Chapter XIII: Part I: , for 1776, London, 1776, pp. 100-6. (The narrative is somewhat (11)

The preceding pages have dealt with various aspects of Jewish influence in Anglo-Saxon America, and we have yet to consider the extent of that influence in the Latin American settlements. Here in this Western Hemisphere, where the Jew has sought an asylum from the historic oppressions and repressions of Old World prejudices, and where, in the very year that saw him expelled from Spain a new future was opened for him and all humanity, here the Jew has been at the fore from the very landing of Columbus to the present day.[29]

In the following pages is presented a review of Jewish activity and influence in the South American Colonies and the West Indies, which has been collated for this volume by Mr. George Alexander Kohut. His careful studies and scientific investigations in this hitherto almost untrodden field of historical research have resulted in the development of many highly interesting facts, and his work affords a most welcome contribution to our general subject. It will be found to command very justly the space accorded to it.

FOOTNOTES:

[29] See Dr. M. Kayserling's "Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries." Translated from the German by Charles Gross, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of History in Harvard College. New York, 1894.

SKETCHES OF JEWISH LOYALTY, BRAVERY AND PATRIOTISM IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN COLONIES AND THE WEST INDIES.

BY GEORGE ALEXANDER KOHUT, New York City.

I

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE DUTCH BY THE JEWS OF BRAZIL (1623-44).

In 1624, when the Dutch conquered Brazil, several Jews, desirous of joining their co-believers in the newly acquired Dutch dominions, where our brethren flourished for many decades previously in the guise of New Christians or Marranos, enlisted in the Hollandish fleet as volunteers. Encouraged by this show of patriotism on the part of their newly arrived co-religionists, who, under the reign of the United Provinces, enjoyed all the blessings of peace and equality, many _Nuevos Christianos_ openly renounced their sham faith and re-avowed Judaism, happy once more to breathe the air of freedom without suffering persecution. It is said that the Jewish soldiers in the navy displayed so much zeal and courage in the taking possession of Brazil that the government protected them ever after.[30] Even before putting to sea, remarks a French historian of Brazil,[31] the Dutch admirals obtained much useful information concerning the political situation of Brazil, from the Israelites there settled, and who were all eager to remain, or rather, to pass over to the Dutch, whose liberal spirit and religious tolerance seemed much more inviting to them than the cruel sceptre of Spain or Portugal. This is furthermore corroborated by another (English) writer, Mr. Robert G. Watson, in his excellent work: _Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial Period_ (London, 1884), Vol. II, p. 1, where we read: "The religious intolerance from which the Dutch had themselves so terribly suffered at the hands of their Spanish rulers had taught them to be tolerant in such matters towards others, _and to this circumstance they were now (1623-24) indebted for much valuable information respecting Brazil, which they received from the Jews who had taken refuge amongst them_."

It is apparent from these and other items to be mentioned later that the Jews rendered not only military and naval service to the Dutch in their struggle against Portugal in Brazil, but diplomatic counsel of no little weight, by means of which Holland could conquer the American possessions and establish herself most firmly there. The inhabitants of Brazil at about that time (1623-38) were not very yielding. In fact R. Southey, the reliable and painstaking historian, says[32] that "The Portuguese were held in subjection only by fear, but many Portuguese Jews from Holland had taken their abode in a country where they could speak their own language as well as enjoy their own religion. _These were excellent subjects_; they exercised the charitable industry of their original nation secure of enjoying its fruits under a free government." The Dutch, upon taking possession of Brazil, issued a proclamation, no doubt with a view of attracting the Jews, whose accession would prove beneficial to the interests of the government, whereby they offered full possession of their property, and freedom of worship to all such as would submit. Amongst those who were thus brought under Dutch rule were _two hundred Jews_. (cf. Watson, _l. c._, II, p. 2.) This liberal charter of religious freedom lasted as long as the Dutch supremacy until the Portuguese re-conquest of Brazil in 1654, with more or less privileges, according to the whim of the public whose dictates even the government had to obey, as we may see from what took place in 1638, as recorded by Southey (_l. c._, Vol. I, p. 566): "Some of the Portuguese-Brazilians also, gladly throwing off the mask which they had so long been compelled to wear, joined their brethren in the synagogue. The open joy with which they now celebrated their ceremonies attracted too much notice; it excited horror in Catholics, and _even the Dutch themselves_, less liberal than their laws, pretended that the toleration of Holland did not extend to Brazil; the senate conceded to, and perhaps partook of the popular feeling, and hence arose the edict, by which the Jews were ordered to perform their rites more in private."[33]

Under Count Maurice's gentle reign our co-religionists lived in peace and they appear to have benefited by this temporary respite and acquired much wealth, for we find on record a petition from the Jews of Mauritsstad, dated May 1, 1642, offering an annual present of 3000 florins to Count Maurice if he would be induced to remain as their Governor in Brazil.[34] In 1642, at the urgent invitation of their co-religionists (cf. Koenen, _l. c._, p. 278), 600 Jews, headed by Moses Raphael de Aguilar and Ishac Aboab de Fonseca, came from Amsterdam[35] and formed a prosperous colony in Recife, which gave promise of glorious development, had not the wars between Holland and Portugal, in which our brethren took noble part, destroyed their hopes. In 1642, it must be noted, they again were permitted to worship publicly, a privilege which did not remain unrewarded, for we soon hear of certain state services rendered by the Jews in 1644 and later, when many mean conspiracies against the government were afoot, concocted, no doubt by the Portuguese under Dutch rule. Watson (_Spanish and Portuguese South America_, etc., London, 1884, Vol. II, p. 47) says: "At length, however, the time came when his (the chief conspirator's, Fernandes) practices could no longer be ignored by the government, _who were set on their guard chiefly by the Jews_. These are certainly not to be blamed for wishing a continuance of the _status quo_; since, in the event of an outbreak, they were certain to be plundered by both parties with complete impartiality; whilst, in the event of victory on the part of the Portuguese, they had before them the image of the fiendish agents of the Inquisition," which, as we have elsewhere shown,[36] they had good reason to fear. We read later (_l. c._, p. 48) that Fernandes could not be captured and summoned troops. Many obeyed the call and fell upon such Dutchmen and Jews as happened to be within their reach.

The loyalty of the Jews in the matter of revealing the various state conspiracies is thus alluded to by Pieter Marinus Netscher in his admirable work _Les Hollandais au Brésil_, (La Haye, 1853), p. 145: "Fortunately, national and religious fanaticism did not smother the sentiments of humanity and justice in the hearts of all the conspirators. Two Portuguese [Jews?] Sebastian Carvalho and Fernando Vale, with _five Jews_, fearing that their lives and fortunes were at stake, resolved to disclose the secret of the plot to the Grand Council.[37] Another conspiracy was brought to light and denounced to the government by a Jew named _Moise Accoignes_, who, against his will, was forced to become an accessory to the plot.[38] He is no doubt alluded to by Prof. H. Graetz, who, in his _History of the Jews_ (English version, Philadelphia, 1895, Vol. IV, p. 693. Jewish Publication Society of America) writes: "Of course, the Brazilian Jews enjoyed perfect equality of rights with other citizens, _for they rendered the Dutch essential services as advisers and warriors_. When the native Portuguese, who bore the yoke of the Dutch impatiently, formed a conspiracy to get rid of the Dutch authorities at a banquet in the capital, and attack the colony bereft of government [?], _a Jew gave warning, and_ _saved the colony from certain destruction._" Southey, whom at the present writing we are unable to consult, (cf. his _History of Brazil_, Vol. II, pp. 60-70), and Koenen, also chronicle the timely intervention of a faithful Israelite,[39] who, at the risk of his life, for the conspirators would not have scrupled to put him out of the way, informed the authorities of the impending calamity to the state.

We also know that a Jew in Lisbon proved instrumental in intercepting some official papers in reference to the revolt in Brazil.[40]

The execution of one, Jacob Rabbi, an agent of Holland, who must have been a Jew, is mentioned by Netscher in the following terms: "... The cause of this desertion [from the Portuguese troops?] was that the Lieutenant-Colonel, Garstman, had been sufficiently impolitic to put to death (in 1645 or 1646?) for a real or supposed crime, a certain Jacob Rabbi, German by birth, of a ferocious character. He had lived for many years among the savages as agent of the Hollandish government."[41]

It is evident that the Dutch Government and especially the Governor, Count Maurice de Nassau, was not backward in appreciating the services of the Jews. An ordinance from the States-General reads:

"... The persons, goods and rights of the Jews in Brazil are taken under the special protection of the Government, because of the fidelity and courage which that nation had on every occasion displayed toward the said Government."[42]

II.

BRAVE DEFENSE OF THE JEWS IN BRAZIL IN 1645-1646.

The best evidence of Jewish loyalty to their lenient Dutch rulers was given at a time when the Hollandish Government was contending with the Portuguese for the possession of Brazil. The numerous conspiracies years previous were only a foretaste of what followed and when at last, in the year 1645, war actually broke out, our co-religionists lost no time in siding with their generous patrons, regardless of consequences. Among those that distinguished themselves for their noble patriotism and whose co-operation in behalf of the needy and distressed won all hearts, was a wealthy Israelite, Abraham Coen by name, whose fame is recognized in the following verses written in his honor by one of the greatest Portuguese Jewish poets of Holland, Don Miguel Levi de Barrios, who visited Cayenne[43] in 1660 and remained there until 1662:

_Abraham Coen en el Brasil remoto_
del principe Mauricio halló el agrado
prospero y noble, y oy del Rey Empireo
goço la luz en ideal palacio.
_Cerco al Brasil el luso balicoso
en nueve años continuos, que empeçaron
en el de mil seiscientos y quarenta
y cinco, contra el valeroso Holandio._

Y en todos con magnanima grandeza
el grande Abraham Coen sustento à quantos
Judios y Cristianos de su auxilio
en la miseria atroz necesitaron.
_Entonces los Señoras del Supremo
Consejo sobre el Pueblo Brasiliano
vieron del fiel Coen la piedad grande._[44]

Dr. Hahn informs us that "in the perilous times of 1645 and 1648 great services were rendered to the government by the Portuguese family of Cohen in furnishing ammunition and provisions."[45]

The Portuguese besieged Recife, near Pernambuco, which boasted of a large Jewish population (among them several fine scholars: David Senior Coronel, Dr. Abraham de Mercado, Jahacob Mucate, Ishac Castanho and others)[46] and the inhabitants thus deprived of every possible communication, endured much suffering. The Jews, encouraged by their learned and eloquent Rabbi Isaac Aboab, the friend of Menasse ben Israel, bore their tribulations bravely, and though almost famished for want of nourishment, defended the fort with such remarkable skill and heroism, as to evoke the praise and gratitude of the Government. Had it not been for the dauntless resistance offered by them, the garrison would have been compelled to surrender.

Aboab commemorated his thrilling experiences of war in the introductory chapter of his Hebrew version of Abraham Cohen Herrera's _Porta Coeli_ (Sha'ar Ha'shamayîm) which he began to translate in June, 1655 (22nd of Siwan 5415). Besides this, he wrote nine years before (anno 1646) a poetical account of the siege in a work entitled _Secher Rab;[47] Prayers and Confessions and Supplications, which were composed for appealing to God in his trouble and in the distress of the Congregation, when the troops of Portugal overwhelmed them during their sojourn in Brazil in the year 5406 [1646]. And I have caused the wonderful works of God to be remembered in songs and praises, when he released them from the hands of their enemies._ It is written in Hebrew. The Ms. is still extant in Amsterdam, in possession of the "Arbol de las Vidas" Theological Society.[48] The part played by the Jews in the defense of the colony is described by eminent Jewish and Christian historians.[49] Dr. Kayserling's and Prof. Graetz's accounts are worth citing _in extenso_. The former, who is engaged in copying this earliest specimens of American Jewish literature, the work of Isaac Aboab, for the American Jewish Historical Society, writes as follows: "Aboab became _Chacham_ (Chief) of the congregation in Recife, which would have become one of the largest and richest, had it not been hindered in its development by the disturbances of war; it was dissolved after a short existence. The new settlers enjoyed tranquility only for a few years, for already in 1645 the sanguinary struggles, for the possession of the colony, between the Portuguese and the Hollanders began. The Jews stood faithfully on the side of the Hollanders, who had granted them perfect equality, and distinguished themselves by courage and heroism, as well as by succor to the distressed. During the war Abraham Coen, a rich and high-minded man of Amsterdam, who was in great favor with Duke Moritz of Nassau, supported Jews and Christians in such a magnanimous way that the Supreme Council of the Brazilian people looked with admiration at the great work of mercy. Isaac Aboab faithfully discharged the duties of his office; he ordered days of fasting and prayer, and his fiery speeches encouraged his co-religionists to perseverance and devotion. It was a fierce struggle of nine years which brought much suffering on the Jews. Recife was besieged and the garrison decimated by hunger. 'Many of the Jewish immigrants were killed by the enemy, many died of hunger. The remainder were exposed to death from similar causes. Those who had been accustomed to delicacies were glad to be able to satisfy their hunger with dry bread; soon they could not obtain even this; they were in want of everything, and were preserved alive as by a miracle.'"

Prof. Graetz, still more explicit, writes to the following effect: "In 1646, when open war broke out between the Portuguese and the Dutch, and the garrison of Recife, exhausted by famine, was on the point of surrendering unconditionally, the Jews encouraged the governor to brave resistance. A fanatical war of race and religion between the Portuguese and the Dutch devastated fair Brazil, and a famine ensued. The Jews vied with the Dutch in suffering and bravery. Isaac Aboab, the Chacham of the Brazil community, paints the suffering of the war, which he himself endured, in lurid colors: 'Volumes would not suffice to relate our miseries. The enemy spread over field and wood, seeking here for booty and there for life. Many of us died, sword in hand, others from want; they now rest in cold earth. We survivors were exposed to death in every form; those accustomed to luxuries were glad to seize mouldy bread to stay their hunger.'

"At last, the States-General were compelled by European wars to surrender the colony to the Portuguese. The devoted zeal of the Jews for the political welfare of the Dutch was a firm band, never afterwards dissolved, between them and the Republic. The toleration and equal position of Jews in the Netherlands were ensured forever."

Southey relates (_History of Brazil_, Vol. II, p. 241; _apud_ Koenen's _Geschiedenis_, p. 281), that when the Dutch in Recife were besieged the second time,[50] the Jews manifested much courage and bravery in its defense. One of the Pintos (Jewish stock also in Surinam, where Isaac Pinto, a member of this family, likewise displayed zeal and heroism in resisting the enemy), is said to have manned the fort _Dos Affrogados_ single handed, until, overwhelmed by superior force, he was compelled to surrender.

"In the wars of the Dutch against the Spaniards," says Dr. A. Hahn, "one of the Pintos was killed at his post while bravely defending one of the fortresses." His death is nowhere else recorded, however.[51]

The supremacy of the United Provinces now came to an end in America. On the 23d of January, 1654, Recife, together with the neighboring cities of Mauritsstad, Parayba, Itamarica, Seara, and other Hollandish possessions, was ceded to the Portuguese conquerors, with the condition that a general amnesty be granted. (Koenen, _l. c._, p. 282). Although, as Netscher[52] remarks, this stipulation was agreed upon, and the Jews, who were loyal supporters of Holland, were promised every consideration, the Portuguese governor, heeding the treacherous advice of jealous persons, ordered the Jews to quit Brazil at once. It must be admitted, in justice to Portugal, that he treated them kindly, inasmuch as he placed at their disposal sixteen vessels to carry them and their property anywhere they chose, and furnished them with passports and safeguards. Thus after a residence of several decades, Aboab, Aguilar, the Nassys, Pereiras, the Mezas, Abraham de Castro, Josua Sarfati, both surnamed _el Brasil_,[53] returned to Amsterdam, and many others went to New York, where they formed the nucleus of a prosperous colony. They arrived in safety, although one of their vessels, attacked by pirates, was rescued by the French and escorted to New Holland.[54]

III.

SAMUEL NASSY OF SURINAM.

Not all the Jews, who were by royal order expelled from Brazil in 1654, when the Dutch possessions in South America were ceded to Portugal, left their adopted country, where they, for a brief span of years enjoyed all the privileges of their fellowmen. Many were so much attached to American soil that they dared remain, despite the edict of banishment, in Brazil and elsewhere.

In Dutch Guiana, a thrifty colony was formed as early as 1644,[55] two years after the influx and settlement of Amsterdam Jews in Brazil under Aboab and Aguilar. These were undoubtedly the original colonists of Brazil. This colony soon increased by a second settlement of Jews hailing, likewise, from Brazil, who were undoubtedly persuaded to migrate thither by their Dutch co-religionists in Cayenne. The President of the West Indian Company, recognizing their influence as a commercial and political body, granted a most liberal charter of rights[56] in 1659 (September 12th), wherein freedom of thought, and liberty of conscience and worship were duly accorded to them through their able representative, David Nassy, a native Brazilian, who, by force of his personality, culture and intelligence, was destined to play a most important part in the political and social development of this and other colonies subsequently formed in the Guianas. So enticing was this generous programme, that already in the following year, 1660, 152 Jews of both sexes,[57] embarked at Livorno, Italy,[58] bound for the land of freedom, where they arrived in the ship _Monte del Cisne_, having set sail on the memorable 9th day of Ab (August) 1660, in order to build up their temple under more favorable auspices in another hemisphere.[59]

Among their number was the famous Spanish poet and historian De Barrios (see above), to whom we owe many important items of early American Jewish history. His visit to America was not a happy one, for shortly after his arrival his wife, Deborah, died in Tabago (West Indies).[60]

The continuous wars between Holland and Portugal caused the colonists no little grief and annoyance. The frequent devastations of the French, too, who were equally zealous and greedy for conquest, gave them so much anxiety that they decided to transplant the colony to Surinam--a plan which was carried out on May 15th, 1664.[61]

As the writer is engaged in compiling an extensive work on the Jews of Surinam he refrains now from entering into details concerning their early career. Suffice it to say that the spirit of their Dutch masters followed them thenceforth for more than a century and a half. The English government then ruling the colony, true to their traditional standard of tolerance ever since the days of Cromwell and Menasseh ben Israel, endowed them with equal civil rights and granted them not only full exercise of their religion, but excused them from public and military service on the Sabbath day. The document is a precious chapter in the history of religious liberty in America. It was published recently by the present writer.[62] Without further prolegomena, we desire to introduce one of the members of the famous family of Nassy, all of whom fully deserved the distinction of nobility implied in their name,[63] for their bravery and statesmanship.

History records the estimable services of Samuel Nassy, who but for some unlucky circumstance would have occupied the highest official position in Surinam. De Barrios, who probably knew him personally, remembers him in the following words: "_Del pueblo de Sariñam Samuel Nasi (sic) Señorea El coraçon con los dones y et estudio con la ciencia._"[64] Dr. Kayserling, in a recent article says: "Of great influence upon the free development of the colony, as on the condition of the Jewish inhabitants, was the activity of Samuel Nasi, a talented and scientifically trained man, who is designated as 'Citizens' Captain,' and was a candidate for the position of governor."[65] It is said that Governor Aerssens, with whom the Jews of Surinam had some little difficulty,[66] sealed a treaty of peace with the Indians, who molested the early settlers quite often, and in order to make it of a more durable character, he formed an alliance with the chieftain's daughter.[67] While he lived there was no disturbance at all, but almost immediately after his death, the savage tribes returned to their former aggressive attitude and made a furious onslaught on the colony. With the help of the Jewish inhabitants, who were headed by Captain Samuel Nassy, the Indians were promptly repulsed.[68]

Nassy soon acquired influence and prominence among his co-religionists in particular. He strove to introduce a few necessary reforms in ritual and ceremony--the first traces of the reform movement in America--especially in the abrogation of certain festivals which were perhaps too burdensome to the community. It seems, however, that in this he met with considerable opposition, although he had the sanction and support of the Rabbis in Amsterdam, with whom he corresponded.[69] The authority with which he was vested by reason of his executive ability and earnest zeal soon diminished with the arrival of the newly appointed governor, Heer Van Scherpenhuizen, the successor of Aerssens,[70] a fact which tended much to embitter his days and aroused sharp controversy between him and his rival. He had the satisfaction of being instrumental in his recall soon after his accession.[71]

Nassy flattered himself that his personal influence was necessary to the welfare and prosperity of the colony. And he was right. The Jews relied so implicitly upon his counsels and were so certain that he would be proclaimed governor, for he enjoyed the esteem of Jew and Gentile alike, that it was an unpleasant shock to them all when quite another person, comparatively unknown, was chosen in his stead. It is, therefore, not surprising that Samuel Nassy, seeing the loss of his public prestige, thought fit to betake himself to Amsterdam, unwilling to remain in a country which owed all its present affluence to his sterling honesty and wise management, and was yet so slow in showing its gratitude to the able statesman. His disappointment and dissatisfaction in not succeeding Heer Van Sommelsdyk as governor infected the whole Jewish community. The rupture which eventually followed between the Jews and Governor Scherpenhuizen resulted in the latter's removal.[72] This was chiefly occasioned by the unfriendly treatment of the Jews at the governor's hands, who, seeing in them only the partisans of his former rival, took care to harass them with unjust taxation. This exasperated them so much that they lodged a complaint against him with Baron de Belmonte and their "Citizens' Captain" Samuel Nassy, both in Amsterdam, and demanded the immediate recall of their prejudiced governor from the State-Council. Strangely enough, Nassy's influence was still powerful, for he was replaced, in 1696, by another governor, Paulus van der Veen by name, shortly after the petition was filed. Scherpenhuizen embarked for Holland. Having been taken prisoner by the French on his way thither, he arrived there only after several months. Hardly had he landed at Amsterdam, before he was arraigned by Samuel Nassy before the civil court and he was compelled to vindicate his conduct.[73] The record of that trial and defense, in which Nassy took a leading part, is still extant, published in 1697.[74]

IV.

DEFENSE OF THE JEWS IN SURINAM AGAINST THE FRENCH IN 1689 AND 1712.

The loyalty of the Jews to their new settlement is unparalleled in American history. Every emergency found them ready to show their allegiance to Holland. Thus, when in 1689, a French fleet, under Admiral Cassard, made a sudden attack on the colony, they were met with brave resistance by the Jews. Van Chattillon, son of the previous governor, displayed great heroism on this occasion.[75] Two Dutch historians make mention of the valor of the Jews. Verburg and Fr. Holf. Merkurius relate in their _Histories of the East and West Indies_, that "after the death of Governor Aersen (_sic_) and the arrival of the new representative Scherpenhuizen, word was received that a French fleet was nearing Surinam. All soldiers and sailors were ordered out and summoned to appear at the fort. The call was obeyed by the Jews, of whom there were many in Surinam, and despite the fact that it was a Sabbath day, they fought valiantly for their colony. Two letters eulogizing their action in the matter were sent to the Society _Felix Libertate_, by a worthy citizen, H. L. Bromet, who lived for many years in Surinam."[76]

The colony, unmolested by strife and war, soon began to thrive and prosper. Their respite was of short duration, however, for already in in 1712, Admiral Cassard, at the head of another powerful squadron advanced upon the settlement. A fierce attack made in June, 1712, was manfully repulsed. In October of the same year, Cassard's fleet again appeared on the coast, and endeavored to sail up the Commawine River. The inhabitants, and particularly the Jews, under Captain Isaac Pinto[77] offered a stubborn resistance, and although they fought valiantly, they could not prevent the enemy from landing, bombarding the city of Paramaribo, and devastating the country. The treaty of Utrecht sealed soon after between the French and Dutch put an end to these vagaries.[78]

A recent writer on American Jewish history says: "In the war against the French in 1689, members of the families Pinto da Fonsera (read _Fonseca_), Arias, Naar, De Brito and D'Avilar fought valiantly."[79]

V.

SUPPRESSION OF NEGRO-REVOLTS BY THE JEWS OF SURINAM (1690-1772.)

Hardly were the colonists freed from the depredations of the French before danger menaced them from another direction. An anonymous writer, cited by Hannah Adams,[80] says: "The great check to the prosperity of Surinam has arisen from the inhabitants being exposed to the invasion and lawlessness of the Maroons, or runaway negroes, who have formed several communities in the inaccessible parts of the woods, and were the most implacable and cruel enemies of the colonists. _The Jewish militia have often signalized themselves against them, and have been of great use to the colony_; one-third of whom were of this (Jewish) nation."

Already in the year 1690 the negro slaves on the plantation of a wealthy Jewish landowner, _Machado_, rebelled against their master and murdered him. Governor Scharphuizen, who entertained bitter feelings against the Jews, refused to lend them the slightest assistance, so that they were thrown entirely upon their own resources.[81] More than once the Jews, exasperated by the governor's neglect, took matters into their own hands, and defended themselves with great success. The negroes, nothing daunted by this spirited show of resistance assumed a still more threatening attitude, their numbers, and hence their audacity, increasing more and more each day. The natives knowing full well that their advantage lay in their endurance of climate and similar local circumstances, understood how to utilize the fact to their benefit, and during the following years harassed the colony very much. This state of affairs, however, could not last long. In 1730 a desperate effort was made by the Jewish militia, which was determined to punish the slaves, under the lead of an under-officer followed by fourteen volunteers and thirty-six negroes. They exhibited no little courage and bravery in the taking possession and guard of an important post situated in the vicinity of the devastated negro villages.[82] This determined stand of the Jews did not, by any means, intimidate the lawless hordes who were intent upon rebellion and plunder. On the contrary it only roused their anger all the more. In 1731 it was again deemed imperative to check their depredations. The Citizens' Captain _Boeyé_ and the spirited David Nassy, (who more than any one else before and after him worked for the prosperity of Surinam) were chosen leaders of this campaign. David Nassy is described by historians as a man of power and integrity. He is said to have drilled the negro slaves on his plantation so thoroughly for such enterprises, that his co-operation was of the utmost necessity. He was the nephew of David Nassy who first settled in Surinam and received (in 1659), the famous charter of privileges to settle in Cayenne.[83] (See above.) It seems that he entertained friendly relations with his negro slaves who, in 1717 were offered perfect freedom by the Political Council (_Raad van Politie_) if they volunteered to fight against the Maroons, who made frequent assaults on the colonists. Already in the year 1718, Nassy enlisted in the Jewish Corps, commanded by Captain _Jacob D'Avilar_, and distinguished himself in a combat of a similar nature. So impetuous and brave was he in battle that he was speedily promoted from a regular to the office of Lieutenant, and later to that of Captain of the Jewish Citizens' Company (_Kapitein der Joodsche burger compagnie_). He was, therefore, well qualified by dint of personal bravery and diplomatic skill to take so important a part in the expedition against the Maroons.

In the present campaign he was not less fortunate and heroic. Undaunted by the treacherous trick of Boeyé, who abandoned him in the middle of the fray, he attacked the foe in their own retreats, killed several and took as many more prisoners. Boeyé, who was his envious rival, fearful perhaps of the consequences of his own cowardice, accused Nassy of indiscretion and disobedience, but so universal was the esteem and sympathy felt for the latter, who had before earned laurels on the field and was thought incapable of such folly, that he had but little difficulty in proving his innocence. The result was that Nassy was honorably acquitted, whilst his jealous rival, the real culprit, was duly punished. He added to his fame most decisively by this new stroke of bravery and military prowess and had the honor of being praised and glorified by the Spanish-Jewish poetess _Benvenida Belmonte_,[84] who composed a fitting eulogy in verse on his deeds of valor.[85] Nassy was the second South American Jew, whose nobility of character and state services were commemorated in Spanish-Jewish literature. (Cp. _supra_, rubric II, on Abraham Coen of Brazil.) His generalship and scientific tactics were called into requisition about two decades after his above detailed victory, in another expedition against the marauding band of negroes, who troubled the peace of the colony for nearly a century at various intervals. As previously noted, in the case of Machado, anno 1690, the slaves of another wealthy Jewish planter, _Manuel Pereira_, rebelled against their master, in 1738, and, thinking to shake off the yoke of slavery, cruelly murdered him. Hereupon, _Isaac Arias_, a former officer of the Jewish militia, who lived in the victim's neighborhood, sent out a detachment of Jewish volunteers, headed by _David Nassy_ and _Abraham De Brito_, to wreak vengeance upon the rebels. The troops remained away for six weeks in the enemy's camp,[86] and it began to be feared that they were utterly routed and destroyed, when the company returned, bringing with them the trophies of a most successful onslaught made against the Maroons, namely six hands severed from fallen negroes, and forty-seven prisoners of war.

As a reward for their bravery every officer received from the Council (_Raad_) 75 f. (florins?); every citizen (Jewish regular) 36 f.; each armed negro 20 f.; and each colored man who was in needy circumstances, 5 f.[87]

Five years later, in 1743, brave old Captain David Nassy, who had conducted thirty like expeditions against the Maroons, sallied forth for the last time to fight for his people and, according to some, to die on the battlefield the death of a hero.[88] This time he was arrayed against the Creoles, who by reason of their more acute intelligence and culture (having been long associated with Europeans) were yet the most dangerous of all their foes. Endowed with a noble Macabbean spirit, he fell like his ancestor Matathias, in the moment of victory. It was on the _Day of Atonement_ that the venerable sage and warrior sallied forth to war. It must have been urgent indeed, for David Nassy regardless of the solemnity of the festival put himself at the head of his trusty men, crossed over the Surinam River; penetrated further inland; pursued the enemy, set their huts ablaze; tore their fruits out of the ground; killed many on the spot and dragged about forty slaves along with them as captives. Nassy, who had already passed his three score years and ten, fell a victim to the treachery of his foes. It was told him that the negroes had poisoned all the wells in the village, so that he was compelled to turn homeward, in order to quench the burning thirst which afflicted him and his troops, without awaiting the orders of the Council. This most natural step gave his opponents a good excuse for lodging a complaint against him with the authorities, who are usually ready to listen to malice and dispute. His defense was scarcely heard and he was pronounced guilty. Such wanton ingratitude the good old soldier hardly expected as a reward for his services for the welfare of his fellowmen. Bitter disappointment and grief undermined his health. He was seized with fever, and soon after at the age of seventy, or thereabouts, death released him from his sufferings. With him died the flower of the Jewish colony, an Israelite indeed, in whom there was no guile. His co-religionist, _Isaac Carvalho_, was chosen Captain of the Jewish Citizens' Company, in his place.[89]

A few years later, a treaty of peace was made with the Western Maroons, who were getting more and more perilous to the safety of the colonists. But a new danger threatened them from another side. In 1749 the Maroons in the east, known as _Tempati (?) Negroes_ (_Tempati-negers_), broke forth in mutiny, plundered a plantation completely and carried off all the negro slaves who lived there. This plantation (as in fact all others in Surinam) belonged to a Jewish landowner, and was called _Auka_. Henceforth the insurrection which originated there was named after the _Auka-negroes_. Against these marauders, an expedition, partly under the Christian chief, Rijsdorp, and partly in command of the Jewish captain, _Moses Naar_, was organized and dispatched in 1757. It deserves to be mentioned, by the way, that this was Naar's _seventeenth campaign_ against the Creoles. The result of this undertaking was likewise favorable. Naar burned down a whole negro-village, made a number of captives, among them being a certain Corydon, the leader of the insurrection. For his bravery and skilful capture he was presented with a worthy gift by the Council.[90]

We are informed by David J. C. Nasi (or Nassy), the third descendant of the original settler of Surinam, who compiled with other intelligent men of his age, an exhaustive and comprehensive chronicle of the Jews in Surinam in French,[91] that already in 1750, _Moses Naar_ and _Gabriel de La Fatte_, in recognition of their active zeal in suppressing a revolt of the negroes in their colony, were presented with silver cups and a vote of thanks from the government.[92]

The fame achieved by his co-religionist, _Naar_, so enthused and electrified the young and ambitious _Isaac Nassy_ that he was eagerly anticipating another outbreak on the part of the Maroons, in order to show his courage and reckless heroism. The impetuous youth met with a noble, but pathetic end:

Thinking that against a well-regulated army, however small, no valor or charge of the negroes could possibly prevail, he hastily collected twelve of his followers upon the rumor of their approach; armed his and their most trusty slaves; provided himself with the barest necessities of war, sufficient for about ten or twelve days, and pursued the retreating foe with an ardor which, if imprudent, is at least a virtue in one so young and war-thirsty. He was, however, suddenly confronted by a much more considerable number of negroes than he reckoned upon. His little band stood ground but for a short while. Nassy himself displayed great bravery, and although severely wounded by a rifle shot in his right limb, he began to fight with a still more marvelous energy in order to rally his terrified men and to re-arouse their fleeting courage. But in vain. He was captured alive by the sanguinary horde and brutally murdered. Two of their chief officers and twenty soldiers fell with him on the battlefield.[93]

At last, the authorities saw that it was advisable and imperative again to make a treaty of peace with the relentless Maroons, or fugitive negroes, (_gevluchte Negers_) whose ravages for over half a century spread ruin and terror throughout the land. Accordingly, on the 23d of May, 1761, peace was established, to last for a good many years, apparently.[94] It was not long, however, before hostilities were resumed. In 1772 the State Council found it imperative to call in the aid of the mother country against the Maroons, who grew more audacious in proportion as they advanced in culture and education.[95] The State General, roused to action by the serious state of affairs in the colony, sent a company of 500 men, under command of Captain Forgeoud, who had previously shown much courage and ingenuity in suppressing a revolt of negroes in the Barbary States. Two years later, a series of military posts was established, beginning from the _Savannah of the Jews_ to the banks of the Commawine River and from there to the sea. Forts, strengthened by means of palisades were constructed from plantation to plantation, and when finally peace was enforced, the colony was spared from any further molestation at the hands of the unruly negroes.[96] Koenen, though very fair and just to the Jews in his _History_, sees fit to reproach them for their unkind treatment of slaves,[97] which, he opines, was the chief cause of the rebellion, lasting over seventy years. We are inclined to think that this rebuke is unwarranted, inasmuch as the rigid Mosaic and Rabbinic laws regarding them, were always strictly followed by the Jews and those in Surinam, who had men like the family of Nassy at their head, could not have trespassed these ordinances. He admitted, however, in his summary, that the colony in her defense was always deeply indebted to the Jewish militia, and in social and commercial matters especially beholden to them, for the Jews were the cultivators of the marshy and often dangerous soil and the masters of commerce, the chief factors of the welfare and prosperity of the settlement,[98] since its foundation. Not desiring to anticipate our conclusions in a larger work, we content ourselves with saying that nowhere else in the history of America is such devotion, disinterestedness and loyalty on the part of Jewish citizens so marked, and let us add, so gratefully recognized as in the little Dutch Province of Surinam. And nowhere else in the New World did the Israelites thrive more in culture, learning and religion than in the _Jewish Savannah_ of Guiana, as their community was called. Small wonder, then, in view of their attachment to their Hollandish masters, when we hear that in 1785, on the occasion of the reconsecration of their synagogue, then 100 years old, the Governor Wichers, with all the provincial magistrates and other eminent citizens, attended in a body the impressive ceremonies, which are graphically narrated in a little volume published by an eye witness.[99] And that two Christian philo-Semites wrote beautiful verses in Dutch in honor of these festivities, republished by the writer, elsewhere.[100] Nor does it now seem strange that the Jews loved to glorify their governors, J. G. Wichers,[101] Sir Chas. Green,[102] and Abraham De Veer,[103] in pretty songs and hymns, written in Hollandish and Hebrew. These were but poetic tokens of their patriotism. As late as 1853, the records inform us of their prosperity and constantly growing activity and interest in the colony. In that year we find them in the courts (Ellis, Juda, Fernandes, and others); among thirteen advocates, notaries, and procurators, there were seven Jews (Heilbronn, Colaço, Belmonte, de Granada, Abendañon, etc.); many served in the army as captains, lieutenants, colonels, majors, and chaplains. In fact they minister to the public weal in every conceivable capacity.[104] In their hands the colony still prospers. Recent reports, made by a correspondent of the _Jewish Chronicle_ in London, are aglow with enthusiasm for the prosperity of their now thrifty and intelligent colony, and reassure us of the vigor and tenacity of our faith in that distant land.

FOOTNOTES:

[30] See H. J. Koenen's prize essay, _Geschiedenis der Joden in Nederland_ (Utrecht, 1843), pp. 277-78: "Machtig breide zich deze bevolking uit als de Nederlanders omstreeks het jaar 1624 Brazilie veroverden. Op de Hollandsche vloot hadden verscheiden Joden vrijwillig dienst genomen, om zich in het te vermeesteren gewest met hunne geloofsgenooten te vereenigen. Deze ontmoeting, en de voor hen aanlichtende vrijheid onder Hollandsche Bestuur, maakten, dat vele Braziliaansche Nieuwe Christenen wederom opentlyk het Jodendom beleden; en dat zij eerlang eene tweede volkplanting hunner geloofsgenooten te Cayenne stichteden, waar David Nassi, een geboren Braziliaan, zich met goedkeuring der West-Indische Compagnie nederzette. Inmiddels hadden de Joden, die met 's lands vloot in 1624 naar Brazilie overgestoken waren en de Nederlanders dat land hadden helpen vermeesteren, aan hunne te Amsterdam woonachtige broederen geschreven, en hen uitgenoodigd om zich in het nieuw veroverde gewest op den pas ontgonnen koophandel te komen toeleggen; waartoe eene ruime gelegendheid was, sedert de Hollanders, na het sluiten van eenen wapenstilstand met de Portugezen, eene publicatie hadden afgekondigd, dat het den Joden voortaan volkomen zoude vrijstaan, zich in Brazilie te vestigen, etc."

We have copied this in full, as Koenen, whom recent historians all follow, is the only authentic source, although in this case no authorities are given. This point, and others in connection with the early Jewish settlements in Brazil were discussed by the present writer in two papers: _Early Jewish Literature in America_, in _Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society_ (= _P. A. J. H. S._), No. 3 (1895), pp. 103-47 (cf. esp. pp. 104, 105, 134-40) and _Jewish Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America_, to appear simultaneously with this volume, in the same place, No. 4.

[31] See Pieter Marinus Netscher's _Les Hollandais au Brésil, Notice Historique sur les Pays-Bas et le Brésil au XVII^e siècle_ (La Haye, 1853), p. 14: "Avant de mettre en mer (1623?), les amiraux Hollandais obtinrent sur la situation politique du Brésil les informations les plus utiles _par l'intermédiaire des Juifs_ qui s'y étaient établis, et qui presque tous, désiraient avec ardeur passer sous le gouvernement des Provinces-Unies, à cause de sa tolérance en matière de religion." Cf. also De Beauchamp's _Histoire du Brésil_, vol. II, p. 159; Southey's _History of Brazil_ (2nd ed.) I, pp. 477, 479, 495, supplem. note 135; vol. II, p. 241; Judge Daly's _Settlement of the Jews in North America_ (2nd ed. New York, 1893) p. XVII.

[32] _History of Brazil_ (London, 1810), Vol. I, p. 566; cf. also the quotation in R. G. Watson's _Spanish and Portuguese South America_, etc., _op. cit._, Vol. II, p. 29.

[33] See also Netscher's _Les Hollandais au Brésil_, etc., (La Haye, 1853), p. 94: "Les synagogues furent fermées, et les Juifs durent se borner à célébrer leur culte dans l'intérieur des maisons. Le mal fut d'autant plus sensible qu'un grand nombre de commerçants respectables et d'autres habitants du Brésil-Hollandais étaient des Juifs, qui depuis nombre d'années s'étaient réfugiés au Recife ou qui récemment y avaient été attirés par la tolérance du comte Maurice." Cf. also _ibid._, pp. 128, 202, note 82; and Judge Daly's work, op. cit., p. 6. On the subject of religious freedom enjoyed by Jews in Brazil, more at another time.

[34] Cf. Netscher's work, _op. cit._, p. 127. The document is preserved in _Le rapport détaillé de Tolner, contresigné par le Comte, avec tous les appendices, se trouve aux Arch. du Roy., Liasse Ind. Occ., 1641-1644_. The contents of this letter will be communicated elsewhere.

[35] See Dr. M. Kayserling's article in _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, (1895), p. 14 sq. Geo. A. Kohut, _ibid._, pp. 103, 105, 137 sq.

[36] Proofs for these statements may be found in my study on _The Jewish Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America, P. A. J. H. S._, No. 4, (1895.)

[37] We give the text in full: "Heureusement le fanatisme national et religieux n'avait pas étouffé les sentiments d'humanité et de loyauté dans les coeurs de tous les conjurés. Deux Portugais, Sébastian Carvalho et Fernando Vale, _avec cinq Juifs_, craignant d'ailleurs aussi pour leurs jours et leur fortune, se décidèrent en commun à révéler le secrèt de la conspiration au grand conseil."

[38] Cf. Montanus Arnoldus, _De nieuwe en onbekende wereld of beschrijving van Amerika en 't Zuidland_, Amsterdam, 1671, fol. 81; Netscher, _l. c._, p. 144, says: "_Un Juif, Moise Accoignes_, qu'on avait forcé à prendre part à cette conspiration le dénonça au grand conseil." N. G. van Kampen, in his _Geschichte der Niederlande_, vol. II, p. 118 and Frankel in _Monatsschrift_, vol. XII (1863) p. 323-324, record, that the ringleader in this conspiracy was Joan Fernandes Víníra (?), who intended to poison the government officials at a dinner given at his own home, and the plot would have succeeded had not a Jew raised the alarm.

[39] Cf. _Geschiedenis der Joden_, p. 279: "De terugroeping van Johan Maurits, wiens edele afkomst en schitterende eigenschappen zelfs den Portugezen eerbied inboezemden, en wiens ongelukkige opvolgers, meestal kooplieden (merchants), leden de Westindische Maatschappij, door hunne bekrompenheid, hebzucht en onmenschelijkheid algemeenen afkeer verwekten, deed onder de Portugesche ingezetenen een sluw beraamde zamenzwering tegen de Hollanders ontstaan, die op het punt was van te gelukken, _toen een Joodsche geneesheer_ haar door het schrijven van een naamloozen brief aan den dag bracht," etc.

[40] Netscher, _l. c._ p. 158.: "... Mais on parvint enfin en Hollande, à se procurer, par un Juif qui demeurait à Lisbonne, le moyen d'intercepter quelques lettres du roi, qui prouvèrent au soulèvement dans le Brésil." (Ces lettres se trouvent aux Arch du Roy., Liasse Ind. Occ. 1647 et 1648.)

[41] Cf. _ibid_., _l. c._, p. 154; See also _Lettre de Justif. de Garstman aux Etats-généraux en date du 27 Septembre, 1646_. Arch. du Roy., Liasse Ind. Occ. 1645 et 1646.

[42] Cf. Dr. A. Hahu, in _American Jews' Annual_ for 1886-1887, p. 35; see also Isaac de Costa, _Israel und die Voelker_ (Frankfort a. M., 1855), p. 319; and Dr. Z. Frankel, in his _Monatsschrift_, vol. XII, (1863), p. 323.

[43] Cf. Kayserling's _Sephardim, Romanische Poesien der Juden in Spanien_ (Leipzig 1859) p. 266; _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, p. 18.

[44] _P. A. J. H. S._, _l. c._, p. 15, note. Jacob Coen, Abraham's eldest son, was afterwards appointed "Contador Mayor," Receiver-General of Duke Moritz of Nassau. Cf. _ib. l. c._

[45] Cf. _American Jews' Annual_ for 1886-1887, p. 35; Isaac de Costa, _l. c._, p. 318; see also Hon. Oscar S. Straus's address in _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, p 3.

[46] See Kayserling in _P. A. J. H. S._, _l. c._, p. 14; Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Engl. transl.) vol. IV, p. 693.

[47] See full particulars concerning this work in our study on _Early Jewish Literature in America_, _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, pp. 105, 106, 139, No. 9, and Dr. Kayserling's paper, _ibid. l. c._, p. 16.

[48] Cf. _l. c._, p. 16, No. 3.

[49] Cf. Van Kampen, _Geschichte der Niederlande_, vol. II, p. 120; _apud_ Frankel, _Monatsschrift_, vol. XII (1863), p. 324; Koenen's _Geschiedenis der Joden in Nederland_ (Utrecht, 1843) p. 280 sq.; Isaac da Costa, _Israel und die Voelker_ (Germ. ed. by K. Mann, Frankfort, a. M., 1855) p. 318 ff.; Graetz's _History_, _l. c._, p. 693-4; Kayserling, _ib._, _l. c._, pp. 17-18.

[50] Cf. Southey's _History of Brazil_, Vol. II, pp. 202-230; Van Kampen, _Geschichte der Niederlande_, Vol. II, pp. 120-122; also the same writer's _Geschiedenis der Nederlanders buiten Europa_; Isaac de Costa, _op. cit._, p. 319.

[51] See the _American Jews' Annual_ for 1886-1887, p. 35.

[52] _Les Hollandais au Brésil_, p. 163, _ad ann._ 1653-1654: "Une amnistie pleine et entière était accordée aux Portugais et aux Juifs, qui avaient pris cause pour le gouvernement Hollandais, et les Juifs et autres personnes non-catholiques qui resteraient au Brésil y seraient traités de la meme manière, qu'au Portugal (ce qui cachait une arriere-pensée digne de l'intolérance réligieuse de ces jours-là)." Here he adds a note which is hardly correct: "Aujourdhui il ne se trouvent presque pas des Juifs au Brésil."

[53] Cf. Koenen, _l. c._, p. 282; Kayserling, _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, p. 17.

[54] See the _Measseph_ for 1784; _ap._ Jost, _Geschichte der Israeliten_, Vol. VIII, pp. 241-242; Da Costa, _Israel und Die Voelker_, _l. c._, pp. 321-322; Dr. Hahn in _The American Jews' Annual_ (1886-1887) p. 36; Rev. E. M. Myers' _The Centurial_ (New York, 1890), p. 105; _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 2, p. 99. More fully in our paper on _Early Jewish Literature in America_, _l. c._, p. 138-139.

[55] Cf. Koenen's _Geschiedenis der Joden in Nederland_, p. 283; Dr. M. Kayserling, _Sephardim, Romanische Poesien der Juden in Spanien_, (Leipzig, 1859), p. 265.

[56] The Dutch text of this valuable document is published in the _Essai Historique sur la Colonie Surinam_, Paramaribo 1788 [Amsterdam 1791], Vol. II, pp. 113-122 and in Koenen's work on the _History of the Jews in Holland_, _l. c._, pp. 460-466. The present writer intends to reprint the original text with an English translation in the _P. A. J. H. S._; cf. his paper on _Early Jewish Literature in America_ in the _Publications_ No. 3 (1895), p. 104, 136, 137.

[57] Cf. Kayserling, _Sephardim_, etc., _l. c._, p. 266; his paper on the _Earliest Rabbis and Jewish Writers in America_, in _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, p. 18; Koenen, _l. c._, pp. 283-284.

[58] From this it would appear that the Jews in South America were corresponding and perhaps commercially connected with their brethren in Italy. We have elsewhere proven that the Marranos in Hispañiola were carrying on an extensive trade between various large sea-ports of Italy (see our forthcoming paper on _The Jewish Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America_, to appear in _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 4, 1895), and that the Jews of Brazil as early as 1636 wrote to Rabbi Chayim Sabbathai, of Salonica, in reference to disputes arising in their midst concerning Jewish customs and ritual. Cf. the notes in our study quoted above, _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, pp. 104-105, 137.

[59] Cf. Barrios' reference at the end of his Opuscula: "En Tisa beab (sic) sali de Liorne año de 1660 con 152 Almas de Israel en la nave llamada Monte del Cisne para ir apoblar a Cayana conquista de Holandeses en America." Koenen, _l. c._, p. 283, numbers only 112 passengers, which is evidently erroneous. Cf. also Kayserling, _Sephardim_, etc., p. 266, note 1; 355, n. 402; _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, p. 18.

[60] Cf. Kayserling, _Sephardim_, _l. c._, and _P. A. J. H. S._, 3, p. 18; see more fully in my paper on a _Contribution to the History of the Jews in the Islands of St. Thomas, Jamaica and Barbadoes_, to appear in _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 4.

[61] See Koenen's _Geschiedenis_, p. 284. The date 1654 there given is probably a misprint for 1664.

[62] Cf. Appendix II to my paper on _Early Jewish Literature in America_, _P. A. J. H. S._, No. 3, pp. 145-147, cf. also pp. 125-132 where some points in their history are given.