Chapter XII (2)

The Biblioteca Comunale of Siena possesses two anonymous terrestrial globes, according to report of Fiorini, the one having a map in manuscript, the other having an engraved map.[154] The first of these, unsigned and undated, probably of the second quarter of the century, has a diameter of about 120 cm. The sphere is of wood, the surface of which is covered with mastic or varnish, and on this the map has been drawn. It is constructed to revolve within its simple mounting of wood by means of a crank. The title legend reads "Globe terrestre Dressé selon les observations de l'Acad. Royale de Paris et des autres Acad. plus célébrés d'Europe." "Terrestrial globe constructed according to the observations of the Royal Academy of Paris and of other Academies the most celebrated in Europe." In addition to the above legend one finds the following inscription: "On a pris la longitude des villes principales des Tables de M^{ur} Philippe de La Hire. Les autres villes ou il n' a point d'observations sont icy places en la même distance des villes principales dans la quelle on les voit dans les cartes de M. Guillaume de l'Isle." "The longitudes of the principal towns have been taken from the tables of M^{ur} Philippe de La Hire.[155] The other towns which have not been located from observation are placed at the same distance from the principal towns as they are located on the maps of M. Guillaume de l'Isle."

It seems probable that this globe was constructed in France, and from the particular references to La Hire and Delisle one may infer, as noted above, that it belongs to the early eighteenth century. Parallels and meridians are drawn on the surface of the globe at intervals of ten degrees, and one conspicuous wind rose with sixteen radiating lines is placed in latitude 30 degrees north and longitude 350 degrees counting from the prime meridian, which passes through the Island of Ferro. This globe, it is thought, came to the Siena Library about the year 1810, at the time of French rule in Tuscany, together with the library of the Convent of S. Augustine, but how it came to have place in the Augustine convent is unknown.

The second Sienese terrestrial globe, like the one just described, probably belongs to about the same date.[156] It has the following legend conspicuously placed: "Globo terracqueo corretto et accresciuto secondo le nuove scoperte. Anno 1744. In Roma nella Calcografia del R:C:A: al Piè di Marmo." "Terrestrial globe corrected and enlarged according to recent discoveries. 1744. In Rome in the engraving establishment of R. C. A. at the foot of the marble." The globe ball is of wood, having a diameter of about 50 cm. Additional information concerning this globe it has not been possible to obtain. Copies of it may be found in the Biblioteca Comunale of Imola, in that of Osimo, in that of Savignano, and in the Seminario Vescovile of Ivrea.

In the Museo di Strumenti Antichi of Florence there is a well-preserved armillary sphere,[157] having the usual large circles the outer one measuring about 15 cm. in diameter, of four lesser ones and of these there are two small ones representing the sun and the moon. The meridian and the equator are graduated, as is likewise the ecliptic, having engraved on its surface the names of the principal winds in the Italian language, and the ecliptic having engraved in Latin on its surface the names of the signs of the zodiac. On one of the arms which supports the horizon circle is the author and date legend, reading, "Joseph Torricelli F. Florentiae 1739." Fiorini thinks it probable that Joseph was a relative of Evangelista Torricelli, inventor of the barometer.

Pietro Maria da Vinchio, a monk of the order of St. Francis, deserves a word of special praise for the skill with which he labored as a map and globe maker about the middle of the eighteenth century.[158] He seems to have followed in the main the work of Moroncelli, and that of the unknown maker of the Cusani globe, yet he should be counted a workman possessing greater technical ability. His first pair of globes have a diameter of about 60 cm. The mounting consists of a meridian and a horizon circle of wood, the whole resting on a somewhat elaborate wooden base. The gores with which he covered his spheres are in each instance eighteen in number, but each gore has been cut into three sections--at the parallel of 40 degrees, both north and south, and also at the parallel of 80 degrees, the polar spaces having the usual circular disc covering. The terrestrial globes have represented on their surfaces the polar and the tropical circles, also the ecliptic and the equator, together with the several parallels and meridians at intervals of ten degrees. Artistic wind roses are placed at each of the equinoctial points, each with points representing the eight principal directions. The title legend reads, "Globus terrestris juxta geographicas mappas novissime editas accurate descriptus, in quibus, exactiori observatione praemissa, errores multiplices sunt emendati, qui in veteri geographia detinebantur impressi. F. Petri Mariae a Vinchio opus et labor 1739." "Terrestrial globe accurately delineated according to the most recent geographical maps in which, by more exact observations, numerous errors are corrected which continued to be printed in the old geography. Fra Peter Maria a Vinchio, his work and labor, 1739."

The celestial globe, similar in its construction in practically every respect to the preceding, has its system of circles represented according to the equatorial system instead of the ecliptic system. All of the Ptolemaic constellations are represented, the figures of the several constellations being very artistically painted. Its dedication reads, "Il[=l]mo ac Re[=v]mo D. D. Petro Hieronymo Caravadossi Episcopo Casalensi Ordinis Praedicatorum parvum hoc Firmamentum dicatum a F. Petro Maria de Vinchio Ord. Min. Stric. Obser. operis auctor. 1745." "Dedicated to the Illustrious and Reverend D. D. Peter Hieronymus Caravadossi Bishop of Casale of the Preaching Friars, by Fra. Peter Maria de Vinchio of the Strict Minorite Order, who is the author of this work, in the year 1745." The pair just described may be found in the Biblioteca Seminario Maggiore of Casale Monferrato. Fiorini is of the opinion that these globes, presented to the learned Father Pietro Girolamo Caravadossi of the Preaching Friars, Bishop of Casale, must have been given by him to the seminary library, that they might serve in the education of the priests. It is even probable that the two globes came to the library by a direct clause in the will of the bishop, since it is known that he bequeathed to the same library all of his books and an annual sum, that the library might be used not only by the members of the seminary but by the general public as well.

Not long after the completion of the pair just described, da Vinchio undertook the construction of a second and larger pair. These he began in the year 1746 and completed in the year 1751. These globes have a diameter of about 105 cm. Like the preceding they are of papier-mâché. Each is furnished with a meridian and a horizon circle of wood, and a somewhat elaborate supporting base. On the parchment covering of the spheres the maps have been drawn by hand. On the terrestrial globe the meridians and the parallels are represented at intervals of ten degrees. Place names, the names of the seas and of the rivers are in the Italian language or in the language of the country claiming possession. Very many of the discoveries are referred to in appropriate legends. The title and date legend reads "D. O. M. Globus terraqueus Juxta geographicas mappas novissime editas accurate descriptus, in quibus, exactiori observatione praemissa, longitudinum, latitudinumque punctis verius universe compertis, errores multiplices sunt emendati, qui in veteri geographia detinebantur impressi. Inferius scripti mens, labor, ars, et opus. F. Petrus Maria a Vinchio. In Conventu S. M. de Templo Casalis annis 1746-1747-1748." "D. O. M. Terrestrial globe accurately described according to the latest geographical maps in which by a more exact observation and by a truer location of the points of longitude and latitude many errors have been corrected which continued to be printed in the old geographies. What follows is the work and labor of Fra. Peter Maria a Vinchio, made in the Convent of Santa Maria at the Temple in Casale in the years 1746-1747-1748."

The celestial globe is similarly mounted, having a title legend which reads "Globus coelestis Circa quem spectabiliores, magisque obviae stellae juxta dispositionem et situm, longitudinis scilicet ac latitudinis grad[=u], in quo ab Auctore Universi in Firmamento sunt positae, dispositae inspiciuntur; singulis tamen figuris a Poetis ideatis, ab Astromomis diductae, et assignatae novissime auctus. F. Maria a Vinchio O. M. S. O. Anno 1750.--Opifex.--1751." "Celestial globe in which are to be seen more clearly and more distinctly set forth the stars according to their places and positions, that is, their degrees of longitude and latitude where they have been placed in the firmament by the Creator of the Universe. To which have been added the figures of the constellations idealized by the poets, brought to earth and assigned their true places by astronomers. F. Maria a Vinchio of the Strict Order of the Minorites maker. In the year 1750-1751."

The figures of the constellations are well drawn and are colored, the names of these constellations being given in Latin. This pair of Maria's globes may be found in the Biblioteca Municipale of Alessandria, in which town he probably lived at the time of their construction, and probably at the convent of the Capuchin monks.

Prefixed to his 'Select Mechanical Exercises,' first issued in the year 1773, James Ferguson (1710-1776), Scotch experimental philosopher, physicist, and astronomer (Fig. 127), gives us a most interesting specimen of autobiography.[159] It is a remarkable story of native genius and of self-instruction. Herein he tells us how the child of poor parents, with an unquenchable desire for scientific knowledge, proceeded in his early years, step by step, until at length he attained to a position of great renown, not only in his own country but as well in other lands. He tells of his early interest in simple mechanical problems and of his attempts at the solution of the same, but what is of special interest here, he relates how it was he became interested in geography and in the construction of globes and orreries. From a description of a globe he had found in 'Gordon's Geographical Grammar,' as he tells us, "I made a globe in three weeks turning the ball thereof out of a piece of wood." This he covered with paper and delineated thereon the map of the world. He was happy to find, as he says, "that by using the globe, which was the first I ever saw, I could solve the problems." In his second attempt at globe making, his boyish ingenuity particularly exhibited itself. Finding two large globular stones on the top of a neighbor's gate-posts, he painted on one of these, with oil colors, a map of the terrestrial globe, and on the other a map of the celestial, from a planisphere of the stars which he had copied on paper from a celestial globe belonging to a neighboring gentleman. "The poles of the painted globes stood toward the poles of the heavens. On each the twenty-four hours were placed around the equinoctial so as to show the time of day when the sun shone out, by the boundary where the half of the globe at any time enlightened by the sun was parted from the other half in the shade: the enlightened parts of the terrestrial globe answering to the like enlightened parts of the earth at all times: so that whenever the sun shone on the globe one might see to what place the sun was then rising, to what place it was setting, and all the places where it was then day or night, throughout the earth."

Turning his attention especially to the movements of the stars, he contrived an orrery to show the motions of the earth and the moon, of the sun and the planets, both diurnal and annual, and it was in his first literary attempt, published in the year 1746, that he described 'The Use of a New Orrery.' Ferguson published many works on scientific subjects, lectured extensively before learned societies, was honored with the royal bounty of King George III, and became a member of the Royal Society without initiatory or annual fees.

Of globes constructed by Ferguson other than those he contrived in his boyhood days, eight copies are known. In the collection of The Hispanic Society of America (Fig. 127a), there appears to be a unique example of his first published globe work, constructed perhaps as early as the year 1750, since it records the route followed by the Englishman, George Anson, in circumnavigating the earth in his expedition or expeditions of the years 1740-1744, and omits reference to the expeditions of Captain Cook. The terrestrial globe, a solid wooden ball, 7 cm. in diameter, is enclosed in a black leather covering, on the inner surface of which is pasted an engraved gore map of the celestial sphere. It appears to be constructed as were those referred to by Moxon in his catalogue of globes which were "made and sold by himself on Ludgate Hill," that is, "concave hemispheres of the Starry Orb which serve for a case to a Terrestrial Globe of 3 inches in diameter, made portable for the Pocket." The covering of this Ferguson globe is made to open on the line of the celestial equator. In a neat cartouch placed in the North Pacific is the author and title legend reading, "A New Globe of the Earth by James Ferguson." The meridians are drawn at intervals of fifteen degrees, the prime meridian passing through Greenwich, and the parallels are drawn at intervals of ten degrees, being graduated on the meridian of 145 degrees west, excepting the tropics and the polar circles, which are drawn in their proper latitudes, respectively 23-1/2 degrees from the equator and 23-1/2 degrees from the poles. Ferguson followed such geographical records as were laid down by Hondius in his world map of the year 1611, or by Greuter in his globe map of the year 1632 in the North Pacific region, indicating there the existence of a great expanse of ocean, between northwest North America and northeast Asia. "Anian St." is marked as separating a somewhat indefinitely outlined coast from America. The Antarctic continent is altogether omitted; the only inscription appearing in that region is "The South Pole." Geographical names are as numerous as one could expect to find them on a globe of such small dimensions.

The figures on the celestial map pasted on the inner surface of the terrestrial globe covering representing the several constellations have been very artistically drawn. Both the terrestrial and the celestial parts of this combination globe are remarkably well preserved. A second and later example of this Ferguson globe may be found in the Harvard University Library, once belonging to Ebenezer Storer of the class of 1747. It came into the possession of the University in the year 1914. In addition to the globes of Ferguson, just described, two pairs are known, dated each 1782, subsequent to the author's death, it will be noted, each having a diameter of 30 cm. These are mounted in the usual manner with wooden horizon and brass meridian circles, with support base columns of wood. On the terrestrial globes English is the language employed, while all names of the constellations on the celestial globes are in Latin. As on the small terrestrial globe in The Hispanic Society's collection, the route of Admiral Anson is indicated, omitting that of Captain Cook, and numerous brief legends are given referring to various geographical discoveries. One pair of these globes may be found in the Biblioteca Comunale of Palermo and the other pair in the Osservatorio Meteorico of Syracuse.

NOTES

[117] This society was founded in the year 1666 by Louis XIV, after the model of the Royal Society of London. It was liberally endowed and supported, its members devoting themselves to the science of physics, mathematics, astronomy, botany, zoology, and medicine. The observatory, founded in the year 1667, was an adjunct of the society.

[118] Niceron, J. F. "Delisle." (In: Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des Hommes illustres dans la république des lettres. Paris, 1729. Vol. 1, p. 214.); Fontenelle, B. le B. de. Éloge des académiciens. À la Haye, 1731. Vol. II, pp. 324-339; Sandier, C. Die Reformation der Kartographie um 1700. München, 1905. pp. 14-21.

[119] Not that there is less of interest in physical, in commercial, in descriptive geography, but that there is a decided tendency in this day to stress what is sometimes called human geography, which consists in emphasizing the relation of geographical study to real life.

[120] This work appears to have established his reputation. In the year 1702 he became a member of the Academy, not as a geographer--this department was not established until the year 1730--but as an astronomer under Cassini. Sandler, loc. cit.; Vivien de Saint-Martin, M. Histoire de la géographie. Paris, 1875. p. 423. This last-named author says: "La Mappemonde de Guillaume Delisle et ses cartes particulières des quarte partiée du monde, publiées en 1700, remenèrent enfin pour la première fois à leurs véritables places et à leurs dimensions réelles les parties orientales de l'ancien continent. Quelle que fussent les améliorations de détail que dût recevoir par la suit la carte du monde,--et ces améliorations etaient immens,--l'honneur d'en avoir apéré la réforme radical suffit pour éterniser le nom Guillaume Delisle."

[121] Sandler, op. cit. This was an error having its origin in Ptolemy's geography, as set down in the Ptolemy maps. The two most significant errors in the Ptolemaic cartography were (a) the representation of the Indian Ocean as an enclosed sea; (b) the too great extension in longitude given to the Mediterranean Sea. A correction of the first of these errors followed quickly after the discovery of the sea route to the Indies of the East. As a result incident to the second error the Asiatic regions were extended much too far eastward, the maps as late as the seventeenth century showing the coast of China to lie at least twenty-five degrees too far in that direction. The invention of the telescope in the first decade of the seventeenth century and of the pendulum clock about the middle of the century made possible a more accurate determination of the location of places, and an improvement in map construction soon followed. See also Wolf, Geschichte, pp. 355-362; 369-373.

[122] Wolf, op. cit., pp. 400-403. This came to be but one of the many methods employed in the effort to determine longitude. One of the most interesting and most recent is that in which wireless telegraphy has been called into service. See Hoogewerff, Capt. J.A. Washington-Paris Longitude by radio signals by F.B. Littell and G.A. Hill. (In: Astronomical Journal. Albany, 1915.)

[123] See "Nolin" and "Delisle." (In: Mémoire pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux arts. Trévoux, 1702. p. 166.); "Nolin." (In: Nouvelle biographie.); Lelewel. Géographie du moyen âge, II. p. 202; Sandler, op. cit., p. 15.

[124] Sandler, op. cit., reproduces Delisle's world map of 1700, pl. iv.

[125] Wolf, op. cit., pp. 449-452; Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des sciences et a celle de l'observatoire royal de Paris. Paris, 1810. pp. 255-309; "Cassini, Jean-Dominique." (In: Nouvelle biographie.) In this last article may be found a long list of Cassini's publications.

[126] "Gassendi, Pierre." (In: Nouvelle biographie.) Gassendi achieved distinction for his works on astronomical subjects. In the year 1645 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics in the Collège Royal of Paris, a position he held with interruptions until his death.

[127] The term "Precession of the Equinoxes," as used in astronomy, refers to the slow retrograde motion of the equinoctial point to the west, or contrary to the order of the signs of the zodiac, this precession being estimated by Hipparchus to be one degree in one hundred years; in sixty-nine years by Ptolemy; in sixty-six years by Albategnius; in seventy years by Cassini, but it is now estimated to be one degree in about seventy and one half years. For one complete revolution of this equinoctial point through the twelve signs of the zodiac Hipparchus estimated a period of 36,000 years would be required; according to Ptolemy a period of 24,840 years; according to Albategnius 23,760 years; according to Cassini 25,200 years; whereas the period is now estimated to be a little more than 25,800 years. An important consequence of the precession of the equinoxes lies in the fact that the zodiacal constellations do not agree with the signs with which they coincided in ancient times, i.e., in the beginnings of astronomical science. The first star of Aries, which at the time of Eudoxus was at the intersection of the equator and the ecliptic, or at the equinoctial colure, has continued to increase its position in longitude. At the time of Ptolemy this was 6 degrees 40 minutes. Its longitude is now about 31 degrees, which places it entirely out of its original sign.

[128] Among the more important works of Cassini bearing upon this particular subject may be mentioned, Méthode pour trouver la différence des longitudes des lieux par les observations correspondantes des phases des éclipses de soleil 1670. (In: Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1733. Vol. I, p. 133.); La méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les observations des satellites de Jupiter. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie. Paris, 1743. Vol. X, p. 569.); De la méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les observations des satellites de Jupiter. (In: Observations physiques et mathématiques. Paris, 1688. pp. 232-278.); Les hypothèses et les tables des satellites de Jupiter, réformees sur de nouvelles observations. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie, 1693. Paris, 1730. Vol. VIII, p. 363.); Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par des étoiles fixes et des planètes par la Lune. (In: Mémoires de l'Académie. Paris, 1703.)

[129] See p. 349 of Bion's work referred to below, n. 22.

[130] Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1727.

[131] Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. pp. 401-402.

[132] Zedler, J. H. Groses universallexikon aller Wissenschaften und Kunste. Leipzig-Halle, 1745. Vol. 46, p. 153; Günther, Erd- und Himmelsgloben, p. 107, n. 1, reports that two of his Atlases, one of which is a particularly fine example of work representing astronomical geography, may be found in the K. Hof und Staatsbibliothek of München. More than one hundred and twenty-five maps of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk are listed by Phillips in his excellent work on Atlases in the Library of Congress. See index.

[133] Praxis astronomiae utrisque ut et geographiae exercita per usum Globi coelestis et terrestris tum et Planetolabii. Amstelodami, sumptibus Gerhardi Valk Calcographi apud quem prostant una globis et Planetolabio. n. d.

[134] There is considerable doubt as to the date assigned to the Valk globes in the Königliche Museum of Cassel, and to those in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg. See reference to these above, p. 150.

[135] "Senex, John," with appended short bibliographical list. (In: Dictionary of National Biography.)

[136] See reference below, Chap. XIII, to Adams.

[137] "Bion, Nicolas," with portrait. (In: Nouvelle biographie. Paris, 1853.)

[138] Bion, Nicolas. Usage des globes célestes et terrestres, et des sphères, suivant les différents systèmes du monde. Paris, 1699. This work was reissued no less than six times before 1751, there being added to the title in the sixth edition, "Précédé d'un Traité de Cosmographie. Sixième édition, revue et corrigée par le Sieur N. Bion, ingénieur du Roi pour les instruments de Mathématique, sur le Quai de l'Orloge du Palais, au Soleil d'or, où trouvé des Sphères et des Globes de toutes façons"; same author. Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique. Paris, 1752. Bion's work was translated into English by Edward Stone and published in London, 1723, under the title 'Bion's construction and principal use of mathematical instruments.'

[139] See p. 142.

[140] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 402-405.

[141] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 430-431.

[142] "Seutter, Mattheus." (In: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.); Sandler, C. Mattheus Seuter und seine Landkarten. (In: Mitteilungen des Vereins für Erdkunde zu Leipzig. Leipzig, 1894. pp. 5-38.) This article contains a brief biography, a list of his several map publications, his colaborers, and a special consideration of his landkarten.

[143] See the list as given by Sandler, op. cit.

[144] "Morden, Robert." (In: Dictionary of National Biography.)

[145] Morden, R. An introduction to astronomy, geography, navigation, etc., made easy by the description and uses of the coelestial and terrestrial globes, in seven parts. London, 1702. A list of his maps and principal geographical works is given in the article referred to in note 28. See also British Museum Catalogue of Printed Books and Maps.

[146] l'Éloge de l'Abbé Nollet. (In: Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1773. p. 121.); Querard, J. M. La France Littéraire. Paris, 1826-1842. 10 vols. Vol. VI, p. 444; "Nollet, l'Abbé, Jean Antoine." (In: Nouvelle biographie.)

[147] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 407-409.

[148] "Doppelmayr, Johann Gabriel." (In: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.)

[149] Street, T. Astronomia Carolina. A new theory of the celestial motions. London, 1661.

[150] This was a translation of Bion's Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique, to which he gave a general title 'Neueröfnete mathematische Werkschule.' Leipzig, 1713. To the title of a later edition of this translation was prefixed, "Dritte Eröfnung," Nürnberg, 1741. The reference is to a technical school of Nürnberg.

[151] Doppelmayr, Johann Gabriel. Historische Nachricht von nürnbergischen Mathematiscis und Künstlern. Nürnberg, 1730.

[152] Doppelmayr, op. cit.

[153] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 394.

[154] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 414-415.

[155] A noted French geometrician, professor of mathematics at the Collège Royal de France, and at l'Académie d'Architecture, 1640-1718.

[156] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 415.

[157] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 431-432.

[158] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 410-414.

[159] Ferguson, James. Select mechanical exercises with a short account of the life of the author by himself. London, 1773; "Ferguson, James." (In: A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen, originally edited by Robert Chambers, revised by Rev. Thos. Thompson. London, 1856.); "Ferguson, James." (In: Dictionary of National Biography.) The last two articles contain extensive references to Ferguson's works, many of which are of a high order of merit.