Chapter X: Part 10

_Books Preserved._—The bindings may be preserved from mildew by brushing them over with the spirits of wine. A few drops of any perfumed oil will secure libraries from the consuming effects of mould and damp. Russia leather, which is perfumed with the tar of the birch tree, never moulds or sustains injury from damp. The Romans used oil of cedar to preserve valuable manuscripts. Russia leather covered books placed in a stationer’s window will destroy flies and other insects.

* * * * *

_To restore Engravings, etc._—Old engravings, wood-cuts, or printed matter, that have turned yellow, may be rendered white by first washing carefully in water containing a little hyposulphite of soda, and then dipping for a minute in Javelle water. To prepare the latter, put 4 lbs. bicarbonate of soda in a kettle over a fire; add 1 gallon of boiling water, and let it boil for fifteen minutes. Then stir in 1 lb. of pulverized chloride of lime. When cold, the liquid can be kept in a jug ready for use.

ORTHOGRAPHICAL.

A thorough reformation of the orthography of the English language, desirable as it is, can scarcely be hoped for in this century; though doubtless the time will come when an international convention will settle authoritatively the spelling of every word, as acceptably as has been done by the Academies of France and Spain in regard to the orthography of the languages of those countries.

_A or AN before a Vowel or silent H._

In regard to the use of the indefinite article, Walker’s Dictionary very judiciously says,—

“This indefinite, and, as it may be called, the _euphonic_ article, is said by all our grammarians to be used before a vowel or _h_ mute; but no notice is taken of using _a_ instead of _an_ before what is called a vowel, as, _a useful book_, _a useful ceremony_, _a usurer_, &c.; nor is any mention made of its constant usage before _h_ when it is not mute, if the accent of the word be on the second syllable, as, _an heroic action_, _an historical account_, &c. This want of accuracy arises from a want of analyzing the vowels, and not attending sufficiently to the influence of accent on pronunciation. A proper investigation of the power of the vowels would have informed our grammarians that the letter _u_, when long, is not so properly a vowel as a semi-consonant, and perfectly equivalent to commencing _y_, and that a feeling of this has insensibly influenced the best speakers to prefix _a_ to it in their conversation, while a confused idea of the general rule, arising from an ignorance of the nature of the letters, has generally induced them to prefix _an_ to it in writing. The same observations are applicable to the _h_. The ear alone tells us that, before _heroic_, _historical_, &c., the _an_ ought invariably to be used; but, by not discovering that it is the absence of accent on the _h_ that makes _an_ admissible in these words, we are apt to prefix _an_ to words where the _h_ is sounded, as, _an horse_, _an house_, &c., and thus set our spoken and written language at variance. The article _a_ must be used before all words beginning with a consonant, and before the vowel _u_ when long; and the article _an_ must be used before all words beginning with a vowel, except long _u_; before words beginning with _h_ mute, as, _an hour_, _an heir_, &c.; or before words where the _h_ is not mute, if the accent be on the second syllable, as, _an heroic action_, _an historical account_, &c.” The few words in our language in which the _h_ is mute are _heir_, _herb_, _honest_, _honour_, _hospital_, _hostler_, _hour_, _humble_, _humour_, and their derivatives.

_O, or OH._

_Oh_ should be used to express surprise, pain, sorrow, or anxiety. When the interjection is followed by a proper name, or as an exclamation of wishing the _O_ should be employed singly, thus: _O mother dear, Jerusalem!_ _O Lord!_ _O that I might find him._

_ABLE and IBLE._

All English words, without regard to the source from which they have been derived, and those which come from Latin words ending in _abilis_ or French ones in _able_, take the termination _able_ in English, as, _procurable_, _amendable_, _desirable_, _allowable_, _voidable_, _available_, _fordable_, _incontestable_, &c.; but in words from Latin and French words terminating in _ibilis_ or _ible_, then the ending will be _ible_ in English. For instance: _accessible_, _sensible_, _defensible_, _convertible_, &c.

In words ending in _ce_ or _ge_, the final _e_ is preserved before the termination _able_, for the purpose of indicating the soft sound of the consonant, as in _marriageable_, _chargeable_, _traceable_, _serviceable_, &c.; but before the ending _ible_ the final _e_ of the primitive disappears, and there is no _e_ before the termination. Examples: _deducible_, _reducible_, _frangible_, &c.

The following list of words in _ible_ is here added; all others end in _able_:—

accessible
admissible
adustible
appetible
apprehensible
audible
cessible
coercible
collectible
comminuible
compatible
competible
comprehensible
compressible
conceptible
conclusible
congestible
contemptible
contractible
controvertible
convertible
convincible
corrigible
corrosible
corruptible
credible
deceptible
decerptible
decoctible
deducible
defeasible
defectible
defensible
depectible
deprehensible
descendible
destructible
digestible
discernible
discerptible
dispraisible
dissolvible
distensible
divisible
docible
edible
effectible
eligible
eludible
enforcible
evincible
expansible
expressible
extendible
extensible
fallible
feasible
fencible
flexible
forcible
frangible
fusible
horrible
ignoscible
illegible
immarcessible
immiscible[23]
impassible[24]
intelligible
irascible
legible
miscible
partible
passible[25]
perceptible
permiscible
permissible
persuasible
pervertible
plausible
possible
producible
quadrible
reducible
referrible
reflexible
refrangible
regible
remissible
reprehensible
resistible
responsible
reversible
revertible
risible
seducible
sensible
solvible
tangible
terrible
transmissible
visible

_IM or IN, and EM or EN._

The prefix _in_ is from the Latin, and that of _en_ from the French and Greek. _In_ generally signifies _situation_, and _en_ mostly expresses _action_. Hence, perhaps, in strictness, _inclose_ will signify “to close in,” and _enclose_, “to make close.” So, to _inquire_ will be “to seek _in_, or to search in,” and _enquire_, to “make search.” _Immigrate_, “to pass into;” _emigrate_, “to go out of.” But this distinction is not attended to by writers, and is, indeed, too refined for general practice.

Before the letters _b_ and _p_, _en_ becomes _em_, as in _embattle_, _empower_; and _in_ before some letters becomes _ig_, _il_, _im_, or _ir_, as in _ignoble_, _illegal_, _improper_, _irresolute_.

We give a list of those generally spelt with _im_ or _in_; leaving it to be inferred that the rest are more usual with _em_ or _en_.

imbarn
imbibe
imboil
imbound
imbrue
imbrute
imbue
imburse
immanacle
immense
immerge
immerse
immigrate
immingle
immit
immix
immure
impact
impale
imparadise
impassioned
impawn
impeach
impearl
impel
impen
imperil
impinge
implant
implead
import
impose
impound
impregnate
impress
imprint
imprison
inarch
incase
inclasp
inclip
incloud
include
incrassate
increase
incur
indart
indent
indict
indite
indoctrinate
indrench
induce
induct
ineye
infer
infest
inflix
inflame
inflate
inflect
inflict
infringe
infuscate
infuse
ingrane
ingest
inhabit
inhale
inhere
inhold
inhume
initiate
inject
inlapidate
inlay
inlet
inoculate
inosculate
inquire
inrail
inscribe
insculp
inseam
insert
inset
inshell
inship
insinew
insphere
inspire
inspirit
install
instate
insteep
instil
instop
insure
inter
intertwine
intort
intreasure
intrench
intrude
intrust
inumbrate
inure
inurn
invade
inveigh
invert
invest
invigorate
invite
invocate
invoice
invoke
inwall
inweave

_IN and UN._

_In_, as a prefix, also marks _negation_: it is probable that it came from the Romans. _Un_, as a prefix, is synonymous with _in_: it is of Saxon origin, and generally joined to words from a northern source; while _in_ is oftener applied to those of Latin derivation.

_ISE and IZE._

The variation in the terminations _ise_ and _ize_ is due to the different derivations of words,—_ize_ characterizing words from the Greek and Latin, and _ise_ from the French. The rule, however, is not inflexible. The following words are commonly spelled with the _s_.

advertise
advise
affranchise
aggrandise
amortise
catechise
chastise
circumcise
comprise
compromise
criticise
demise
despise
devise
disfranchise
disguise
divertise
emprise
enfranchise
enterprise
exercise
exorcise
galliardise
manumise
merchandise
misprise (mistake)
premise
recognise
reprise (take again)
supervise
surmise
surprise

_OR and OUR._

The ending _our_ was in general use until the appearance of Webster’s Dictionary, in which the _u_ was dropped in words terminating with _our_. This innovation has steadily gained ground. We do not approve of partial tinkerings with English orthography; and, until a general convention of British and American scholars settle the method of spelling English words, we shall adhere to the established usage. We append a list of words terminating in _our_.

arbour
ardour
armour
behaviour
candour
clamour
clangour
colour
contour
demeanour
dishonour
dolour
endeavour
favour
fervour
flavour
harbour
honour
humour
labour
neighbour
odour
parlour
rancour
rigour
rumour
savour
saviour
splendour
succour
tambour
tumour
valour
vapour
vigour

The _u_ is dropped when the termination _ous_ is added to any of these words; as, _clamorous_, _dolorous_, _humorous_, _laborious_, _odorous_, _rancorous_, _rigorous_, _valorous_, _vigorous_. And also in derivative words; such as _armory_, _honorary_, &c.

_SION and TION._

_Primitive words_ which end in _d_, _de_, _ge_, _mit_, _rt_, _se_, or _ss_, take _sion_ in their derivatives; but all other words have _tion_.

EXAMPLES.

abscin_d_, abscission
condescen_d_, condescension
eva_de_, evasion
intru_de_, intrusion
abster_ge_, abstersion
emer_ge_, emersion
ad_mit_, admission
re_mit_, remission
reve_rt_, reversion
conve_rt_, conversion
confu_se_, confusion
revi_se_, revision
impre_ss_, impression
confe_ss_, confession
admi_x_, admixtion
promo_te_, promotion

IRREGULARS.

adhesion
cohesion
compulsion
declension
decursion
depulsion
dissension
divulsion
evulsion
exesion
expulsion
impulsion
incursion
propulsion
recension
recursion
revulsion
scansion
tension
transcursion
version
attention
causation
distention
distortion
coercion
suspicion
crucifixion

_FARTHER and FURTHER._

_Farther_ is nowadays only employed when speaking of _distance_; in all other acceptations of the word, _further_ is generally adopted.

_PEAS and PEASE._

There are scarcely any words in which a mistake is more frequently made than in _peas_ and _pease_. Yet the distinction between them is simple and well defined. _Peas_ is the plural of _pea_, and, consequently, only follows _numeral_ adjectives; as, “_ten_ peas,” “a _hundred_ peas,” “a _few_ peas,” “_many_ peas;” but _pease_ is used when speaking of the legumen in the aggregate, or generally. Thus, we correctly say, “_Pease_ are dear this year,” “_Pease_ were plentifully supplied to the horses,” &c.

_Pease_ is also employed adjectively; as, “_pease_-pudding,” “_pease_-soup,” or “_pea_-soup,” &c.

_The Omission of S in the Possessive Case._

It is not uncommon with some persons to omit the _s_ after the apostrophe in the possessive case of nouns, if the name itself ends in _s_; as, “_James’_ book,” “_Barnes’_ Notes.” But this is incorrect; for if we ask, Whose book? we should directly answer, _James’s_. The only case when the _s_ can be judiciously omitted, and this solely to avoid the too hissing sound of so many _s_’s in succession, is when the first word ends with the sound of _s_ in its last two syllables, and the next word begins with _s_; as in _Misses’_ spectacles, _righteousness’_ sake, _conscience’_ sake.

_Formation of the Plurals of Words compounded of a Noun and an Adjective._

Adjectives have no plural number. Therefore, in a word compounded of a noun and an adjective, the _s_ denoting the plural number is attached to the end of the noun, as follows:—

Governor-general Governors-general.
Attorney-general Attorneys-general.
Court-martial Courts-martial.

But where the adjective is taken substantively, the mark of the plural will properly follow it. For example: _Brigadier-generals_, _major-generals_, _lieutenant-generals_.

Words compounded of a noun and the adjective _full_ form their plurals thus: _spoonfuls_, _cupfuls_, _bucketfuls_, _handfuls_, _mouthfuls_.

_Pointing of Numbers, Weights, Measures, &c._

No comma should be placed between the constituent parts of the same number, however long it may be. Thus, we say, “One million one hundred thousand five hundred and twenty-one,” without any interpunction. The reason is, that there is no more than _one_ numerical aggregate intended, or but _one_ complex notion; and, consequently, no separation of parts or members can take place. The same reasoning holds good as respects _values_, _weights_, &c. For instance, when we say, “Six dollars and ten cents,” we merely mean that aggregate amount, but not necessarily any one of the coins indicated. If we did so intend, then two commas should be introduced,—one after “dollars,” and the other after “cents.” In like manner we should act with such sentences as, “Five tons three hundredweight two quarters and fifteen pounds;” or, “Ten acres four roods and twenty-seven perches;” and for the same reason: no division of parts is intended, but merely one aggregate amount.

When figures are used to express amounts, a comma should not be inserted to cut off the tens unless the sum requires five figures: _e.g._ $10,600, 20,000 men, &c. In column matter this rule will not apply.

_Derivation of English Words._

Of course the Saxon forms the basis of our language in its essential parts, and is the source whence we derive the greater part of our ordinary and most emphatic words. Nevertheless, various other languages have been put under contribution, especially the French, Latin, and Greek. This will be evident from the following statement of derivations, which will show the unlearned reader how important it is to him that he should acquire some knowledge of those languages, if he desires to attain to a thorough proficiency in his business as an educated printer.

I. From the Greek are derived—

1. Words ending in _gram_, _graph_, and _graphy_; as, _telegram_, _telegraph_, _geography_, &c.; from the word γράφω, (_grapho_,) I write, and some other Greek word.

2. Those in _gon_; from γωνια, (_gonia_,) an angle; as, _octagon_.

3. All words in _logue_ or _logy_; as, _epilogue_, _astrology_; from λόγος, (_logos_,) a discourse.

4. _Ic_, _ick_, _ics_ are also Greek terminations, generally of adjectives.

5. Words in _meter_ are all of Greek origin, coming from the verb μετρῶ, (_metro_,) I measure, in combination with some other word.

6. Most words into which the terminations _agogue_, _asis_, _esis_, or _ysis_ enter are also of Greek origin; such as _demagogue_, _emphasis_, _parenthesis_, _analysis_, &c.

II. But the main source whence we have derived words, with the exception of the Saxon, is the Latin, as will appear from an inspection of the following list:—

1. Words ending in _ance_, _ancy_, or _ant_, and _ence_, _ency_, or _ent_, come from Latin words ending respectively in _ans_, _antia_, or _ens_, _entia_; as, _abundance_, from _abundantia_; _infancy_, from _infantia_; _abundant_, from _abundans_; _absence_, from _absentia_; _excellency_, from _excellentia_; and _excellent_, from _excellens_.

2. Words in _al_ have their Latin representatives in _alis_; as, _corporal_, from _corporalis_.

3. Verbs in _ate_ mostly come from Latin verbs of the first conjugation; as, _moderate_, from _modero_.

4. Words in _ator_ are generally the same in both languages; as, _orator_, _senator_, _moderator_.

5. The termination _id_ comes mostly from Latin words ending in _idus_; as, _acid_, from _acidus_; but sometimes words of this ending are of Greek origin; as, _oxide_, (more correctly, _oxyd_,) from ὀξὺς, (_oxys_;) and, indeed, most scientific words of this ending; as, _carotid_, from καρώτιδες, &c.; _rhomboid_, from ῥομβοειδής.

6. _Il_ or _ile_ is likewise from the Latin termination of adjectives in _ilis_; as, _docile_, from _docilis_; _civil_, from _civilis_.

7. The Latin termination _osus_ has its English representative in _ious_ or _ous_; as, _copious_, from _copiosus_; _numerous_, from _numerosus_. But sometimes the English ending _ous_ comes from a Latin word in _ax_; as, _capacious_, from _capax_.

8. The Latin ending _io_ has its English corresponding word in _ion_; as, _nation_, from _natio_; _oration_, from _oratio_.

9. The endings _ne_, _re_, and _te_ after a vowel are also for the greater part of Latin origin; as, _fortune_, from _fortuna_; _aquiline_, from _aquilinus_; _culture_, from _cultura_; _pure_, from _purus_; _complete_, from _completus_, &c.

10. Words in _ty_ come from Latin words in _tas_; as, _equality_, from _æqualitas_; _bounty_, from _bonitas_; _rarity_, from _raritas_, &c.

11. The termination _ude_ is also of Latin origin, coming from words in _udo_; as, _fortitude_, from _fortitudo_; _elude_, from _eludo_.

12. So also is _uous_, by inserting the letter _o_; as, _ambiguous_, from _ambiguus_; _continuous_, from _continuus_, &c.

III. From the French have come—

1. Most of our words in _age_; as, _page_, _rage_, _usage_.

2. All those in _eau_; as, _beau_, _flambeau_, &c.

3. The French _esse_ is represented by the English _ess_: as, _princess_, from _princesse_.

4. Words in _que_ mostly come to us from the French directly; some from the Latin directly or indirectly; as, _antique_, (L. _antiquus_, F. _antique_,) _oblique_, _opaque_.

5. Words ending in _ment_ are nearly the same in both languages; as, _commencement_, _advancement_, (F. _avancement_,) &c.

* * * * *

We subjoin some rules for spelling, adapted from Laidlaw’s _American Pronouncing Dictionary_.[26]

RULE I.

Words ending in silent _e_ after _u_ or a consonant generally drop the _e_ on taking an additional termination beginning with a vowel; as, sale, _salable_; plague, _plaguy_; sue, _suing_; eye, _eying_.

EXCEPTION I.—Words ending in _ce_ and _ge_ retain _e_
before _able_ and _ous_; as, service, _serviceable_; trace,
_traceable_; courage, _courageous_; advantage, _advantageous_.

EXCEPTION II.—Compounds and prefixes retain _e_; as,
_firearms_, _foreordain_, _pole-axe_, _vice-admiral_,
_fire-engine_.

_Remark._—From singe, springe, swinge, tinge, we write
_singeing_, _springeing_, _swingeing_, _tingeing_, to
distinguish from _singing_, _springing_, _swinging_, and
_tinging_. _Dyeing_, from dye, retains _e_, to distinguish it
from _dying_, the present participle of die. Mile retains _e_
in _mileage_. Derivatives from proper names of persons retain
_e_; as, _daguerreotype_, _morseograph_.

RULE II.

Words ending in silent _e_ generally retain the _e_ on taking an additional termination beginning with a consonant; as, bereave, _bereavement_; issue, _issueless_.

_Remark._—_Awful_, _awfully_, _awfulness_, _argument_,
_argumentation_, _argumentative_, _woful_, _wofully_,
_wofulness_, _duly_, _truly_, and _wholly_, are undisputed
exceptions; and _abridgment_, _acknowledgment_, _judgment_,
_misjudgment_, _prejudgment_, _lodgment_, _wobegone_, and
_rhymster_, are disputed exceptions. Some write _abridgement_,
_acknowledgement_, _judgement_, _misjudgement_, _prejudgement_,
_lodgement_, _woebegone_, and _rhymester_.

RULE III.

Words ending in _ie_ change them into _y_ before _ing_; as, lie, _lying_. The following words conform to this rule:—

lie
belie
outlie
lie
overlie
underlie
die
hie
tie
untie
vie
outvie

RULE IV.

Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant generally change _y_ into _i_ on taking an additional syllable; as, mercy, _merciful_, _merciless_; defy, _defied_, _defies_, _defieth_, _defiant_; busy, _busier_, _busiest_, _business_; ply, _pliers_; porphyry, _porphyritic_.

EXCEPTION I.—_Y_ after a consonant is not changed into _i_
before _ing_ or _ish_; as, _dry_, _drying_, _dryish_.

EXCEPTION II.—Compounds usually retain _y_; as, _mercy-seat_,
_county-town_, _dairy-maid_, _skylight_.

_Remark._—_Dryer_, _dryest_, _dryly_, _dryness_, _shyer_,
_shyest_, _shyly_, _shyness_, are undisputed exceptions to the
rule; and _slyer_, _slyest_, _slyly_, _slyness_, are disputed
exceptions.

RULE V.

Words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_; as, gay, _gayly_, _gayness_, _gayety_; pray, _prayer_, _praying_, _prayed_, _prays_.

_Remark._—From day, lay, pay, say, stay, are formed _daily_,
_laid_, _paid_, _said_, _saith_, _staid_. The regular words
_dayly_, _layed_, _payed_, _sayeth_, and _stayed_, are
sometimes used.

RULE VI.

Monosyllables and words having the primary accent on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel; as, wet, _wetter_, _wettest_, _wetting_, _wetted_; drum, _drumming_, _drummed_; dispel, _dispelling_, _dispelled_.

EXCEPTION.—A final _x_, or the _s_ in gas, should not
be doubled; as, fix, _fixes_, _fixed_, _fixing_; annex,
_annexing_; _gases_, _gasefy_.

_Remark I._—_U_ after _q_ is never reckoned a part of a
diphthong or triphthong; so that from quit are formed
_quitting_, _quitted_; and from quag, _quaggy_.

_Remark II._—This rule applies only to derivatives which
retain the accent of their primitives, and not to such as
_in´ferable_, _in´ference_, _pref´erable_, _pref´erence_,
_ref´erable_, and _ref´erence_, from infer, prefer, and refer.
To the forms _infer´rible_, _refer´rible_, which are sometimes
met with, the general rule applies. _Transfer´able_, from
transfer, is an exception to the general rule; the regular form
_transfer´rible_ is not often used. Although _parallel´ogram_,
from par´allel, and _modal´ity_ from mo´dal, remove the primary
accent to the point of duplication, they do not double the
final _l_. See Remark II. under Rule VII.

RULE VII.

A final consonant is not doubled when it is preceded by a diphthong, when the primary accent is either not on, or not retained upon, the last syllable, or when the additional syllable begins with a consonant; as, beat, _beating_, _beaten_; dif´fer, _dif´fering_, _dif´fered_, _dif´ference_, _dif´ferent_; prefer´, _pref´erence_; refer´, _ref´erence_; fit, _fitful_, _fitly_, _fitness_; ben´efit, _ben´efited_, _ben´efiting_.

EXCEPTION I.—Compounds that remove the primary accent from
the point of duplication retain the double letter; as,
_broad´-brimmed_, _heel´-tapping_.

_Remark I._—When _ly_ is affixed to words ending in _l_, the
l is not considered doubled; as in _cool-ly_, _real-ly_,
_gravel-ly_, _royal-ly_.

_Remark II._—_Nutmegged_, _kidnapping_, _kidnapped_,
_kidnapper_, _zigzagging_, _zigzagged_, _excellence_, and
some others, are undisputed exceptions to the rule. There are
nearly one hundred words, from which more than four hundred
derivatives are formed, that are usually made exceptions to
this rule. Webster is distinguished for making nearly all the
derivatives conform to the rule. Webster and Smart accent the
verb _curv´et_, on the first syllable, with which accentuation
_curveting_ and _curveted_ are correct spellings; other
orthoepists accent upon the last syllable, then _curvet´ting_
and _curvet´ted_ are correct.

RULE VIII.

Words ending in _c_ accept of _k_ before a termination beginning with _e_, _i_, or _y_; as, frolic, _frolicked_, _frolicking_; colic, _colicky_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

colic
colicky

frolic
frolicking
frolicked

havoc
havocking
havocked

mimic
mimicking
mimicked
mimicker

physic
physicking
physicked

rollic
rollicking
rollicked

traffic
trafficking
trafficked
trafficker

talc
talcky

zinc
zinckiferous
(zinciferous)
zincky

RULE IX.

Words ending in a double letter preserve it double after a prefix or before a termination beginning with a different letter; as, _op-press_, _mis-spell_, _in-thrall_, _oversee_; _see-ing_, _op-pressive_, _stiff-ness_, _woo-ed_, _still-ness_, _assess-ment_.

_Remark I._—_Annul_, _until_, _twibil_, and the conservative
_fulfil_, or the Websterian _fulfill_, are the only exceptions
to the first part of this rule extensively recognized by
present usage. The conservative _distil_ and _instil_ are at
variance; but the Websterian _distill_ and _instill_, and also
_twibill_, as written by Reid, are in harmony with the rule.

_Remark II._—_Pontific_, and all other derivatives of pontiff,
are exceptions to the latter part of this rule, unless an _f_
is discarded in the primitive word, as Webster suggests and the
derivation warrants. The derivatives of dull, full, skill, and
will, are disputed exceptions: if spelled as Webster writes
them, _dullness_, _fullness_, _skillful_, _willful_, they
conform to the rule.

RULE X.

The plural is usually formed from the singular by adding _s_; as, brave, _braves_; night, _nights_; hymn, _hymns_.

RULE XI.

Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel accept of _s_ in the plural; as, cameo, _cameos_; studio, _studios_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

agios
bagnios
bamboos
braggadocios
cameos
cuckoos
curculios
embryos
folios
imbroglios
intaglios
internuncios
koodoos
nuncios
olios
oratorios
pistachios
port-folios
punctilios
ratios
seraglios
solfeggios
studios
trios

RULE XII.

Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel accept of _s_ in the plural; as, money, _moneys_; attorney, _attorneys_; valley, _valleys_.

RULE XIII.

Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant usually accept of _es_ in the plural; as, echo, _echoes_; embargo, _embargoes_.

_Remark._—There are more than fifty words that conform to this
rule, and about thirty that accept of _s_ only.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

archipelagoes
armadilloes
bilboes
bravadoes
bravoes
buffaloes
buffoes
calicoes
cargoes
desperadoes
echoes
embargoes
farragoes
frescoes
grottoes
gustoes
heroes
innuendoes
juntoes
lazarettoes
lingoes
lumbagoes
mangoes
manifestoes
mottoes
mulattoes
negroes
palmettoes
passadoes
peccadilloes
potatoes
prunelloes
punchinelloes
punctoes
ranchoes
recitativoes
relievoes
renegadoes
ritornelloes
rotundoes
stilettoes
supercargoes
testudoes
tomatoes
tornadoes
torpedoes
umboes
vetoes
violoncelloes
viragoes
volcanoes
zeroes

EXCEPTIONS.

albinos
cantos
centos
dominos
duodecimos
halos
hidalgos
inamoratos
lassos
limbos
major-domos
mementos
merinos
mosquitos
octavos
pianos
porticos
provisos
quartos
rancheros
ridottos
rondos
salvos
set-tos
sirocos
solos
torsos
tyros

It would be well if all words ending in _o_ were made to
conform to Rules XI. and XIII.

RULE XIV.

Nouns ending in _ss_, _z_, _x_, _ch_ soft, and _sh_, accept of _es_ in the plural; as, dress, _dresses_; buzz, _buzzes_; box, _boxes_; peach, _peaches_; dish, _dishes_.

RULE XV.

Nouns ending in _y_ after a consonant change _y_ into _ies_ in the plural; as, city, _cities_; daisy, _daisies_.

RULE XVI.

Compound nouns whose parts are connected by a hyphen accept of the sign of the plural after that part which essentially constitutes the noun; as, knight-errant, _knights-errant_; son-in-law, _sons-in-law_; man-of-war, _men-of-war_; step-child, _step-children_; ember-day, _ember-days_; man-singer, _men-singers_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

aides-de-camp
beaus-ideal or
beaux-ideal
cartes-blanche
charges-d’affaires
chevaux-de-frise
coups-de-main
courts-martial
cousins-german
daughters-in-law
fathers-in-law
gendarmes or
gens d’armes
jets d’eau
knights-errant
mesdames
men-of-war
messieurs
mothers-in-law
poets-laureate
porte-monnaies
prices-current
sergeants-at-arms
sisters-in-law
sons-in-law
step-children
step-fathers
valets-de-chambre

_Remark I._—If no hyphen is used, the sign of the plural is
always placed at the end; as, spoonful, _spoonfuls_.

_Remark II._—The sign of the possessive case is always placed
at the end of compound nouns; as, _son-in-law’s_ house.

RULE XVII.

The compounds of man form their plural in the same manner as the simple word; as, fisherman, _fishermen_; man-of-war, _men-of-war_.

EXCEPTIONS.—The only exceptions to this rule are _dragoman_,
_Mussulman_, _Ottoman_, _talisman_, _Turcoman_, _German_,
_Norman_, and _landamman_, which accept of _s_.

RULE XVIII.

Of the terminations _eive_ and _ieve_, and of the derivatives of each, the former are found after _c_, and the latter after other letters; as, _conceive_, _conceit_, _receive_, _receipt_; _relieve_, _relief_, _relieving_, _thieve_, _thievish_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

achieve
aggrieve
bas-relief
belief
believe
conceit
conceivable
conceive
deceit
deceitful
deceive
disbelief
disbelieve
grief
grieve
inconceivable
lief
lieve
misbelief
misconceive
perceive
preconceive
receipt
receive
relief
relieve
relievo
reprieve
retrieve
sieve
thief
thieve
unbelief
unbeliever
undeceive

* * * * *

_Plurals of Nouns which change F or FE into VES._

beeves
calves
elves
halves
knives
leaves
lives
loaves
selves
sheaves
shelves
thieves
tipstaves
wharves
wives
wolves

All other nouns ending in _ff_ conform to Rule X. Wharfs prevails in Great Britain, wharves in America.

_Plurals of Nouns ending in F or FE which accept of S only in the Plural._

briefs
chiefs
fiefs
griefs
mischiefs
kerchiefs
neckerchiefs
handkerchiefs
caliphs
caufs
clefs
coifs
delfs
dwarfs
turfs
kerfs
surfs
fifes
strifes
safes
scarfs
waifs
woofs
hoofs
roofs
proofs
reproofs
disproofs
waterproofs
beliefs
reliefs
gulfs

_Plurals of Nouns ending in EAU, IEU, and OU._

beaux
bureaux
chapeaux
chateaux
flambeaux
plateaux
rondeaux
jets d’eau
portmanteaus
purlieus
adieux
batteaux
bijoux
morceaux
rouleaux
tableaux

A number of these nouns admits of two forms in the plural.

HOW TO SECURE COPYRIGHTS.

1. A _printed_ copy of the title (besides the two copies to be deposited after publication) of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, photograph, or a _description_ of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail or otherwise, _prepaid_, addressed:

_Librarian of Congress,
Washington, D. C._

This must be done before publication of the book or other article.

The _printed title_ required may be a copy of the title page of such publications as have title pages. In other cases, the title must be printed expressly for copyright entry, with name of claimant of copyright. The style of type is immaterial, and the print of a type-writer will be accepted. But a separate title is required for each entry, and _each_ title must be printed on paper as large as commercial note. The title of a _periodical_ must include the date and number.

2. A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other article, must be enclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (or one dollar in all) for each certificate of copyright under seal of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by early mail.

3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the address:

_Librarian of Congress,
Washington, D. C._

The postage must be prepaid, or else the publications inclosed in parcels covered by printed Penalty Labels, furnished by the Librarian, in which case they will come FREE by mail, according to rulings of the Post Office Department. Without the deposit of copies above required the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. No copy is required to be deposited elsewhere.

4. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy published, on the title-page or the page following, if it be a book; or, if a map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some portion thereof, or on the substance on which the same is mounted, the following words, viz.: “_Entered according to act of Congress, in the year ⸺, by ⸺ ⸺, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington_,” or, at the option of the person entering the copyright, the words: “_Copyright, 18—, by ⸺_.”

The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice “_Entered according to act of Congress_,” or “_Copyright_,” etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article.

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or to dramatize his own work. In this case, notice should be given by printing the words “_Right of translation reserved_,” or “_All rights reserved_,” below the notice of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record.

Since the phrase, _all rights reserved_, refers exclusively to the author’s right to dramatize or to translate, it has no bearing upon any publications except original works, and will not be entered upon the record in other cases.

6. The original term of copyright runs for twenty-eight years. _Within six months before_ the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years in all. Applications for renewal must be accompanied by explicit statement of ownership, in the case of the author, or of relationship, in the case of his heirs, and must state definitely the date and place of entry of the original copyright. Advertisement of renewal is to be made within two months of date of renewal certificate, in some newspaper, for four weeks.

7. The time within which any work entered for copyright may be issued from the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the discretion of the proprietor. A copyright may be secured for a projected work as well as for a completed one.

8. A copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record and certificate is one dollar, and for a certified copy of any record of assignment one dollar.

9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of fifty cents each.

10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, or of periodicals published in numbers, or of engravings, photographs, or other articles published with variations, a copyright is to be entered for each volume or part of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to style, title, or inscription, of any other article. But a book published serially in a periodical, under the same general title, requires only one entry. To _complete_ the copyright on such a work, two copies of each serial part, as well as of the complete work (if published separately), must be deposited.

11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such design, a definite description must accompany the application for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as “cabinet size,” should be mailed to the Librarian of Congress within ten days from the completion of the work or design.

12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon trade-marks, nor upon mere names of companies or articles, nor upon prints or labels intended to be used with any article of manufacture. If protection for such names or labels is desired, application must be made to the Patent Office, where they are registered, at a fee of $6 for labels and $25 for trade-marks.

13. Citizens or residents of the United States only are entitled to copyright.

14. Every applicant for a copyright should state distinctly the full name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required.

OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS,
_Washington, 1885_.

THE METRIC SYSTEM.

The Metric System is a decimal system of measures and weights, based on the meter as its unit, which originated in France during the last decade of the eighteenth century, and has since been adopted by the greater number of States in Europe and America. In the United States its use was authorized in 1866 by Act of Congress. The length of the _meter_ was intended to be one ten-millionth part of the distance from the equator to either pole, measured at the level of the sea, but it is in reality a trifle less. All other units for measuring and weighing are derived from it, and the higher or lower denominations of the same kind of measure are obtained by multiplying or dividing its unit by tens, and prefixing to its name the Greek numerals, _deka_ 10, _hekto_ 100, _kilo_ 1000, or _myria_ 10000, for the higher denominations, and the Latin numerals, _deci_ 1/10, _centi_ 1/100, or _milli_ 1/1000, for the lower. The unit of weight, called the _gram_, is theoretically the weight in vacuo of a cubic centimeter of distilled water at the temperature of maximum density assumed to be 4° C. or 39° 1 Fe.

Including the meter and gram, five units have been adopted in the metric system, viz.:—

1. The Meter, the unit of length, = 3.280899 feet = 39.37079
inches.

2. The Are, the unit of surface, = 1 square dekameter =
119.60332 square yards.

3. The Liter, the unit of capacity, = 1 cubic decimeter =
0.26418635 gallon = 1.0567454 quarts.

4. The Stere, the unit of solidity, = 1 cubic meter = 35.336636
cubic feet = 1.308764 cubic yards.

5. The Gram, the unit of weight, = 15.43234874 grains troy.

For practical purposes the following are commonly used as units, viz.:—

For itinerary measure, the kilometer = 0.62138 mile. For land
measure, the hektare = 2.47114 acres. For commercial weight,
the kilogram = 2.20462125 pounds. The nickel five-cent piece,
coined since 1866, weighs exactly 5 grams.

METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.

LONG MEASURE.

1 inch = 2.540 centimeters.
1 foot = 3.048 decimeters.
1 yard = 9.144 decimeters.
1 rod = 5.0291 meters.
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers.

SQUARE MEASURE.

1 acre = 40.467 ares.

LIQUID MEASURE.

1 gill = 1.1831 deciliters.
1 pint = 4.7325 deciliters.
1 quart = 9.4650 deciliters.
1 gallon = 3.786 liters.

DRY MEASURE.

1 pint = 5.5067 deciliters.
1 quart = 1.1013 liters.
1 peck = 8.8108 liters.
1 bushel = 3.524 dekaliters.

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

1 ounce = 2.835 dekagrams.
1 pound = 4.5359 hektograms.

TROY WEIGHT.

1 grain = 6.480 centigrams.
1 ounce = 3.1103 dekagrams.
1 pound = 3.7324 hektograms.

TABLE FOR REDUCING POUNDS AND OUNCES TO KILOGRAMS.

++----+------++----+------++----+------++----+------++-------+--------++
||Oz. | Kilo.||Lbs.| Kilo.||Lbs.| Kilo.||Lbs.| Kilo.|| Lbs. | Kilo.||
++----+------++----+------++----+------++----+------++-------+--------++
|| _1_| 0.028|| _1_| 0.454||_31_|14.062||_61_|27.669|| _91_| 41.277||
|| _2_| 0.057|| _2_| 0.907||_32_|14.515||_62_|28.123|| _92_| 41.731||
|| _3_| 0.085|| _3_| 1.361||_33_|14.969||_63_|28.577|| _93_| 42.184||
|| _4_| 0.113|| _4_| 1.814||_34_|15.422||_64_|29.030|| _94_| 42.638||
|| _5_| 0.142|| _5_| 2.268||_35_|15.876||_65_|29.484|| _95_| 43.092||
|| _6_| 0.170|| _6_| 2.722||_36_|16.330||_66_|29.937|| _96_| 43.545||
|| _7_| 0.198|| _7_| 3.175||_37_|16.783||_67_|30.391|| _97_| 43.999||
|| _8_| 0.227|| _8_| 3.629||_38_|17.237||_68_|30.845|| _98_| 44.452||
|| _9_| 0.255|| _9_| 4.082||_39_|17.690||_69_|31.298|| _99_| 44.906||
||_10_| 0.283||_10_| 4.536||_40_|18.144||_70_|31.752|| _100_| 45.360||
||_11_| 0.312||_11_| 4.990||_41_|18.597||_71_|32.205|| _200_| 90.720||
||_12_| 0.340||_12_| 5.443||_42_|19.051||_72_|32.659|| _300_| 136.079||
||_13_| 0.369||_13_| 5.897||_43_|19.505||_73_|33.113|| _400_| 181.439||
||_14_| 0.397||_14_| 6.350||_44_|19.958||_74_|33.566|| _500_| 226.799||
||_15_| 0.425||_15_| 6.804||_45_|20.412||_75_|34.020|| _600_| 272.159||
|| | ||_16_| 7.258||_46_|20.865||_76_|34.473|| _700_| 317.518||
|| | ||_17_| 7.711||_47_|21.319||_77_|34.927|| _800_| 362.878||
|| | ||_18_| 8.165||_48_|21.773||_78_|35.380|| _900_| 408.238||
|| | ||_19_| 8.618||_49_|22.226||_79_|35.834|| _1000_| 453.598||
|| | ||_20_| 9.072||_50_|22.680||_80_|36.288|| _2000_| 907.195||
|| | ||_21_| 9.526||_51_|23.133||_81_|36.741|| _3000_|1360.793||
|| | ||_22_| 9.979||_52_|23.587||_82_|37.195|| _4000_|1814.390||
|| | ||_23_|10.433||_53_|24.041||_83_|37.649|| _5000_|2267.988||
|| | ||_24_|10.886||_54_|24.494||_84_|38.102|| _6000_|2721.586||
|| | ||_25_|11.340||_55_|24.948||_85_|38.556|| _7000_|3175.183||
|| | ||_26_|11.793||_56_|25.401||_86_|39.009|| _8000_|3628.781||
|| | ||_27_|12.247||_57_|25.855||_87_|39.463|| _9000_|4082.378||
|| | ||_28_|12.701||_58_|26.309||_88_|39.917||_10000_|4535.976||
|| | ||_29_|13.154||_59_|26.762||_89_|40.370|| | ||
|| | ||_30_|13.608||_60_|27.216||_90_|40.824|| | ||
++----+------++----+------++----+------++----+------++-------+--------++

TECHNICAL TERMS OF THE CRAFT.

_Alley._—The space between two stands.

_Ascending letters._—Letters that ascend into the upper
shoulder; as, b, d, l, &c. and all the capitals.

_Author’s proof._—The clean proof sent to an author after the
compositors’ errors have been corrected.

_Bank._—A table about four feet high, to lay sheets on at press.

_Bastard title._—A short title preceding the general title of a
work.

_Bastard type._—Type with a face larger or smaller than its
regular body: as Nonpareil on Minion body, or Minion on
Nonpareil body.

_Batter._—Types accidentally injured in a form.

_Beard of a letter._—The outer angles supporting the face of a
type and extending to the shoulder.

_Bearer._—A strip of reglet to bear off the impression from
a blank page. A long piece of furniture, type-high, used in
working jobs. A solid-faced type interspersed among the blank
parts of a page composed for stereotyping, to resist the
pressure of the knife when the plate is shaved.

_Bearer-lines._—The top line and bottom line in a page prepared
for stereotyping.

_Bed._—The flat part of the press on which the form is laid.

_Bevels._—Slugs cast nearly type-high, with a beveled edge,
used by stereotypers to form the flange on the side of the
plates.

_Bite._—An irregular white spot on the edge or corner of a
printed page, caused by the frisket not being sufficiently cut
out.

_Blanket._—A woollen cloth used in the tympan.

_Blank-line._—A line of quadrates.

_Blocks._—The mahogany forms on which stereotype plates are
placed for printing.

_Blocked up._—When the fount of type is all set, and none is
available for present use.

_Bodkin._—A delicate awl-like tool used for correcting errors
in type.

_Body._—The shank of the letter.

_Botch._—A bungling, incompetent workman.

_Bottled._—Type wider at the bottom than at the top.

_Boxes._—The compartments of a case in which the types are
placed.

_Brayer._—A wooden or glass rubber, flat at the bottom, used to
bray or spread out ink on the ink-block.

_Break-line._—A short line.

_Broad-side._—A form of one page, printed on one side of a
whole sheet of paper.

_Broken matter._—Pages of type disrupted and somewhat
intermingled.

_Bundle._—Two reams of paper.

_Bur._—Rough edge of a type which the founder neglected to take
off in dressing.

_Cabinet._—A receptacle for cases, chases leads, &c.

_Cancelled figures._—Figures cast with a line across the face.

_Caret._—A character [^] used in proofreading to denote the
place where omitted words should be inserted.

_Case._—The receptacle for type, divided into numerous
compartments.

_Cassie paper._—Formerly, the two outside quires of a ream,
consisting of defective sheets.

_Casting off._—Estimating how many pages a certain quantity of
copy will make in type.

_Cattie._—Imperfect or smutty look of a printed sheet caused by
an oily or unclean roller.

_Ceriphs._—The lines or cross-strokes at the ends of the stem
of a letter.

_Chapel._—A printing-office.

_Chapel laws._—Rules of a printing-office.

_Chase._—A rectangular iron frame in which pages of type are
imposed.

_Circular quadrates._—Blank types curved on one side.

_Clean proof._—A proof containing few faults.

_Clearing away._—Properly disposing of materials after a work
has been completed.

_Clicker._—The chief of a companionship.

_Close matter._—Solid matter with few break-lines.

_Companionship._—All the hands employed on a work.

_Composing._—Setting type.

_Composing-rule._—A steel or brass rule, with a beak at one
end, used in typesetting.

_Composing-stick._—An instrument in which types are arranged in
words and lines.

_Corner quadrates._—A quarter section of a hollow square or
rectangle.

_Correct._—A compositor is said to correct when he amends the
faults marked in a proof.

_Corrections._—The alterations or errors marked in a proof.

_Cut-in letter._—A type of large size adjusted at the beginning
of the first paragraph of a chapter.

_Cut-in note._—A note justified into the side of a page.

_Dead horse._—Matter charged and paid for before it is set.

_Dele, ₰._—A proof-reader’s mark, signifying to take out.

_Descending letters._—Letters that go down into the lower
shoulder of the body; as, g, j, p, q, y.

_Devil._—The errand-boy of a printing-office.

_Dished._—A defect in electrotyped plates, the centre of a
letter being lower than its edges.

_Distributing._—Returning types to their various boxes after
having been printed from. Spreading ink evenly over the surface
of a roller.

_Double._—Among compositors, repetition of words; among
pressmen, a sheet that is twice pulled and mackled.

_Dressing a chase or form._—Fitting the pages and chase with
furniture and quoins.

_Drive out._—To space widely.

_Duck’s-bill._—A tongue cut in a piece of stout paper and
pasted on the tympan at the bottom of the tympan-sheet, to
support the paper when laid on the tympan.

_Duodecimo_, or _12mo._—Twelve pages to a form.

_Em._—The square of the body of a type.

_En._—Half the dimensions of the preceding.

_Even page._—The 2d, 4th, 6th, or any even-numbered page of a
book.

_Fat._—Poetry and leaded matter.

_Fat face_, or _Fat letter_.—Broad stemmed letter.

_Father of the chapel._—President or chairman of a
composing-room or press-room chosen by the hands.

_Feed guide._—An implement attached to a press to aid in
correct feeding.

_Feeding._—Supplying the press with sheets.

_First form._—The form first printed, which generally contains
the first page of a sheet.

_Fly._—The person or apparatus that takes off the sheets from
the press.

_Folio._—Two pages to a form.

_Foot-sticks._—Sloping pieces of furniture placed at the bottom
of pages, between which and the chase the quoins are driven to
fasten the pages.

_Form._—The pages when imposed in a chase.

_Foul proof._—A proof with many faults marked in it.

_Fount._—A complete assortment of type, of the same nick,
body, and face, put up by type-founders in accordance with an
ascertained ratio.

_Fountain._—Reservoir for ink, attached to printing-presses.

_Friar._—A light patch in a printed sheet, caused by defective
rolling.

_Frisket._—An iron frame fastened by a hinge to the upper part
of the tympan, to hold the sheet of paper fast as it goes in
and comes from the press.

_Fudge._—To contrive without proper materials.

_Full press._—When two men work at the press with hand rollers.

_Furniture._—Strips of wood or metal placed around and between
pages to make the proper margin.

_Galley._—A wooden or brass flat oblong tray, with side and
head ledges, for holding type when composed.

_Galley-slaves._—An ancient term of derision applied by
pressmen to compositors.

_Gauge._—A strip of reglet with a notch in it, passed with the
make-up, to denote the length of the pages.

_Gauge-pin._—An instrument to aid in feeding job presses
correctly.

_Get in._—To set close.

_Good colour._—Sheets printed neither too black nor too light.

_Guide._—A strip of metal frequently used to denote the last
line of copy set.

_Gutter-sticks._—Furniture used in imposition to separate the
pages.

_Half press._—When but one person works at the press.

_Half-title._—The title of a book inserted in the upper portion
of the first page of matter.

_Hanging indention._—Where successive lines are set-in an em or
more beyond the first line.

_Head-sticks._—Furniture put at the head of pages in
imposition, to make margin.

_Hell._—The receptacle for broken or battered letters; the
old-metal box; the shoe.

_High-line._—Term applied to a type that ranges above the rest
in a line.

_High (or low) to paper._—Applied to a type cast higher or
lower than the rest of the fount.

_Hollow quadrates._—Metal quadrates mortised for the insertion
of types, &c.

_Horse._—The stage on the bank on which pressmen set the heap
of paper.

_Horsing._—Charging for work before it is executed.

_Imposing._—Arranging and locking up a form of type in a chase.

_Imposing-stone._—The stone on which compositors impose and
correct forms.

_Imprint._—The name of the printer or of the publisher appended
to jobs or title-pages.

_Inferior letters._—Small letters cast near the bottom of the
line.

_Inset._—Same as offcut.

_Jeff._—To throw for the first choice with em quadrates instead
of dice.

_Justifying._—Spacing out lines accurately.

_Keep in._—To crowd in by thin spacing.

_Keep out._—To drive out or expand matter by wide spacing.

_Kerned letter._—Type of which a part of the face hangs over
the body.

_Laying cases._—Filling cases with a fount of new type.

_Laying pages._—Placing pages of type on the stone in a proper
order for imposition.

_Leaders._—Dots or hyphens placed at intervals of one or more
ems in length, to guide the eye across the line to the folio in
tables of contents, &c.

_Leads._—Thin strips of metal cast of various thicknesses,
quadrate-high, to separate lines of type.

_Lean._—Close and solid matter.

_Lean face._—Light, thin type.

_Letter hangs._—When the page is out of square.

_Letter-press printing._—Printing from types.

_Ligatures._—Two or more letters cast on the same shank, as ff,
fi, fl, ffi, ffl, æ, œ.

_Line formers._—Brass rule bent in various shapes to aid in
making curved lines of type.

_Locking up._—Tightening up a form by means of quoins.

_Logotypes._—The same as ligatures.

_Long cross._—The bar that divides a chase the longest way.

_Long pull._—When the bar is brought close to the cheek of a
press.

_Low case._—When the compositor has set almost all the letters
out of his case.

_Lower case._—The case containing the small letters of the
alphabet, figures, points, &c.

_Low-line._—Applied to a type that ranges lower than the rest
in a line.

_Mackle._—When part of the impression appears double.

_Make-up._—To arrange the lines of matter into pages.

_Make-up rule._—A steel rule with a projection on the top, for
making up matter.

_Making margin._—In imposition, arranging the space between
the pages of a form so that the margin will be properly
proportioned.

_Making ready._—Preparing a form on the press for printing.

_Mallet._—A wooden hammer.

_Matter._—Composed type.

_Measure._—The width of a page.

_Monk._—A black spot in a printed sheet, owing to the ink not
being properly distributed.

_Naked form._—A form without furniture.

_Nicks._—Hollows cast in the front of the lower part of the
shank of a type, to show the compositor how to place it in his
stick.

_Octavo_, or _8vo._—Eight pages to a form.

_Octodecimo_, or _18mo._—Eighteen pages to a form.

_Odd page_ or _folio_.—The 1st, 3d, and all uneven-numbered
pages.

_Off._—Signifies that the pressman has worked off the form.

_Offcut._—A portion of a sheet that is cut off before folding.

_Off its feet._—When matter does not stand upright.

_Open matter._—Matter widely leaded or containing numerous
break-lines.

_Out._—An omission marked in a proof by the reader.

_Out of register._—When the pages do not back each other.

_Overlay._—A scrap of paper pasted on the tympan-sheet to bring
up the impression.

_Overrunning._—Carrying words backward or forward in correcting.

_Page-cord._—Twine used for tying up pages.

_Passing the make-up._—Passing to the next hand in order the
lines remaining (if any) after a compositor has made up his
matter, together with the gauge and proper folio.

_Peel._—A broad, thin board with a long handle.

_Perfecting._—Printing the second form of a sheet.

_Perforating rule._—Brass or steel rule, somewhat higher than
type.

_Pi._—Type promiscuously intermingled.

_Pick._—A particle of ink or paper imbedded in the hollow of a
letter, filling up its face and occasioning a spot.

_Pigs._—An ancient nickname given in derision by compositors to
pressmen. The press-room was called a pigsty.

_Planer._—A smooth block of wood used for levelling the surface
of pages of type when imposed.

_Planing down._—To bring down types evenly on their feet, by
laying a planer on the page and striking it firmly with a
mallet.

_Platen._—The part of a printing-press which, acted upon by the
lever, gives the impression to a sheet.

_Point-holes._—Fine holes made by the points to register the
second impression by

_Points._—Two thin pieces of steel with a point at one end,
adjusted to the tympan with screws, to make register.

_Quadrate._—A low square blank type, used to indent the first
line of a paragraph, and to fill up blank spaces.

_Quarters._—Octavos and twelves are said to be imposed in
quarters, not from their equal divisions, but because they are
imposed and locked up in four parts.

_Quarto_, or _4to._—Four pages to a form.

_Quire._—Twenty-four sheets of paper.

_Quoins._—Small wedges for locking up a form.

_Quotation furniture._—Quotations cast of various sizes in
length and width, used for blanking and as furniture.

_Quotations._—Large hollowed quadrates.

_Rack._—Receptacle for cases.

_Ratchet._—An instrument for turning the screws of stereotype
blocks.

_Ratting._—Working at less than the established prices.

_Ream._—Twenty quires of paper.

_Recto._—Right-hand page.

_References._—Letters or characters serving to direct the
reader’s attention to notes at the foot of a page.

_Register._—To cause the pages in a sheet to print precisely
back to back.

_Register sheet._—The sheet used to make register.

_Reglet._—Thin furniture, of an equal thickness all its length.
It is made to match the depth of type.

_Reiteration._—The form printed on the second side.

_Revise._—The last proof of a form before working it off.

_Riding._—One colour falling on another. Type at the end of a
line catching against a lead.

_Rise._—A form is said to rise when, in raising it from the
correcting stone, no letters drop out.

_Roller._—A wooden cylinder covered with composition, which,
set in an iron frame, revolves upon a rod, and is used for
inking type.

_Rounce._—The handle for running in and out the carriage of a
hand-press.

_Round pick._—A dot in a letter in a stereotype plate caused by
an air-bubble.

_Running title._—The title of the book or subject placed at the
top of the pages.

_Runs on sorts._— Requiring an inordinate proportion of
particular letters.

_Saw-block._—A box similar to a carpenter’s mitre-block, to
guide in cutting furniture, &c.

_Schedule._—A sheet of paper passed with the make-up,
containing folios, on which the compositor marks his name
opposite to the pages set by him.

_Set off._—When sheets that are newly worked off soil those
that come in contact with them, they are said to set off.

_Shank._—The metal body upon which the face of a letter stands.

_Sheep’s-foot._—An iron hammer with a claw-end.

_Sheetwise._—When the pages of a sheet are imposed in two
forms, which are backed in printing.

_Shooting-stick._—A wedge-shaped instrument for locking up a
form.

_Short cross._—The short bar which, crossing the long bar,
divides the chase into quarters.

_Shoulder._—The surface of the shank of a type not covered by
the letter.

_Side sorts._—Types in the side and upper boxes of a case,
consisting of letters not frequently used.

_Side-sticks._—Sloping furniture on the outside of the pages
next to the chase, where the quoins are inserted.

_Signature._—A letter or a figure used at the bottom of the
first page of a sheet, to direct the binder in placing the
sheets in a volume.

_Slice galley._—A galley with an upper movable bottom, called
a slice, used for pages and jobs too large to be lifted by the
fingers.

_Slug._—A thick lead. Sometimes with a word or figure on top,
used to denote the ownership of matter on galleys.

_Slur._—A blurred impression in a printed sheet.

_Solid pick._—A letter in a stereotype plate filled up with
metal, resulting from an imperfect mould.

_Sorts._—The letters in the several case-boxes are separately
called sorts, in printers’ and founders’ language.

_Space-rules._—Fine lines, cast type-high, and of even ems in
length, for table and algebraical work.

_Spaces._—Low blank types used to separate words.

_Squabble._—A page or form is squabbled when the letters are
twisted out of a square position.

_Stand._—The frame on which the cases are placed.

_Stem._—The vertical strokes of a type.

_Stereotype printing._—Printing from stereotyped plates.

_Stet._—Written opposite to a word in a proof, to signify that
the word erroneously struck out shall remain.

_Sub._—A compositor occasionally employed on a daily paper, to
fill the place of an absentee.

_Superior letters._—Letters of a small face, cast by the
founder near the top of the line.

_Table-work._—Matter consisting partly of rules and figures.

_Take_, or _Taking._—A given portion of copy.

_Token._—Two hundred and fifty sheets.

_Turn for a letter._—When a sort runs short, a letter of the
same thickness is substituted, placed bottom upward.

_Tympan._—A frame covered with parchment or muslin and attached
to the press-bed to lay the sheet on before printing.

_Underlay._—A piece of paper or card placed under types or cuts
to improve the impression.

_Uppercase._—The case containing capital and small capital
letters, fractions, &c.

_Verso._—Left-hand page.

_Wayz-goose._—A term given in England to the annual dinner
customary among printers there during the summer months.

_White line._—A line of quadrates.

_White page._—A blank page.

_White paper._—Until the second side of a sheet is printed,
pressmen call the heap white paper.

_Work and turn._—When a sheet is printed half-sheetwise, the
paper must be turned and worked on the second side.

_Working in pocket._—When the hands share equally their
earnings on a work.

ABBREVIATIONS.

A.—Acting.

a.—are, (of the French metric system.)

A. or Ans.—Answer.

A. A. G.—Assistant Adjutant-General.

A. A. P. S.—American Association for the Promotion of Science.

A. A. S.—_Academiæ Americanæ Socius_, Fellow of the American
Academy (of Arts and Sciences).

A. A. S. S.—_Americanæ Antiquarianæ Societatis Socius_, Member
of the American Antiquarian Society.

A. B.—_Artium Baccalaureus_, Bachelor of Arts.

A. B. C. F. M.—American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions.

Abp.—Archbishop.

Abr.—Abridgment.

A. C.—_Ante Christum_, before the birth of Christ.

A. C.—Archchancellor.

Acct.—Account.

A. C. S.—American Colonization Society.

A. D.—_Anno Domini_, in the year of the Lord.

A. D. C.—Aide-de-camp.

Adj.—Adjective.

Adjt.—Adjutant.

Adjt. Gen.—Adjutant-General.

Ad lib.—_Ad libitum_, at pleasure.

Adm.—Admiral; Admiralty.

Adm. Co.—Admiralty Court.

Admr.—Administrator.

Admx.—Administratrix.

Ad v.—_Ad valorem_, at (or on) the value.

Adv.—Adverb.

Æt.—_Ætatis_, of age; aged.

A. F. B. S.—American and Foreign Bible Society.

A. F. & A. M.—Ancient Free and Accepted Masons.

A. G.—Adjutant-General.

Ag.—_Argentum_, silver.

Agr.—Agriculture.

A. G. S. S.—American Geographical and Statistical Society.

Agt.—Agent.

A. H.—_Anno Hegiræ_, in the year of the Hegira.

A. H. M. S.—American Home Missionary Society.

Ala.—Alabama.

Ald.—Alderman.

Alex.—Alexander.

Alg.—Algebra.

Alt.—Altitude.

A. M.—_Anno mundi_, in the year of the world.

A. M.—_Ante meridiem_, before noon; morning.

A. M.—_Artium Magister_, Master of Arts.

Amb.—Ambassador.

Amer.—American.

AMM.—_Amalgama_, amalgamation.

Amt.—Amount.

An.—_Anno_, in the year.

An. A. C.—_Anno ante Christum_, in the year before Christ.

Anat.—Anatomy.

Anc.—Ancient; anciently.

And.—Andrew.

Ang.-Sax.—Anglo-Saxon.

Anon.—Anonymous.

Anth.—Anthony.

Aor. or aor.—Aorist.