of that happy disposition under which France has received the most noble present which Heaven has ever made to earth."

On the terrestrial globe, which in its general features resembled the celestial, the seas were painted blue and the land white, that the several names and legends might appear the more distinct. A portrait of the King was placed above a cartouch containing the dedication, resembling that on the celestial globe, reading "A l'Auguste Majeste de Louis le Grand l'Invincible, l'Heureux, le Sage, le Conquerant. Cesar Cardinal d'Estrées a consacré ce globe terrestre, pour rendre un continuel hommage a sa Glore, et a ses Heroiques Vertus, en mostrant les pays ou mille grandes Actions ont esté executées et par Luy Mesme, et par ses Ordres, a l'estonnement de tant de nations, qu'il avroit pu soumetre a son empire, si sa Moderation n'eust arrestè le Cours de Ses Conquestes, et prescrit des bornes a Sa Valeur, plus grande encore que sa Fortune. M.DC.LXXXIII." "To His August Majesty Louis the Great, the Invincible, the Happy, the Wise, the conquering. Cesar Cardinal d'Estrées has dedicated this terrestrial globe, in order to render perpetual homage to His Glory and to His Heroic Virtue in representing the countries wherein a thousand great acts have been performed both by Himself and by his Order, to the astonishment of all nations, which He would have been able to bring under his subjection if his moderation had not restrained the course of his Conquests and prescribed bounds to his Courage yet greater than his Fortune. M.DC.LXXXIII."

Below this dedication, likewise below the corresponding dedication on the celestial globe, we read "Cet ouvrage a eté inventé et achevé par le Père Coronelli Venitien des. Min. Conv." "This work was conceived and accomplished by P. Coronelli, a Venetian of the Minorite Order."

In his brief description, the author says that he has shown on his terrestrial globe all ancient and modern discoveries, basing the same on the maps, the observations, and the reports of the most renowned geographers, to which he has added the results of his own studies not recorded on other globes nor in other maps. Special mention is made of information given concerning the interior regions of Africa, noting that "besides outlining the Monomotapa and Abyssinia countries, we have been the first to describe correctly the source as well as the course of the Nile River correcting, by many degrees the errors of the ancients." Andrea Baba, public censor and secretary of the Argonauts, notes, in his letter to the reader appearing in the first volume of the 'Atlante Veneto,' that the author of the two globes, constructed for the King of France, had obtained numerous authentic reports of geographers and explorers, which he had included in his work. Ludolf, writing in the year 1691 concerning Ethiopia, records "Ethiopia: Nostram tabulam chorographicam comunicavimus cum P. Vincentio Coronellio, nunc cosmographo Veneto, qui eam adhibuit in globis quos Cardinalis Estresius pro rege Galliae construi fecit, maximos, qui unquam visi fuerint. Ibi in Globo terrestri Habessina et Nilus secundum nostram delineationem visitur. Satis mature eam communicaverim Adamo Oleario, cum insignem globum, qui Gottorfii cernitur, construeret, sed ille mihi, ut tum temporis juveni, fidem non habuit." "Ethiopia: we made known our chorographic record to P. Vincentio Coronelli now cosmographer of Venice, who included it on his globe which Cardinal d'Estrées had made for the King of France, the largest globe ever seen. There, on the terrestrial globe, Abyssinia and the Nile are seen following our representation. Quite a long time ago we made this known to Adam Olearius, when he was making the renowned globe which may be seen at Gottorp, but he, as I was then a young man, did not have confidence in me."[97]

Marcel, in writing of the Portuguese in Africa, observed: "Si nous examinons les cartes de Mercator, de Bertius, de Hondius, de Meursius, de Sanson, de Duval, nous y trouvons un cours du Cuama ou Zanbèsi absolument fantaisiste. Il faut arriver au fameux globe de Coronelli pour y trouver en 1683 le cours de Zambèse tracé comme sur la carte que nous reproduisons. Il est évident que ce géographe vénitien a pu consulter des documents portugais aujourd'hui perdus, cartes ou relations de voyages, qui viendraient jeter un jour infiniment précieux sur les explorations des Portugais et les relations qu'ils entretenaient avec les populations belliqueuses du bassin du Chiré." "If we examine the maps of Mercator, of Bertius, Hondius, Meureius, Sanson, Duval, we will find the course of the Cuama or Zambesi absolutely fantastic. One must examine the famous globe of Coronelli to find in 1683 the course of the Zambesi represented as on the map which we reproduce. It is evident that the Venetian geographer had been able to consult Portuguese documents which today are lost, maps or accounts of Voyages which would throw light of great value on the explorations of the Portuguese and the relations they had with the warlike people of the basin of the Chiré."[98]

Coronelli adorned his globe map with very artistic representations of merchant ships sailing over the ocean highways, and with elaborate pictures of many naval battles.

It was in the year 1704 that these globes were placed in the royal Château Marly,[99] where they remained until the year 1722, when they were placed in the old Palace of the Louvre. A final resting place was found for them in the Royal Library, now known as the Bibliothèque Nationale, in a room especially constructed to receive them. Recent information from the library notes that, on account of certain reconstructive work, they have been placed in an inaccessible part of the building, and cannot be photographed.

The success of this first endeavor to construct globes of large size led other Princes to entertain the thought of adorning their palaces with similar productions. It is not known, however, that the great Venetian actually set himself to the task of duplicating his French masterpieces; we have rather the assurance, as is noted below, that he thought better of a plan for issuing globes of smaller size, whose map records should contain practically all he had been able to include in his large work. The Royal Estense Library of Modena possesses a manuscript, cited by Fiorini, which assures us that Coronelli had been approached with a proposition to construct for Francis II of Modena a pair of globes equal in size to those he had prepared for the French King. This document reads: "Rispondendo il P.[=r]e Cosmografo Coronelli alii di lei questiti per la fabbrica delli globi, gli dice, che il farà tanto grandi, quanta sarà la capacità della stanza, e bisognando fabbricare anco una stanza dentro del Globo, resta solo che il Principe che la desidera, habbia curiosità e volontà do spendere; limitandosi però il P. Cosmografo alia grandezza di Globi di diametro di quindici piedi, dice, che per il solo pagamento di materiali, e degli Artifici, si ricercano ducento doppie; che per delineare la Geografia, scriveri, collocarvi le stelle, ed assegnare il luogo alle figure vi vorrà di spesa quattrocento doppie. Per accomodare il luogo che sia capace per la fabrica delli Globi di questa grandezza, vi vogliono cinquanta doppie. Per gli ornamenti della Pittura, Miniatura, Scultura, et altri, si potrà fare quella spesa che parerà più propria al Principe, che desidera; mentre in questi si può o meno. E perchè il Principe conosca il genio dell' autore in questa materia, osserverà nella picciolezza delle due mostre, ch'esibisce, confrontandole colle migliori carte, di qual perfetione e pulizia sarebbe questa di quindici piedi. Il P. Coronelli per ricompensa desidera una pensione annua sua vita durante di quella soma che parerà propria alia generosità del Principe. S'aggiunge, un quinternetto della supputazione delle stelle d'Orione, perchè il Principe osservi l'accrescimento delle stelle di questa costellazione, come sono accresciute di gran numero tutte le altro del Globo del Cielo del P. Coronelli." "Father Coronelli, in reply to your questions regarding the construction of the globes which you say you wish to have made as large as the capacity of the room will allow, and with space in the globe itself, says that all that is necessary is to know how much his Excellency the Prince should wish to expend. However Father Coronelli limits himself to the construction of globes of fifteen feet in diameter, for which the cost of the material alone and of the workmanship is two hundred doubloons. For outlining the geographical map, for the proper placing of the stars, and the representation of the figures, the cost will be four hundred doubloons. To arrange a place for globes of this size another fifty doubloons will be necessary. For the decorations, the miniatures and engravings His Excellency can spend as much as he desires. In order that His Excellency the Prince may appreciate the great genius of the author in this matter, he will please take note of the two small globes which he exhibits, (and think) how perfect and attractive those fifteen feet in diameter will be in comparison with the best of maps. Father Coronelli desires, as compensation, an annual pension for life, such sum as His Excellency the Prince considers sufficiently generous. We enclose an account showing the representation of the stars of Orion, in order that the Prince may note the increase in the number of the stars in this constellation, and also note how all of the other constellations as represented on the globe of Father Coronelli show an increase in the number of stars."[100] There is no evidence known that this work was actually undertaken by our Venetian globe maker, the presumption being that the matter did not receive further consideration.

As an expression of appreciation for the honors shown to him by the Academy of the Argonauts, Coronelli decided to issue his Paris globes reduced in size, choosing a diameter of three and one half feet or about 107 cm. instead of fifteen feet. His globes, therefore, of the year 1688 were the largest to date in which engraved gore maps had been employed in construction. In one of his legends he thus alludes to the Academy. "Il genio della virtù raccomanda all'eternità il nome di Cesare Cardinale eminentissimo d'Estrées, Duca e Pari Francia, mentre fece elaborare per Ludovico il Magno dal P. Coronelli due gran Globi l'idea dei quali ha poi epilogata in questi per l'Accademia cosmografica degli Argonauti. L'anno MDCLXXXVIII." "The genius of virtue commends to posterity the name of Cesar, most eminent Cardinal d'Estrées, Duke and Peer of France, since he had constructed for Louis the Great by P. Coronelli two large globes, the idea of which he then summarized herewith for the Cosmographical Academy of the Argonauts. In the year 1688." The dedication, the same as that on the celestial globe, reads as follows: "Alla Serenissima Republica e Serinissimo Principe Francesco Morosini Doge di Venezia Capitan Gen: de Mare. Vincenzo Coronelli M. C. Suddito Cosmografo e Lettore publico." "To the Most Serene Republic and the Most Serene Prince Francesco Morosini, Doge of Venice, Captain General of the Sea, by Vincenzo Coronelli M. C., the above mentioned cosmographer and public reader." Placed below this legend in a cartouch containing the portrait of the author is the inscription "P. V. Coronelli M. C. Cosmografo Publico." There is an inscription on the celestial globe which reads, "Si presentano a V. Serenità li Globi del Mondo, Teatro delle cospicue attioni de' Principi, perchè mentre corre il terzo decimo secolo (ch'è quasi la quarta parte della vita d'esso) ne' quali la Serenissima Republica agisse ugualmente e collo splendore delle lettre e col luminoso dell'armi, Vede l'Universale delle genti col mezzo di Stampa così reguardevole sin dove si vada sempre più estendendo la gloria del Veneto Nome. Quella che se ne assume l'Accademia Cosmografica degli Argonauti nella presente dedicazione e chi vive di V. V. Coronelli Cosmografo della medesima." "There are hereby presented to Your Serene Highness these globes of the world, the scene of the remarkable deeds of Princes, in order that while the thirteenth century is passing (which makes nearly a fourth part of the life of the world) wherein the Most Serene Republic has proceeded equally with the splendor of letters and the brilliancy of arms may be seen by the universality of the races; by means of this so important publication however there is more widely spread the glory of the Venetian name; of which glory a portion is assumed by the Cosmographical Academy of the Argonauts, in the present dedication, and by him who lives by our permission, Coronelli, Cosmographer of the same."

The author selected the year 1700 as that in which to indicate the position of the stars which he represented on his globe, referring to this fact in his legend. "L'epoca di questo globo è perfissa nell'anno futuro 1700 acciocchè l'arte in quest' opera precorra quel tempo che per natura dovrà consumarla. Prevenendo questo globo tardo il Corso veloce del Cielo, comparisce presente il secolo venturo acciò possi ognuno con ordine più facile ridurre agli anni scorsi le stelle fisse colla sottrazione di 51 secondi come piace a Ticone, o 50 seguendo il parere del Ricciolo. Volendo specolare il sistema degli anni anco posteriore all'epoca stabilita, aggiungasi proporzionalmente al 1700 che seguirà la riduttione senza errore sensibile per tutto lo spazio di 400 anni." "The epoch of this globe is fixed for the year 1700, in order that the labor in its construction may have the time which naturally will be required for its completion. As this belated globe anticipates the rapid movement of the sky, the coming century appears as though present, anyone may be able in easier fashion to change to past years the fixed stars, by the subtraction of fifty-one seconds as Tycho reckons, or fifty according to the opinion of Ricciola. If one desires to speculate also upon the system of the years posterior to the established epoch, let him add proportionally to 1700, and the change will follow without sensible error for the entire period of 400 years."

To the constellations he makes the following reference: "Furono osservate molte stelle in vicinanza del Polo antartico incognite non solo agli Egizij e Greci, ma ancora a Ticone Brahe. Osservò parimente Federico Houtmano, nell'Isola Sumatra, molte stelle vicine al Polo medesimo, le quali essendo state incognite agli accinnati autori, le ridussero in 13 costellazioni cioè Fenice Colomb Mosca, Pesce volante, Camaleonte, Triangolo Australe, Uccello Indiano, Pavone, l'Uomo Indiano, la Gru, il Toucan, l'Hindro e il dorado; altri dopo v'hanno aggiunto la Nube Grande, la Picciola e la Romboide. Noi abbiamo arricchito questo Globo d'un maggior numero di stelle, scoperte dall' Hallei Inglese, che si trasportò a tal effetto nell'Isola S. Elena, coll'aggiunta d'altre osservatione, così do questo come d'altri scritton." "There have been observed many stars in the vicinity of the Antarctic pole, unknown not only to the Egyptians and Greeks, but also to Tycho Brahe. There have been observed likewise by Frederick Houtmann, on the Island of Sumatra, many stars near the same pole which having been unknown to the above-mentioned authors, they reduced to 13 constellations, namely the Phoenix, the Dove, the Fly, the Flying Fish, the Chameleon, the Southern Triangle, the Indian Bird, the Peacock, the Indian Man, the Crane, the Toucan, the Water-Snake, and the Goldfish; others since then have been added to these, the Greater Cloud and the Lesser, and the Rhomboid. We have enriched this globe with a considerable number of stars discovered by the Englishman Halley, who was sent to the Island of St. Helena for this purpose, with the addition of other observations as they have written."

Thirty-eight constellations are designated in the northern hemisphere, twelve in the zodiac, and thirty-three in the southern hemisphere, thus adding thirty-five to the number as given by Ptolemy. Instead of Ptolemy's 1022 catalogued stars, including fifteen of the first magnitude, forty-five of the second, two hundred and eight of the third, four hundred and seventy-four of the fourth, two hundred and seventeen of the fifth, forty-nine of the sixth, and forty which were nebular and indistinct, Coronelli gives the number as 1902, including eighteen of the first, sixty-eight of the second, two hundred and thirty-seven of the third, four hundred and ninety-six of the fourth, four hundred and eighty-nine of the fifth, five hundred and sixteen of the sixth, and seventy-eight which were nebular and indistinct. Five of the latter, having been discovered in the previous one hundred and twenty-five years, had wholly or in part disappeared in Coronelli's day, of which, that making its appearance in the constellation Cassiopeia in the year 1572 disappeared in the year 1574, that discovered in the year 1596 in the Whale was rapidly diminishing in size, that discovered by Tycho Brahe in the Swan in the year 1600 ceased to be visible in the year 1629 to reappear in the year 1659, that in the Serpent larger than the planet Jupiter which was visible but thirteen months, that in the head of the Swan discovered in the year 1670 and still visible.

Coronelli seems to have made every endeavor to produce maps for his terrestrial globes which should omit nothing of real interest and value to geographers, navigators, and explorers. He added a rather unusual number of legends, explanatory and informative in character, but never seemed to crowd the space which he had at his disposal. So exquisitely engraved were his maps that he was able to avoid the appearance of confusion noticeable on certain other globes of his century, as, for example, in the Old World parts of Blaeu's globe of 1622. It is very evident that many pages would be required for anything like a detailed description of his records, and the great majority must necessarily be omitted. To those quoted above a few, however, may be added.

Blaeu's reference to the prime meridian was cited in full as was that of Moroncelli; Coronelli's reference is here likewise cited, which, it will be noted, is not without errors. It is one having to do with problems concerning the determination of longitude, hence involving interests of vital concern to navigation. "Del primo meridiano. Sono in questo 72 meridiani, 36 con linee continuate, le altre sono di punti, da ciascuno dei quali è diviso in G. 5 di longitudine che è il corso del Sole in un terzo d'oro. Li Geografi antichi e moderni non convengono nel luogo dove passa il primo meridiano; tra li primi Eratostene l'ha posto alle Colonne d'Hercole, Marino di Tyr all'Isole Fortunate, Tolomeo nella sua Geografia ha seguito la stessa opinione; ma ne' suoi libri di Astronomia l' ha passato per Alessandria d'Egitto. Tra li moderni Ismaele Abulfeda lo segna a Cadiz, Alfonzo a Toledo, Pigafetta et Herrera hanno fatto il medisimo; Copernico lo pone a Freudenburgo; Renoldo a Monte Reale o Konisberg; Keplero a Uraniburgo; Longo Montano a Kopenhagen; Lansbergius a Goes; Ricciolo a Bologna. Gli Atlanti di Jansonio e di Blaeu a Monte Pico. Per continuare l'origine della mia Geografia ho posto in questo Globo il primo meridiano nella parte più occidentale della Isola di Ferro, com'onche per seguire il Decreto di Luigi XIII, che col consiglio de' Geog. nel 1634 lo determinò in questo stesso luogo." "Concerning the first meridian. There are represented on this 72 meridians, 36 with continuous lines--the others are marked,--by each of which it is divided into 5 degrees of longitude, which is the course of the sun in one third of an hour. The ancient and modern geographers do not agree upon the place through which the first meridian passes: among the former, Eratosthenes put it at the Pillars of Hercules; Marinus of Tyre at the Canary Islands; Ptolemy in his geography has followed the same opinion, but in his books on astronomy he has located it as running through Alexandria in Egypt. Among the moderns, Ismail Aboulfeda puts it at Cadiz; Alfonso at Toledo; Pigafetta and Herrera have done the same; Copernicus puts it at Freudenberg; Reinhold at Mount Royal (Königsberg); Kepler at Uranienburg; Longomontanus at Copenhagen; Lansberg at Goa; Ricciola at Bologna; the atlases of Jansson and Blaeu at Mount Pico. To continue the precedent of my geography I have on this globe placed the first meridian in the most western part of the Island of Ferro,--as also to follow the decree of Louis XIII, who on the advice of the geographers in 1634 assigned it to this same place." California he lays down as an island, west of which is a legend relating to "Nuova Albione," and north in the Pacific one relating to "Stretto di Anian." There is reference to the route to Goa, which is placed near the Island of Madagascar. The reference to the Zambesi River clearly gives evidence of acquaintance with Portuguese records of which we have no other knowledge. This legend reads, "Rio Zambese: Città e fortezza di Tete de Portugal; Fortezza di S. Estevao; Minere di Ferro; Minere d'argento che il Re di Monom. promise al Re di Spagna nel 1604; Fortezza di Chicova." "Zambesi River: City and fortress of Tete of Portugal; fortress of S. Estevao; iron mines; silver mines which the King of Monomotapa promised to the King of Spain in 1604; fortress of Chicova." Like the other leading map makers of the period he has indicated the course of certain transoceanic expeditions, occasionally noting the distance sailed on each successive day, with other valuable and interesting information relating to the position of the sun and the moon, to atmospheric conditions, to the appearance of sea birds and of certain marine animals.

Globes of this 1688 edition may be found in the Biblioteca Comunale of Fano; in the Biblioteca Comunale of Faenza; in the Königliche Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon of Dresden, celestial undated; in the Biblioteca Civico of Bergamo; in the Biblioteca Gonzaga of Mantua; in the Biblioteca Marciana of Venice (Figs. 112, 113); in the Museo Civico of Venice; in the Biblioteca Universitario of Naples; in the Palazzo Manin of Passeriano. The twelve gores of the terrestrial globe may be found in the British Museum; a fine copy of the twelve gores may also be found in the Library of Congress, Washington; a copy of the mounted terrestrial globe belongs to the Biblioteca Emanuele of Rome; three copies of this globe in addition to the pair referred to above belong to the Museo Civico of Venice.

It appears that Coronelli's terrestrial globe gores of the year 1688, which were frequently reissued, were but little altered in the several editions. His celestial globe in successive issues seems to have been much altered. France had specially honored the Venetian globe maker in giving to him every facility for the production of his great masterpieces, the Marly globes. The Société Gallica of Paris decided, in the year 1693, to add to his honors, and to give expression to an appreciation of his merits through the publication of a new edition of his globes, at least of the celestial, the Venetian terrestrial of 1688 being made to serve as a companion. In the following legend we have information concerning the date, and concerning the participants in its preparation: "Orbis coelesti typus. Opus a Coronelli Serenissimae Reipublicae Cosmographo inchoatum Societatis Gallicae sumptibus absolutum, Lutetiae Parisiorum. Anno N. S. MDCXCIII. Delin. Arnoldus Deuvez Regiae Acad. Pictor; Sculp. I. B. Nolin Reg. Chr. Calcographus." "Representation of a celestial globe. A work begun by Coronelli, the cosmographer of the Venetian Republic; finished at the expense of the French Society at Paris in the year 1693. Drawn by Arnold Deuvez painter of the Royal Academy; I. B. Nolin Royal Cartographer, draughtsman."

The Parisian Society did not find it necessary to substitute the French language in the legends for the language of the author, as appears in the address to the reader, which of course is not Coronelli phrasing. "Amico lettore. Rappresenta questa Globo le Costellazioni del Firmamento, quali agli occhi nostri compariscono e non come negli altri esposte, poichè nel centro loro bisogna immaginarsi d'essore per intenderle. Le stelle d'esso calcolate all'Epoca 1700 sono pubblicati. Quelle comprese dalle Costellazioni di Baiero, come le più cognite, perchè con maggiore facilità si possino colle nostre confrontare, sono accompagnate cogli caratteri greci e latini da es so usati. Le stelle, ch' appresso Baiero, restano informi, sono, da noi segnate di giallo; le Nuove colorite di minio; le osservate dal P. Antelmo di verde, quelle dell' Hallei di pavonazzo, l'altre di Hevelio di lacca; le corrette da Baiero di Cinabro, e l'osservazioni fatte dagli altri autori si distinguono nel nostro Epitome Cosmografico, stampato in Venetia nel 1693. In questo pure vengono dilucidati gli Numeri, Caratteri, le Frezze, che passano diametralmente per le stelle, la loro Obliquità, Lunghezza, l'Acume, gli Pianeti che l'accompagnano; il moto diario delle Comete, disegnate di molti secoli, ed ogni altro perticolare che per l'angustia del sito non è permesso esprimere senza il di cui libra non possono avere uso gli Globi presenti che pure restano descritti nel nostro Atlante Veneto non però così diffusamente." "Dear reader. This globe represents the constellations of the firmament as they appear to our eyes and not as shown by others, since it is necessary to imagine that one is in their center in order to conceive them. The stars of the globe are represented as calculated for the year 1700. Those included in the constellations of Bayer, as the best known, in order that they, with greater ease may be compared with ours, are designated by the Greek and Latin characters used by him. Stars, which according to Bayer remain undetermined, are indicated by us as yellow; the new ones colored with red; those observed by P. Antelmo, with green, those of Halley with violet, the others of Hevelius with lake color; the stars corrected by Bayer with cinnabar; and the observations made by other authors are distinguished in our Cosmographical Epitome, printed in Venice in 1693. In this also are elucidated the numbers, characters, the lines that pass diametrically through the stars, their obliquity, length, extremity, the planets that accompany them, the daily movement of the comets, traced for many centuries, and every other particular which because of the limitations of space it is not here permitted to express,--without which book it is not possible to make use of the present globes, which are also described in our Venetian Atlas, but not so detailed."

Pairs of his globes are very numerous which include the terrestrial of the year 1688, now and then with some modifications, and the celestial of the year 1693, these being usually, but not in all instances dated, the latter being the Paris issue or apparently a slightly modified Venetian edition of the same. It must be admitted that it is not easy to classify the copies of his globes which followed his first issue of the year 1688, but which have the same dimensions. In not a few of these provision was made for a special dedication, the cartouch for such dedication being often left blank, to be filled when occasion seemed to offer for the bestowal of the special honor. Some of these globes containing such special dedication are known, to which reference is made below.

Examples of Coronelli's work belonging to this group may be found in the following libraries or museums: In the Landesmuseum of Zürich (Fig. 114); in the Seminario Vescovile of Aversa; in the Biblioteca Comunale of Bologna; in the Archivo di Stato of Bologna; in the Biblioteca Privato of Professor Liuzzi of Bologna; in the Convento dell' Osservanza of Bologna; in the Museo di Strumenti Antichi of Florence; in the Museo Civico of Genoa; a copy of the celestial in the British Museum of London; in the Biblioteca Brancacciana of Naples; in the Biblioteca Nazionale of Naples; in the Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo; in the Biblioteca Antoniana of Padua; in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris; in the Biblioteca Classense of Ravenna; in the Biblioteca Lancisiana of Rome; in the Accademia delle Scienze of Turin; in the Seminario Patriarcale of Venice; in the Biblioteca Comunale of Vicenza; of the terrestrial in the Royal Library of Madrid. The Vicenza examples, also those in the Archivo di Stato of Bologna and in the Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo, are dedicated to the "Eminentissimo e reverendissimo Principe" Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni. The interesting brief legend, reading "Alexander a Via Veronensis sculpsit" on the celestial globe, gives us clearly to understand that there were Venetian issues of that edition which made its first appearance in Paris under the auspices of the Société Gallica. The gores of this issue Coronelli printed in his 'Atlante Veneto,' Volume XI.

In the year 1696 Coronelli made an extensive European tour which carried him as far as England, an account of which he published in Venice in the following year under the title 'Viaggio de Venezia fino in Inghilterra.' In this work the author describes an edition of his globes which he referred to as having a diameter of "un piede e mezzo," or about 48 cm., prepared in London and dedicated to the English King William III, of which it has been possible to locate several examples. A particularly fine copy of the terrestrial may be found in the collection of The Hispanic Society of America (Fig. 115), agreeing in all its details with the other copies, in so far, at least, as the information obtained seems to indicate. In an elaborately decorated cartouch near the south polar region is the dedicatory inscription, reading "Globum hujusmodi Terraqueum Guglielmo invictissimo ac potentissimo Magnae Britaniae etc. Regi Dicat, Vocat. consecrat. Pater, Magister Vincentius Coronelli Mon. Con. S. Francisci Serenissimae Venetorum Reipublicae Cosmographus MDCLXXXXVI. Londini." "This terrestrial globe, Father and Master Vincentio Coronelli, Brother of the Franciscan Order and Cosmographer of the Venetian Republic, dedicates, names and consecrates to William III, the Invincible and Mighty King of Great Britain." Not far from the above is a somewhat elaborate representation of the king's coat of arms with the motto "Hony soit qui mal y pense. Je maintienderay." Its mounting consists of a narrow graduated meridian circle of wood which is made to pass, in the usual manner, through a horizon circle of wood, the outer edge of which is octagonal. The upper surface of this horizon circle is covered with an engraved horizon sheet giving within concentric circles the names of the zodiacal constellations, names of the months with the names of the prominent saints, the names of the principal winds, and of the principal directions in Italian. It has a supporting base of four artistically turned columns with binding crossbars extending from each post to a central circular plate 17 cm. in diameter, carrying the post through a slot in which the meridian circle is made to pass. The north pole is topped with a thin pasteboard hour circle and pointer. The globe map is composed of twelve gores which are truncated in latitude 80 degrees both north and south, the polar spaces being covered with circular discs, and are cut on the line of the equator. The sphere is exceedingly light in weight, being composed of papier-mâché. In every particular the globe is one remarkably well preserved, and is one of the finest examples of early globe making in the society's collection.

In geographical names the map records are very full, these being given either in Italian, Spanish, Latin, Dutch, English, or in the native language of the country in which they appear. Curiously enough in many instances the author appears to give his own peculiar spelling, approaching therein, to the best of his ability, the spelling suggested by the pronunciation of the several names. Legends are exceedingly numerous, many of them recording incidents relating to certain expeditions or to certain discoveries, such as the expedition of Magellan; early expeditions along the west coast of North America, including reference to Cortes, Ulloa, Alarçon, Cabrillo, Guzman, Drake; expeditions to the East Indies, including that of Le Maire, Hoorn, Van Diemen, Chaumont, and others. Boundary lines of local regions, in both the Old and the New World are exceedingly numerous, which fact in itself gives a somewhat unique value to the map as of geographical and historical value. California appears as an island, and a great stretch of ocean appears between northwest North America and northeast Asia wherein is located land with indefinite outline marked, "Terra de Jesso ó Jeco, Yedco, Esso et Sesso Scoperta dagli Hollandesi l'anno 1643." The map of North America is particularly of interest and value, especially for the region of the United States.

Pictures of ships sailing the ocean, those of the oriental peoples as well as those of the occidental are numerous, as are also pictures representing seal fishing, and pictures representing the methods of capturing polar bears and whales. It is interesting to note that loxodromic lines or sailing lines have disappeared from such maps, that the map and the chart are here seen to merge.

The celestial globe of this edition has practically the same dedication as the terrestrial, the word "Terraqueum" alone being changed to "Coelestem." There is on this the following address: "Amico Lettore. Oltre ai molti Globi delineati dal P. Cosmografo Coronelli per Sovrani diversi di varie e vaste misure, ne ha ultimamente composti e stampati di cinque grandezze a pubblico beneficio, fra i quali i più comodi ed esatti sono i presenti. I numeri che accompagnano le stelle calcolate all'epoca del 1700; così l'altre notizie, ad uso dei medesimi Globi, vengono nel suo Epitome Cosmografico diffusamente spiegati." "Dear reader. Besides the many globes delineated by the cosmographer P. Coronelli, for divers Sovereigns, he has recently composed and printed some in five sizes for the use of the public, among which the most convenient and exact are the present ones. The numbers that accompany the stars are calculated for the epoch 1700; moreover the other particulars for the use of these same globes are extensively developed in his Epitome Cosmografico."

In the reference to the several constellations there is repeated, with but slight alteration, the statements made on his larger globes, the position of the fixed stars being referred to the year 1700.

Examples of the 1696 edition of Coronelli's globes may be found in the Seminario Vescovile of Finale; in the Biblioteca Franzoniana of Genoa; in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg; in the Biblioteca Comunale of Perugia; in the Museo Civico of Trieste; a copy of the terrestrial in the Biblioteca Nazionale of Florence, and one in the Certosa of Pisa; the unmounted gores of the celestial in the Museo Astronomico of Rome.

The globes of the year 1696 were reissued in the year 1699, with certain unimportant alterations. It may be noted that as in certain copies of the 1693 edition the cartouch designed for a dedicatory inscription was left blank, that the author might insert the name of the recipient whom he might choose to honor. So in his globes of the year 1699 he left a like blank space, but in the terrestrial globe he inscribed what he evidently felt he should want to insert in each instance--a dedication in blank, as it were, reading "D. D. D. Pater Magister Vincentius Coronelli Mon: Con: Francisci Serenissimae Venetorum Reipublicae Cosmographus MDCLXXXXIX." One example has been located in which the name of the honored individual has been inserted, reading, in addition to the author and date as above, "Illustrissimo et Praexcelso Nobili Viro D. D. Comiti Aloysio Paoluccio Militiae Sanctae Apostolicae Sedis in Piceno Praefecto," this copy being in the Biblioteca Privato of Sr. Remigio Salotti of Modena. Copies of each of the 1699 issue may also be found in the Biblioteca Marucelliana of Florence; in the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele of Rome; in the Biblioteca of the Marquis Piero Bargagli of Rome; a copy of the terrestrial in the Museo Astronomico of Rome, a copy of the same in the Biblioteca Nazionale of Florence, and a copy in the Certosa of Pisa.

In one of his own publications issued in Venice in the year 1697 Coronelli tells us of an edition of his celestial globe which he was preparing.[101] He announces "To the Public" that the large celestial globe, three and one half feet in diameter, which he was then having reëngraved and which would exhibit all of the artistic features of the Paris edition of 1693, would be one of superior excellence. He adds that the many corrections and additions, as the parts already completed clearly indicate, would make it one very exact, and its completion was promised before the end of the year 1698. This celestial globe was issued in Venice in the year 1699, edited, according to an inscribed legend, by Coronelli and the Academy of the Argonauts. We cannot with certainty locate a copy of this globe. Perhaps it may be found in one of the undated examples, now known, of the size designated.

The Abbot Gimma, to whom reference has been made, informs us that Coronelli constructed other globes, the same having diameters respectively six, four, and two inches, and in the 'Epitome Cosmografica' of the author, under the paragraph heading, "Opere stampate dal Padre Coronelli," we read that he constructed celestial and terrestrial globes three inches in diameter for the pocket. In Volume X of the 'Atlanta Veneto,' under the title "Globi del Coronelli," the gores of these globes are reproduced, and from these reprints we are able to get certain information concerning them. But one pair of his six-inch globes has been located and none of the smaller size, this one pair being the unmounted gores, twelve in number for each globe, to be found in the British Museum. The terrestrial has the following dedication: "Hos Globos Terraqueum ac Coelestem dicat et donat R. [=m]o P. D. Sigismundo Pollitio a Placentia Praeposito Generali Monarchorum Ermitorum S. Hyeronimi Congreg. Lombardiae P. M. Coronelli Cosmographus P." "These globes, a terrestrial and a celestial P. M. Coronelli gives and dedicates to the Rev. P. D. Sigismund Pollitus head of the congregation of Hermit Monks of St. Jerome of Lombardy. At Placentia." And the celestial has the following, "R. [=m]o P. D. Sigismundo Pollitio Praep. Generali Mon. Erem. S. Hyeron." "To the Rev. P. D. Sigismund Pollitus. General of the Hermit Monks of St. Jerome." Three other inscriptions of the celestial globe read respectively "Auct. P. Vincentius Coronelli Cosmog. Publ.," "Stellae supput. fuerunt ad annum 1700," and "Venetiis. In Academiae Cosmog. Argon."

Fiorini makes brief mention of a rather remarkable armillary sphere, cut out of a solid block of alabaster, now belonging to the Museo Civico of Siena.[102] It is neither signed nor dated, but was probably constructed toward the close of the seventeenth century.

It has two meridian circles, circles representing the tropics whose outer circumference is 66 cm., polar circles having a circumference of 21 cm., and circles representing the solstitial colures and the equator, the latter having an outer circumference of 72 cm. All circles are graduated, but in the case of the polar circles the numbers of the degrees are not marked. In addition to the above-mentioned circles, there is one representing the zodiac which is exceedingly heavy, on which have been cut the signs of the several constellations and the names of the months.

This assemblage of armillae is adjusted to revolve within a brass circle, the whole resting upon a base of alabaster. At the common center is a small ball mounted on a metallic rod which passes through the poles of the circles. This small terrestrial sphere has a diameter of 8 cm., and around it are two small circles probably intended to represent the path of the moon and of the planet Mercury.

Word has been received of another armillary sphere of about 1700, though undated, constructed by Vitale Giordani (1633-1711), a mathematician of some note in his day. This sphere belongs to the Biblioteca Lancisiana of Rome, which, as noted above, possesses one by Barocci of the year 1570.[103]

The idea of constructing large manuscript globes, such as were those of Benci and of Moroncelli, was taken up by Giuseppe Scarabelli of Mirandola, who appears to have won special distinction in his day as an engineer.[104] Although the large globes, terrestrial and celestial, three braccia (ca. 200 cm.) in diameter, which he is known to have made, assisted by his son Massimo, cannot now be located, we are told that they were of such size and quality that their equal could not be found "in Milan, in Venice, or in Rome."

In what has been stated above concerning globe makers of Italy in the late seventeenth century and the early eighteenth, it has been noted that a number of those most prominent were members of some one or other of the many monastic orders. Benci and Moroncelli were of the Silvestrin Congregation; Coronelli was a Minorite, being honored with an election to the office of General of the Franciscan Order. It was in the late seventeenth century that Giovanni Battista da Cassine,[105] a Capuchin monk, began to achieve distinction as a map and globe maker, in particular, however, through the maps he drafted of the various provinces of his order which he described in his 'Descrizione cosmografica della Provincie e dei Conventi de FF: Min. Cappuccini di S. Francesco.'[106] He was a native of Cassine in the district of Alessandria, and entered in early life into the Convent of the Immaculata Concezzione of Milan. He tells us, in his introduction to his work noted above, that he constructed two globes for the library of his convent in Milan, a terrestrial and a celestial, adding, "Quondam aedificabam, simul et delineabam pro Bibliotheca nostra Immacolatae Conceptionis duos satis grandes Globos nimirum coelestem unum, terrestrem alium." "I once designed and constructed for our library of the Immaculate Conception, two large globes, one a terrestrial, the other a celestial." We do not know the exact date of the construction of these globes, but it probably was near 1700.[107] It is further probable that these globes were examples of Italy's best productions within this field. They, however, cannot now be located, having disappeared at the time of the dissolution of the convent in the year 1810.

George Christopher Eimmart (1638-1705), a native of Ravensburg, was one of Germany's most famous mathematicians of the seventeenth century.[108] He is reported to have been for some time associated with Erhard Weigel in the University of Jena, where he won distinction for himself in his mathematical and law studies. It was about the year 1658, after the death of his father, that he became especially interested in the art of copper engraving, and in the year 1660 he established himself in this business in the city of Nürnberg. The study of mathematics, however, continued to interest him, and we soon find him giving especial attention to astronomical science, to the construction of astronomical instruments, such as quadrants, sextants, telescopes, astronomical clocks, and celestial spheres. In one of the fortifications of the city he erected a small observatory, in which he carried on his astronomical studies, evincing, as the months passed, much interest in giving practical instruction to many of the young students of the city, among whom may be named Johannes Philipp Würzelbauer, who later was ennobled by Emperor Leopold on account of his scientific attainments, and who at the time of the reception of this honor changed his name to Wurzelbau. Eimmart counted among his friends, with whom he was in constant communication, Leibnitz, Cassini, La Hire, Flamsteed, Hevel, and others. His correspondence with these distinguished men of science, together with his numerous papers relating to his mathematical and astronomical studies, are still preserved in manuscript, filling no less than fifty-seven volumes.[109] In the year 1695 he published a description of an armillary sphere which he had constructed to represent the Copernican system, but this cannot now be located.[110] In the year 1705, the year of his death, he issued a pair of globes, an example of each being now kept in the Museo Astronomico of Rome. These spheres of papier-mâché, each having a diameter of about 30 cm., are supplied each with a base of wood, consisting of four turned columns, which support a horizon circle of wood, on which are the usual engraved concentric circles bearing respectively the names of the principal directions or winds, the names of the zodiacal constellations, with their respective figures, the names of the principal festivals, and names of the saints. They are made to revolve within a graduated meridian circle which is adjusted to move within the horizon circle. The globe balls are covered with engraved gore maps, each consisting of twelve sections cut at the equatorial line and in latitude 80 degrees, the polar areas being covered with a circular disc, having the necessary radius of ten degrees.

On the terrestrial globe we find the following author and date legend: "Cum geographica Orbis Terrarum descriptio secundum long. et lat. non nisi vel per peregrinationes marittimas vel observationes coelestes emendatior in dies prodeat, istud autem per experimenta propria (quo ad exiguam saltem partem) perfecisse, e' mille, vix uni contigat; Oportuit nos Recentiorum accuratissimis observationibus insistore et quatenus cum veritate congruant vel discrepent exactiori tuo judicio relinquest. Nos eadem loca bona fide, nihil immutantes, prout ab auctoribus novissimis accepimus usui tuo exhibibemus. Norimbergae apud G. C. Eimmartum A^o Christi 1705." "Since the geographical description of the earth according to latitude and longitude, both by maritime voyages and by celestial observations becomes more accurate day by day, it happens to scarcely any one man to perfect (a globe) by his own observations for these can be partial only. Therefore it behooves us to make use of the most accurate modern observations. In so far as they agree with the truth or depart from it is left for you with your more exact judgment to decide. We, for our part, exhibit for your use the places in all good faith, as we have received them from the latest authorities and have changed nothing. Nürnberg. By G. C. Eimmart, 1705."

Meridians and parallels are represented at intervals of five degrees, the ecliptic and the equator being graduated. Compass roses are numerous, from which radiate numerous loxodromic lines. The several compass roses are located on the equator, and at latitude 35 degrees and 70 degrees both north and south, where these parallels are crossed by the prime meridian and the meridians of 90 degrees, of 180 degrees, and of 270 degrees.

In the southern hemisphere of the celestial globe is the following inscription: "Loca stellarum coelesti huic Globo insertarum a Jo. Hevelio astronomo insigni ad ann. 1700 complet. su[=m]o studio ac diuturnis vigiliis restituta sunt; quae in hujusmodi Typum ad perpetuam Coeli conformitatem juxta modum quem Problema inferius adjectum praescribit noviter redacta a G. C. Eimmarto." "The position of the stars inscribed on this celestial globe were determined by J. Hevelius, renowned astronomer, and completed to the year 1700 through deep study and nightly vigils. And these observations on this globe are made perpetually to conform, according to the method which is described below, and these have been revised by G. C. Eimmart."

Attention is called to the stars of the various magnitudes up to the seventh by an appropriate illustration of each placed in a small but artistically designed wreath. Latin names are given to the several constellations and to a number of the individual stars, though one finds an occasional Arabic name. Among the several constellations one notes certain modern names such as "Scutum Subiescianum."

In addition to the pair referred to above, a copy of the celestial globe may be found in the Biblioteca Civico of Bergamo.