Chapter IV: Part 4

~r~ (r) and ~x~ (x).

~x~ (x) has a little hair-stroke below, on the left.

~v~ (v) and ~y~ (y).

~v~ (v) is closed, ~y~ (y) is somewhat open below, and ends with a hair-stroke.

GREEK.

A small amount of Greek types is indispensable in every considerable book printing-office. The Greek alphabet contains twenty-four letters, which we give in the following table, with the name of each character expressed in Greek and English, and its sound and numerical value.

THE GREEK ALPHABET.

+---------+-------------------+---------+-----------+
| FORMS. | NAMES IN GREEK | SOUNDS. | NUMERICAL |
| | AND ENGLISH. | | VALUE. |
+---------+-------------------+---------+-----------+
| | | | |
| Α α | Άλφα Alpha | a | 1 |
| | | | |
| Β β ϐ | Βῆτα Beta | b | 2 |
| | | | |
| Γ γ | Γὰμμα Gamma | g | 3 |
| | | | |
| Δ δ | Δέλτα Delta | d | 4 |
| | | | |
| Ε ε | Ἒψῖλόν Epsīlon | ĕ short | 5 |
| | | | |
| Ζ ζ | Ζῆτα Zeta | z | 7 |
| | | | |
| Η η | Ἦτα Eta | ē long | 8 |
| | | | |
| Θ ϑ θ | Θῆτα Theta | th | 9 |
| | | | |
| Ι ι | Ἰῶτα Iōta | i | 10 |
| | | | |
| Κ κ | Κάππα Kappa | k c | 20 |
| | | | |
| Λ λ | Λάμβδα Lambda | l | 30 |
| | | | |
| Μ µ | Μῦ Mu | m | 40 |
| | | | |
| Ν ν | Νῦ Nu | n | 50 |
| | | | |
| Ξ ξ | Ξῖ Xi | x | 60 |
| | | | |
| Ο ο | Ὀμῖκρόν Omĭcron | ŏ short | 70 |
| | | | |
| Π π | Πῖ Pi | p | 80 |
| | | | |
| Ρ ρ | Ῥῶ Rho | r | 100 |
| | | | |
| Σ σ ς | Σίγμα Sigma | s | 200 |
| | | | |
| Τ τ | Ταῦ Tau | t | 300 |
| | | | |
| Υ υ | Ύψῖλόν Upsīlon | u | 400 |
| | | | |
| Φ φ | Φῖ Phi | ph | 500 |
| | | | |
| Χ χ | Χῖ Chi | ch | 600 |
| | | | |
| Ψ ψ | Ψῖ Psi | ps | 700 |
| | | | |
| Ω ω | Ὠμεγα Omĕga | ō long | 800 |
+---------+-------------------+---------+-----------+

From a desire, probably, to imitate Greek manuscript, a multitude of ligatures, abbreviations, and contractions of letters, as well as duplicates, were cast by the early type-founders. These, however, with two or three exceptions, have been quite discarded; and a fount of modern Greek is readily accommodated in a single pair of cases. The only duplicated characters in the preceding table are β and ϐ, ϑ and Θ, and σ and ς. β looks best when used as an initial letter, and ϐ as a medial. ϑ and Θ are used indiscriminately; but ς is employed as a final letter only.

There are twelve diphthongs or compound vowels in Greek, viz.:—

Six proper,—αι, αυ, ει, ευ, οι, ου; and

Six improper,—ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ, ηυ, υι, ωυ. The point under the first three letters denotes the iota, and is therefore called the _subscript iota_.

ACCENTS AND ASPIRATES.

᾿ Lenis.
῾ Asper.
´ Acute.
` Grave.
῀ Circumflex.
῎ Lenis acute.
῍ Lenis grave.
῞ Asper acute.
῝ Asper grave.
῏ Circumflex lenis.
῟ Circumflex asper.
¨ Diæresis.
΅ Diæresis acute.
῭ Diæresis grave.

Accents are nothing more than small marks which have been introduced into the language to denote the pronunciation of words, and aid its acquisition by learners. The ancient Greeks never used them, as is demonstrated from Aristotle, old inscriptions, and ancient medals. It is not easy to tell the date when the practice of writing with accents first obtained, though it is probable not till after the Romans began to learn the Greek tongue and to send their children to study at Athens,—that is, about or a little before the time of Cicero.

Accents—by the Greeks called τόνοι, tones—show the rising or falling of the voice in pronouncing; either separately in distinct syllables, or conjunctively in the same syllable.

Wherefore there are two sorts of accents: two simple, viz. the acute, ὀξύς, figured thus [´], which denotes the elevation of the voice; and the grave, βαρὺς, shaped thus [`], to signify the falling or depression of the voice: and the circumflex, περισπώμενος which was formed first of these two lines or points joined together thus [῍] and afterward was changed into a round sort of a figure like an inverted upsilon, thus [[symb]], but at length came to be figured like an s drawn crosswise [῀].[14]

* * * * *

The acute accent raises the voice, and affects one or more of the last three syllables of a word, if it has so many.

* * * * *

The grave depresses the voice, and affects the last syllable only.

* * * * *

The circumflex lengthens the sound, and affects either the last syllable of a word or the last but one.

* * * * *

There are two spirits, or breathings: the asper [῾], which is equivalent to the modern letter h; and the lenis [᾿], which has no perceptible power, and indicates the bare opening of the mouth and simple emission of the voice.

All the words that begin with a vowel have one of these breathings over them; but the vowel upsilon admits of no other than the _spiritus asper_ at the beginning of a word.

In diphthongs the _spiritus_ is put over the second vowel: as αὐτὸς, not ἀυτὸς.

The letter ρ, at the beginning of a word, has an _asper_ over it, as, ῥέω; and where two ρs meet in a word, the first has a _lenis_, and the other an _asper_.

* * * * *

The apostrophe [’] is used for cutting off the vowels α, ε, ι, ο, and the diphthongs αι and οι, when they stand at the end of a word and the next word begins with a vowel: as, παρ’ αὐτῷ for παρὰ αὐτῷ; πάντ’ ἔλεγον for πάντα ἔλεγον.

Sometimes the apostrophe contracts two words into one: as, κᾳ’γὼ for καὶ ἐγὼ; ἐγῶ’μαι for ἐγῶ οἴμαι; κᾳ’κεῖνος for καὶ ἐκεῖνος.

Sometimes an apostrophe supplies the place of the first vowel beginning a word: as ὦ ’γαθὲ for ὦ ἀγαθὲ; ποῦ ’ςι for ποῦ ἐςι. This is chiefly used in poetry.

But the prepositions περὶ and πρὸ suffer no apostrophe though the next word begin with a vowel; for we write περὶ υμῶν, πρὸ ἐμοῦ; περὶ αὐτον, πρὸ ἐτῶν, &c.

* * * * *

The diæresis [¨] is put over the last one of two vowels that come together, to show that they must be pronounced separately, and not as a diphthong: thus, ἀϋτὴ with a diæresis makes three syllables; but without a diæresis αυ is a diphthong, and makes αὐτὴ two syllables.

* * * * *

Diastole [,] is put between two particles that would bear a different sense without it: thus, ὄ,τε ὄ,τι signify _whatever_; whereas ὁτε stands for _as_, and ὁτι for _that_. Τό,τε with a diastole implies _and this_; but when without, it answers to the adverb _then_.

* * * * *

The sign of interrogation, in Greek, is made by a semicolon [;].

The colon is made by an inverted full-point [·].

All other points are the same as in English.

* * * * *

The compositor will find it advantageous to bear in mind the following rules:—

1. No accent can be placed over any other than one of the last three syllables of a word.

2. The grave accent never occurs but on the last syllable; and, this being the case, the asper grave ῝ and lenis grave ῍ can be wanted only for a few monosyllables.

3. No vowel can have a spirit, or breathing, except at the beginning of a word.

4. The letter ρ is the only consonant marked by a breathing.

5. Almost every word has an accent, but very seldom has more than one; and, when this happens, it is an acute thrown back upon the last syllable from one of those words called enclitics (_leaning back_), which in that case has none, unless it be followed by another enclitic. In no other case than this can a last syllable have an acute accent, except before a full-point, colon, or note of interrogation, when the grave accent of the last syllable is changed to an acute,—a circumstance which has often led printers, who were ignorant of the reasons for accenting the same word differently in different situations, to think that there was an error in their copy, and thus to make one in their proof. Most errors, however, proceed from those who do not think at all about the matter.

PLAN OF GREEK CASES.

The following plan of cases for Greek type is probably more convenient than any other. A Roman case may readily be altered to accommodate the lower-case sorts. Compositors who aspire to a full knowledge of their art should by all means make themselves familiar with Greek and Hebrew letters and cases.

HEBREW.

The Hebrew alphabet has twenty-two letters. Column No. 1 of the following table indicates the force of Hebrew letters when read without points. Column No. 2 gives their force when the language is printed with the Masoretic points or vowels, which are of later date than the letters. The names and numerical value of the characters are also shown.

THE HEBREW ALPHABET.

+---------------------+--------------------+-------------------+------+
| NAMES. | NO. 1. | NO. 2. |NUMER.|
| | | |VALUE.|
+---------------------+--------------------+-------------------+------+
| א Aleph | Sounded _a_ in | A gentle aspirate | 1 |
| | _war_ (_vowel_) | | |
| ב Beth | ... | _Bh_ | 2 |
| ג Gimel | _g_ hard | _Gh_ | 3 |
| ד Daleth | ... | _Dh_ | 4 |
| ח He | _a_ in hate | A rough aspirate | 5 |
| | (_vow._) | | |
| ו Vau | _u_ _vowel_, or | ... | 6 |
| | before a vowel, | | |
| | _w_ | | |
| ז Zain | ... | _Ds_ | 7 |
| ה Cheth | ... | _Hh_ | 8 |
| ט Teth | _Th_ | ... | 9 |
| י Jod | Like _ee_ in | _j_ consonant, or | 10 |
| | English (_vowel_) | the softer _y_ | |
| כ ך final Caph | _k_ or _c_ hard | ... | 20 |
| ל Lamed | ... | ... | 30 |
| מ ם final Mem | ... | ... | 40 |
| נ ן final Nun | ... | ... | 50 |
| ס Samech | ... | Soft _s_ | 60 |
| ע Ain | _o_ long (_vowel_) | _hg_, or _hgh_, | 70 |
| | | the roughest | |
| | | aspirate | |
| פ ף final Phe | ... | ... | 80 |
| צ ץ final Tzaddi | _j_ soft | ... | 90 |
| ק Koph | _k_ or _qu_ | ... |100 |
| ר Resch | ... | ... |200 |
| ש Shin | ... | _s_ hard |300 |
| or Sin | | | |
| ת Thau | ... | ... |400 |
+---------------------+--------------------+-------------------+------+

LETTERS THAT HAVE A LIKENESS TO OTHERS.

Beth ב
Caph כ

Daleth ד
Caph ך
Resch ר

Vau ו
Zain ז
Jod י
Nun ן

Mem ם
Samech ס

Gimel ג
Nun נ

He ה
Cheth ח
Thau ת

Teth ט
Mem מ

Ain ע
Tzaddi צ

The dividing of Hebrew words not being permitted, the five following letters are cast broad to enable the compositor to justify the lines without irregular spacing:—

Aleph ﬡ
He ﬣ
Lamed ﬥ
Mem ﬦ
Thau ﬨ

Hebrew has no capitals, and therefore letters of the same shape, but of a larger body, are used at the beginning of chapters and other parts of Hebrew works.

Hebrew reads from the right to the left, which is the case with all other Oriental languages, except Ethiopic and Armenian. In composing it, the general method is to place the nick of the letter downward, and after putting the points to the top, to turn the line and set the points that come under the letters. If the letter has but one leg, the point is placed immediately under it; but where the letter has two legs, it is put under the centre.

The Masoretic points or vowels are subjoined under the consonant בּ (beth).

1. _The Long Vowels._

Kametz ׇ _aa_ בָּ baa
Tzeri ֵ _ee_ בֵּ bee
Long Chirek י _ii_ בִּי bii
Cholem וֹ _oo_ בּבּוֹ boo
Shurek וּ _uu_ בּוּ buu

2. _The Short Vowels._

Patach ַ _a_ בַּ ba
Sœgol ֶ _e_ בֶּ be
Little Chirek ִ _i_ בִּ bi
Kametz-chataph ָ _o_ בָּ bo
Kibbutz ֻ _u_ בֻּ bu

3. _Shevas, which imply a Vowel to be wanting._

Simple Sheva חְ
Patach furtive חַ
Chataph Patach חֲ _a_
Chataph Sœgol חֱ _e_
Chataph Kametz חֳ _o_

The last three are called compound shevas; and, in fact, they are only the short vowels, to which the simple sheva [ְְ] is joined.

ACCENTS.

Hebrew accents are either mere points, or lines, or circles.

Those which are mere points or dots consist of one or two or three such points, and are always placed above the middle of the accented letter, thus,

{ One, called _rebia_, ב֗ , i.e. _sitting over_.
{
That { Two, called royal _zakeph katon_, ב֔, or, _the little
consisting { elevator_, from its figure, which is composed of upright
of { points.
{
{ Three, called royal _segolta_, ב֒, an inverted [ ֶ].

The lines are either upright, inclined, or transverse.

The upright is either solitary or with points or dots.

The { between two words, ב׀ב, termed _pesick_, or musical
solitary { pause, and terminating a song.
is {
either { or { _Metheg_, בֽ or _bridle_, an euphonic accent
{ under a { at the beginning of a word.
{ word, {
{ { Royal _silluk_, בֽ, _end_, which is placed
{ { before [׃], _sophpasuk_, i.e. toward the end.

With { two, above the letter, royal _zakeph gadhol_, ב֕,
points, { _the great elevator_, strains the sound.
namely, {
{ one, below the letter, royal _tebhir_, ב֛, _broken_
{ sound, from its figure and tone.

Inclined lines hang either above or below.

Above, { the right { Leader _pashta_, ב֙, _extension_, extends the
toward { { voice or sound, and is placed above the last
{ { letter of the word.
{ {
{ { Subservient _kadma_, ב֨, _antecedent_, to the
{ { leader _geresh_; and is placed above the
{ { penult or antepenult letter.
{
{ the left { Leader _geresh_, ב֜, _expulsion_, is sung with
{ { an impelled voice.
{ {
{ { _Gereshajim_, ב֞, _two expellers_, from the
{ { figure being doubled.

Below, { the right { Leader _tiphcha_, ב֖, _fatigue_, from the song
toward { { or note.
{ {
{ the left { Of subservient _merca_, ב֥, _lengthening out_,
{ { from its lengthening out the song or note.
{ {
{ { _Merca kephula_, ב֦, _a double lengthening
{ { out_, from its music and figure.

The transverse line is either right or curved: thus, ־ ֮ .

The right line is placed between two words, connecting them together, thus, ב־ב, and is called _maccaph_, i.e. _connection_.

The curved or waved line, ב֮, is called leader, _zarka_, or _the disperser_, from its modulation and figure.

Circles are either entire or semi.

The entire circle is placed always above, and has a small inclined line attached to it.

Either on the left, when it is placed at the head of the word, ב֠, and is called leader _telisha the greater_, or _the great evulsion_.

Or on the right, when it is placed at the end, ב֩, and is called subservient _telisha the less_.

On both together, ב֟, called leader _karne para_, _the horns of the heifer_, from its modulation and figure.

The semicircle is either _solitary_ or _pointed_.

The solitary is either _angular_ or _reflected_.

The { on the { Subservient _hillui_, ב֬, _elevated_, from the
angular { right { elevation of the voice.
is { {
{ { _Munach_, ב֣, _placed below_, from its position.
{
{ on the { Leader _jethith_, ב֚, _drawing back_, from its
{ left { figure.
{
{ Subservient _mahpach_, ב֤, _inverted_, also from
{ its figure.

The { either single subservient _darga_, ב֧, a _degree_.
reflected {
is { or double, leader, _shalsheleth_, ב֓, a _chain_, from
{ its figure and modulation.

When joined with other points, it is either above or below the letter.

When above the letter, it has a small line attached to it on the left, ב֡, leader _paser_, _the disperser_ from the diffusion of the note.

When below the letter, it is pointed either downward, ב֑, called royal _athnach_, _respiration_, as the voice must rest upon it, and respire; or upward, ב֢, subservient, _jerah-ben-jomo_, _the moon of its own day_, from its figure.

PLANS OF HEBREW CASES.

The first plan shows a common case for Hebrew without points; the second exhibits a pair of cases with points.

RUSSIAN ALPHABET.

+-------+-------------------+
| FORM. | SOUND. |
+-------+-------------------+
| А а | ah, a. |
| Б б | b. |
| В в | v. |
| Г г | g, gh. |
| Д д | d. |
| Е е | yai _or_ ai. |
| Ж ж | zsh. |
| З з | z. |
| И и | ee. |
| І і | ee. |
| К к | k. |
| Л л | l (guttural). |
| М м | m. |
| Н н | n. |
| О о | o _or_ ah. |
| П п | p. |
| Р р | r. |
| С с | _hard_ s _or_ ss. |
| Т т | t. |
| У у | oo. |
| Ф ф | f, ph. |
| Х х | kh, ~ch~. |
| Ц ц | ts. |
| Ч ч | ch, tch. |
| Ш ш | ch. |
| Щ щ | sh-tch. |
| Ъ ъ | _mute_ e. |
| Ы ы | we, ee. |
| Ь ь | _half-mute_ e. |
| Ѣ ѣ | yai _or_ ai. |
| Э э | ai. |
| Ю ю | you, ew. |
| Я я | yah. |
| Ѳ ѳ | f, ph. |
| Ѵ ѵ | e. |
| Й й | _short_ e. |
+-------+-------------------+

г, х, е, л, щ, ъ, ы, ь, ѣ, я, о, й, are the only letters whose pronunciation offers any difficulty.

Г has a sound nearly like _g_ in the English word _goose_, as in гру́ша, a _pear_; read _groòshah_. But it has a guttural sound not found in English, and which nearly resembles that of the German ~ch~. This sound is especially perceivable in the middle of a word when the г is followed by a consonant, also at the end of a word, as in но́гти, _the nails_; read _nò~ch~tee_. In inflections аго, яго, ого, его, of adjectives and pronouns, the letter г is pronounced as _v_; as in кра́снаго, _of beautiful_; read _kràsnavah_.

Е has three different sounds: 1. In Russian words, and in all syllables in which it is preceded by a vowel, _е_ has a sound like that of _yai_, when the _y_ is nearly sunk in the pronunciation, as in ему́, _to him_; read _yaimoò_. 2. At the beginning of words from foreign languages, and at the middle and end of a word when preceded by a consonant, it has the sound of _e_ in _met_, as in берегу́, _I guard_; read _bayregoò_. 3. In the termination екъ of diminutives, in all the characteristic inflections of cases in the nouns, and of persons in the verbs, in fact, in almost all words, this letter when accented has a sound nearly like that of short _yo_ or _o_; as in куле́къ, _a little sack_; веде́шь, _thou leadest_; медъ, _the honey_; read _koolyòk_, _vaidyòsh_, _myod_. This sound _yo_ or _o_ of the letter _е_ is commonly distinguished by a diæresis over the vowel, as кулёкъ, ведёшь, мёлъ.

Л has a guttural sound nearly analogous to the English _w_. Писарлъ, _he wrote_, read _pisaw_ or _pisou_.

Ль has a soft sound, as in the French word _bouillon_.

Х corresponds to the German ~ch~. It is a strong aspiration that nearly resembles the sound _k_ when pronounced hastily from the throat; as in хвала́, _the praise_; read _khvahlàh_.

Щ unites the sound of ш and ч, as in щитъ, _the shield_; read _shtcheet_.

Ъ. This letter has no sound; the preceding consonant, the last letter of the word, ought to be pronounced a little hollow, as in боо́ъ, _a bean_; read _bop_.

Ы has a sound nearly like _we_ when the _w_ is pronounced rapidly; as in бу́квьшы, _the letters_, read _boòkwe_. It has this sound after the consonants б, в, м, п, ф; but after another consonant it is a thick _e_, as in сынъ, _the son_; read _seen_.

Ь. This letter at the end of a word has a sound nearly like that of the very short _e_. When followed by a consonant in the middle of a word it is mute, but is pronounced when followed by a vowel; as in знатъ, _to know_; read _znaht_.

Ѣ at the beginning of a word has the sound of _yai_; as in Ѣсть, _to eat_; read _yaist_. In the middle of a word it is pronounced _yai_, the sound of _y_ being almost sunk; as in нѣтъ, _no_; read _nyaitt_. At the end of a word it is sounded _ay_.

Я when accented has the sound of the diphthong _yah_; as in я́ма, _a pit_; read _yàhmah_. But if not accented it is pronounced _yai_, as in ядро́, _a ball_; read _yaidrò_. The pronoun ея́, _of her_, is pronounced _yaiyò_, and the syllable ся of pronominal verbs is pronounced _sah_, as in стара́ться, _to exert one’s self_; read _stahràhtsah_.

О is pronounced as English _o_; but if unaccented it takes the sound of _ah_, as in ко́локолъ, _a bell_; колокола́, _bells_; read _kòlahkall_, _kahlakahlà_.

Й is a short _e_, pronounced very rapidly, as in дай, _give_; read _dàï_ or _die_, giving utterance to a short _e_ after the vowel.

In general the pronunciation of Russian words depends especially upon the tonic accent, which is no longer printed in Russian books, except to distinguish some homonymous words, or some grammatical inflections of similar forms; as за́мокъ, _a castle_, and замо́къ, _a lock_; read _zàhmok_ and _zahmòk_.

MUSIC TYPE.

In no department of letter-founding has the progress of improvement been more decided and satisfactory than in the production of music type. The finest work of the music-stamper cannot surpass the ingenious combinations of the type-founder and printer. The music of which specimens are here given is cast on the centre of the body, and any intelligent workman may learn to compose it with facility. Brass lines are now furnished with founts when desired.

MUSIC COMPOSITION.

A knowledge of the rudiments of the art of music is essential to the correct composition of music type; for, unless the compositor is acquainted with the relative time-values of the notes and rests, he cannot space them properly.

The manuscript copy is given to the compositor, with directions regarding the dimensions of the page required and the size of type to be employed. He counts the number of measures in the piece, and allots to each measure the amount of ems in length which the page will permit, so that there shall be a general equality of space throughout the piece.

In instrumental music, and in pieces which are not interlined with poetry, the compositor will set two or more staves simultaneously, ranging the leading notes in the lower staves precisely under the corresponding ones in the upper staff; that is, a certain amount of space in each staff, in a brace, must contain the same amount of time-value. Where lines of poetry are interspersed, as in ballads and in church music, the staves are necessarily set singly; and in composing the second, third, and fourth staves the workman must therefore constantly refer to the first, in order to make the staves correspond.

A good compositor will be careful to make the lines overlap each other, brick-wise, and not allow a joint to fall directly under another. Masters who aim to do cheap rather than good work have the music lines cast double or triple, to expedite composition. Such work has a very slovenly look, as the joints of the lines, coming under one another, are apparent in the entire depth of the staff. We have seen books set in this manner, in which all the lines seem to be composed of dotted rule, instead of a continuous stroke.

The compositor should be careful to make the stems of all the notes in a page of the same length, except those of grace-notes, which should be about half as long.

PLAN OF CASES.

The following plan of cases was arranged by the music typographer, J. M. Armstrong of Philadelphia, expressly for the founts of music cast by The MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co., specimens of which are shown on page 114. A table of comparative bodies is given on page 115.

MODERN CONVENIENCES.

At no time since the invention of their art have printers been so fully supplied as at present with typographic implements for producing exact and beautiful work. In height of body, harmony and style of face, and excellence of material, modern type is doubtless superior to any heretofore made; but the most striking progression of type-founding is in the beauty and variety of ornamental letters and borders, and in these the American founders have taken the lead. A glance at their late Specimen Books proves the truth of this assertion. Among late novelties produced by THE MACKELLAR, SMITHS & JORDAN CO. are several beautiful series of ingenious adjustable characters for the ornamentation of display lines, both straight and elliptical. A specimen is given below. Other appliances for job-printing are noted on pages 300-310.

THE ART OF COMPOSITION.

GENERAL REMARKS.

Experience proves that the apprentice foreshadows the workman, just as surely as the bend of the twig foretells the inclination of the tree. The upright, obedient, industrious lad will become a steady, skilful, and capable man, as unmistakably as the perverse, idling, careless boy will ripen into a lazy, dissolute, and worthless fellow. The fact is, a boy is measurably the maker of his own destiny; and if he fails to acquire a master-knowledge of the trade to which he is put, it will mainly be because he did not at his outset determine to be a master-workman. Good morals and steady industry are indispensable.

When a lad who possesses these qualities proposes to learn the art and mystery of printing, it should be inquired of him, Has he had a fair common-school education? Is he a perfect speller? Has he a turn for reading? Is his eyesight good? Is he under fifteen years of age? A true affirmative answer to all these queries will entitle him to the position of reading and errand-boy. He is told the hours at which he is to come and go, and a strict punctuality is enjoined upon him. He sweeps the room,—he sorts out the pi,—he learns the position of the various letters in the case. A year spent in this way is an excellent preparative for “going to case,” or learning the art of composing type.

When he is put to composition, he is told to set up one line and show it to the foreman or to the journeyman under whose care he may be placed. The errors in the line are pointed out to him, and he is required to correct them himself. When the words are perfectly correct, he justifies the line tight enough to prevent it from falling down when the composing-stick is slightly inclined, and yet sufficiently loose to enable him to lift it out with ease. In thus spacing out the line, the blanks between the words must be so graduated that, when the matter is printed, all the words will appear at equal distances apart. No matter how impatient he may be to get on, he must be drilled at this exercise till he becomes a thorough master of it. The grand doctrine to be instilled into him at first is, to do his work well and correctly; swiftness will follow as a natural consequence. He sets a second line; and after it has been made faultless he proceeds with the third, and so on till the stick is full. The utmost care must be taken to keep every letter and every line in an exact vertical position; and when he essays to empty the stick he must be taught to lift the entire mass in one square solid body, and to place it squarely and vertically on the galley. If the lines are allowed to slant either backward or sidewise, it is difficult afterward to make them stand accurately.

After the apprentice has become thoroughly conversant with the shape of every type, and can distinguish “u” from “n,” “b” from “q,” and “d” from “p,” he is allowed to distribute type for his own use. He is taught to take up at one time no more matter than he can conveniently grasp in his left hand, which he holds so that the light falls on the face of the type, and his eye can readily read it. In distributing the various letters, he takes a word or two between the thumb and forefinger of his right hand, and the types are lightly dropped into their respective boxes.

At the outset, and as he proceeds, the novitiate must be cautioned against the acquisition of bad habits; such as swinging the body as the types are picked up, nicking the type against the stick several times before placing it in line, standing on one leg, &c.

While avoiding these ridiculous practices, a learner must acquire (if he does not possess them already) certain habitudes or principles which lie at the foundation of successful effort. The first is

_Punctuality._ He must conscientiously observe the time-rules of the office in coming and leaving. The early hours are the best for work; and the mind being cheered by the consciousness of doing right, the body feels the influence, and is strengthened; and when the quitting hour arrives, the amount of work accomplished will satisfy himself and his master too. The most successful masters have been distinguished for punctuality. The apprentice’s time is not his own, but his master’s property; and wasting it by want of punctuality, or idling during his master’s absence, is simply equivalent to stealing. The second point is

_Obedience._ The apprentice has no right to question orders given by the master or his deputy. His duty is promptly to do as he is told, without grumbling or dissatisfaction. Let him remember that he is under orders, and that, if he ever expects to learn how to command, he must learn in his youth how to obey. He will promote his own interests by seeking to anticipate his master’s wishes, and by endeavouring to make himself so useful that his services cannot well be dispensed with. Akin to this is

_Courtesy._ Good manners in a youth are wonderfully pleasing, and effectively aid in his advancement. Courtesy toward his master is a matter of course, and deserving of little commendation; but he must be courteous to customers when sent out on an errand, and courteous to the workmen in the office. By this means he will secure good-will, and many a friendly hint will be given to him in acquiring a knowledge of the art. The habit when fixed will bless him and others as long as he lives.

PLAN OF CASES.

The following schemes show the order in which the letters are kept in cases in this country. In some offices, however, slight deviations will be found,—such as the transposition of the comma and w, y, p, &c.

POSITION.

The standing position of a compositor should be perfectly upright, without stiffness or restraint; the shoulders thrown back, the feet firm on the floor, heels nearly closed, and toes turned out to form an angle of about forty-five degrees. The head and body should be kept perfectly steady, except when moving from the Roman to the Italic case, the operations of distributing and composing being performed by the various motions of the arm, from the shoulder-joint alone; and if, to reach a box placed in the further part of the cases, to put in or take out a letter, he should incline the body by a slight motion, he should immediately resume his erect position. The height of a compositor and his frame should be so adjusted that his right elbow may just clear the front of the lower case by the a and r boxes, without the smallest elevation of the shoulder-joint; his breast will then be opposite the space, h, and e boxes. Sitting at work should be rarely permitted, except for lameness, weakness, old age, or other infirmity; and then the stool should be a small piece of board fastened to a single leg. Habit will render a standing position familiar and easy; perseverance in conquering a little fatigue will be amply repaid by the prevention of knock knees, round shoulders, and obstructed circulation of the blood and respiration of the lungs.

LAYING TYPE.

Unwrap carefully the page received from the type-founder, and, laying it on a galley, soak it thoroughly with thin soap-water, to prevent the types from adhering to one another after they have been used a short time. Then, with a stout rule or reglet, lift as many lines as will make about an inch in thickness, and, placing the rule close up on one side of the bottom of the proper box, slide off the lines gently, taking care not to rub the face of the letter against the side of the box. Proceed thus with successive lines till the box is filled.

Careless compositors are prone to huddle new types together, and, grasping them up by handfuls, plunge them pell-mell into the box, rudely jostling them about to crowd more in. This is an intolerable practice.

The type left over should be kept standing on galleys, in regular order, till the cases need replenishment. A fount of five hundred pounds of Pica may have, say, four cases allotted to it; the same amount of Nonpareil, from eight to ten cases.

DISTRIBUTING.

When a learner can infallibly distinguish from each other the letters b and q, d and p, n and u, and l and I, he may be allowed to distribute type for himself.

The head of the page being turned toward him, the learner sets a composing-rule behind the portion to be lifted, and then, placing his thumbs against the rule and his forefingers against the top line, while his remaining fingers press together both sides, he raises the matter quickly. Then, inclining sidewise his right hand, he removes the left, and allows the matter to balance momentarily in his right, while he doubles in the third finger and stretches out the thumb of the left for the reception of the matter, which he at once places in it, the rule lying as a support on the third finger, while the thumb and other fingers embrace the sides. He should take up but a few lines at a time, until he acquires facility in lifting. Large handfuls should always be avoided, as the weight is fatiguing and weakening to the wrist.

Keeping the handful in an inclined position, so that he may readily read the lines, he takes up as many letters as he can conveniently hold between his fingers,—an entire word, if practicable,—and drops the types slantingly, but with face upward, into the several boxes.

The first aim of the learner must be accuracy, even though his progress be slow. Correct distribution aids in clean composition. In time he will be able to drop his types rapidly, with hardly a glance at the boxes; and, while his fingers are flying about correctly and expeditiously, his eyes will take in the next word to be distributed; thus proceeding till the case is filled.

In distributing, the utmost care should be taken in placing the various spaces in their appropriate boxes. A mixing of spaces characterizes the botch.

The letter-board should always be kept clean, and the bottom as well as the face of the form well washed before it is laid on the board and unlocked; for, if any dirt remain in the type after the form is unlocked, it will sink into the matter. This precaution taken, the pages should be well opened, and the whole form washed till the water appears to run from it in a clean state. If the form is very dirty, it is best to lock it up again and rinse the bottom of it, and proceed as before.

It is sometimes necessary to dry the letter at the fire after distributing. In this case, the type should not be used until it is perfectly cold, as very pernicious effects arise from the antimony in the composition of which the type is made. The noxious vapour which arises is sufficient warning of the effects. The compositor ought always to avoid it as a pestilence which will affect his respiration and his sinews, inducing lung-complaints, and causing paralysis of the hand or contraction of the fingers. Where it can be conveniently managed, it is better to distribute at night, or before meals, so that the letter may dry without artificial heat.

COMPOSING.

When copy is put into the hands of the compositor, he should receive directions respecting the width and length of the page; whether it is to be leaded, and with white lines between the breaks; and whether any particular method is to be followed in the punctuation and in the adoption of capitals. These instructions being given, the compositor will make his measure to the number of ems directed, which is done by laying them flatwise in the composing-stick, and then screwing it up sufficiently tight to prevent the slide from moving. He then fits a composing-rule to the measure, and, his case being supplied with letter, he commences his work.

The left hand, which contains the composing-stick, should always follow the right, which takes up the letters. If the left be kept stationary, considerable time is lost in bringing each letter to the stick, because the right hand has, consequently, to traverse a much greater space than is necessary. The eye should always precede the hand, constantly seeking for the next letter while the fingers are picking up one just selected. Each letter should be taken up by the upper end. This method will effectually prevent any false motion, and preclude the necessity of turning the letter when in the hand. If possible, a sentence of the copy should be taken at one time, and, while putting in the point and quadrate at the end of the sentence, the eye may revert to the copy for the next. It is to dexterity in these particulars that compositors are indebted for swiftness. The time thus gained is very considerable, while all appearance of bustle or fatigue is avoided. By taking a sentence into the memory at one time, the connection of the subject is preserved, and the punctuation rendered less difficult.

Those who are careful in distribution find the advantage of it in composition. Foul or slovenly workmanship is disgraceful. To avoid this, a compositor should accustom himself to glance over each line as he justifies it, and correct any error as he proceeds, which he may do with little impediment to his progress.

SPACING.

Uniformity in spacing is, unquestionably, a most important part of a compositor’s occupation; this requires both care and judgment, and, therefore, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the beginner. Close spacing is as unworkmanlike as wide spacing, and neither ought to be permitted except in very narrow measures; and, frequently, even then with care it might partly be prevented. What is commonly called the thick space is the proper separator between words; though this rule cannot always be adhered to in narrow measures when large type is used. It is not sufficient merely to have a line here and there uniformly spaced: a careful compositor will give every page that uniformity of appearance which is a chief excellency. The beginner should remember that it is better to do little, and do that little _well_, than to put together a great number of letters without any regard to accuracy and uniformity.

Where a line is evenly spaced, and yet requires justification, the additional space should be put between those words in the line where it will be least observable: viz. a d and an h, being tall, perpendicular letters, will admit an increase of space between them, but not more than a middle and thin space to a thick-spaced line; and an additional space may be placed after a kerned letter, the beak of which may bear upon the top of an ascending letter,—as the f followed by h, &c.

The same rule should be observed where it is necessary to reduce the spacing of a line, less space being required after a sloping letter than after a perpendicular one. The comma requires only a thick space, but the other points should have a hair space before and an en quadrate after them, except the full-point, which should have an em quadrate, as terminating a sentence. Should it be necessary to reduce the spacing generally, the spaces after the points must be altered in the same proportion. Spaces are cast to such regular gradations that the compositor can urge no reasonable excuse either for bad justification or improper spacing.

In matter to be stereotyped, a hair space should be placed after the letter f and other kerned letters when they stand at the end of the line.

JUSTIFYING.

Accurate justification is absolutely essential, as the letters will be warped sidewise in a loose line, making it impossible to get a fair impression from the type. Besides, the letters are liable to be drawn out by the suction of the rollers, to the detriment of the form and the press. The instructor of an apprentice should occasionally pass his finger along the side of matter set by him; and if the lines should not prove evenly justified, they should be put into the composing-stick again and properly corrected.

HEAD-LINES.

Head-lines are generally set in small capitals of the same fount, or in Italic, and sometimes in capitals. Italic capitals of letter somewhat smaller than the body of the work, with folios of a proportionate size, have a neat appearance.

NOTES.

The usual rule for note-type is two sizes less than the text of the work: thus, to Pica work, Long Primer; Small Pica, Bourgeois; Long Primer, Brevier. Side-notes are usually smaller in proportion. When side-notes or references drive down below the lines of the text to which they refer, the expedient of cut-in notes must be resorted to. This is a difficult part of a compositor’s business, and requires skill and patience to adjust all parts, so that every line of note and text may have proper and equal bearing. The reglet or lead between the lines of matter and the side-note must be cut with as much nicety as possible to the length of the text, as far as where the note is to run under; and, having accurately adjusted, by means of the quotations and justifiers, the situation of the first line of the note, such lead or reglet is added to the text as will make it precisely correspond in depth with the lines of note that stand on the side before turning: the remainder of the note is then set in a long measure, to correspond in width with the text, reglet, and side-note; and the page is made up with note, or the text begun again after the note is finished. In Bibles with notes and annotations, in law-books, and other works, it frequently happens that a page exhibits several of these alternate frameworks of note and text, which, if done well, display a workman’s skill to great advantage.

BLANKING.

If the work is very open, consisting of heads, whites, &c., the compositor must be particularly attentive to their depth; so that though the white may be composed of different-sized quadrates, yet their ultimate depth must be equal to the regular body of the type the work is done in; otherwise the register of the work will be incomplete. The pressman cannot make the lines back if the compositor is not careful in making up his matter.

PARAGRAPHS.

The first line of a new paragraph is indented an em quadrate, of whatever type the work may be; though, when the measure is very wide, two or even three ems are preferable. By this means the paragraph is more strongly marked, the indention of an em only being scarcely perceptible in a long line. Authors vary materially in the mode of making paragraphs. Some carry the argument of a position to a great length before they relieve the attention of the reader; while others break off at almost every place that will admit only of a full-point. But the author’s plan is to be followed, unless he direct otherwise. Authors should always make the beginning of a new paragraph conspicuous to the compositor, by indenting the first line of it far enough to distinguish it from the preceding line in case it should be quite full.

It is a practice too prevalent among compositors to drive out a word at the close of a paragraph, or even to divide it, in order to reap the advantage of a break-line. Part of a word, or a complete word, in a break-line, if it contain no more than three or four letters, is improper. It should be the business of the proof-reader to notice and check this irregularity.

The last line of a paragraph should not on any account begin a page, neither should the first line of a paragraph come at the bottom of a page if the work has white lines between the breaks: to prevent this, the compositor may make his page either long or short, as most convenient, always taking care that the odd and even pages back, so that the extra length or shortness of the page may escape observation.

INDEXES.

The index is generally placed at the end of the volume, and set in letter two sizes less than that of the work. It is always begun upon an uneven page. In setting an index, the subject-line should not be indented; but, if the article make more than one line, all but the first should be indented an em.

In preparing the copy of an index, care should be taken that the subject-words are arranged alphabetically, as the compositor will not transpose his matter afterward without remuneration.

Where several index-figures are used in succession, a comma is put after each folio; but, to save figures and commas, the succession of the former is noted by putting a dash between the first and last figures: thus, 4-8. Again, if an article has been collected from two pages, the folio of the second is supplied by _sq._, or _sequente_, and by _sqq._, or _sequientibus_, when an article is touched upon in succeeding pages. A full-point is not put after the last figures, because it is thought that their standing at the end of the line is a sufficient stop. Neither is a comma or a full-point placed to the last word of an article in a wide measure and open matter with leaders; but it is proper to use a comma at the end of every article where the figures are put close to the matter, instead of running them to the end of the line.

TITLES.

Ornamental type may be used to good purpose in fancy jobs, and without violating any of the canons of a correct taste. The universal eye is pleased with ornament; and it is well to foster this fancy, just as we cultivate a poetical feeling, or a passion for music, or flowers, or any beautiful thing that God has made. But, as life should not be all music, or flowers, or poetry, so printing should not be all ornament. And as men whom nature puts in the fore-front of all other men are noted for a becoming simplicity of life and style, so the title-page that heralds all the inner pages of a book should be printed in a style of elegance severe and unadorned: no fancy type, except a line of Scribe Text, or Old English,—no italics, unless perchance a single-line motto in Pearl caps,—no bold-face type, nor Antique, nor Gothic,—but plain, clear, light-faced letters that seem the embodiment of the soul of thought. All experienced printers incline to this simple style; but publishers sometimes interfere with this province of art legitimate only to a typographer, and insist on the indulgence of a taste which certainly owes no allegiance to any of the laws of beauty; and the printer or stereotyper who executes the book receives credit for a title-page which he would fain utterly repudiate.

We add a few hints which may assist the learner. 1st. Having divided the title into lines, and decided upon the size of type suitable for the principal one, begin by composing those of the second and third class, both in ascending and descending order. 2d. Avoid having two lines of equal length to follow or come in contact with each other. 3d. Catch-words should be set on quite a reduced scale, and proportioned according to the strength of the preceding and succeeding lines; for bold catch-words detract from the general effect of the title. 4th. Close attention should be given to those title-pages which are acknowledged to be displayed with true taste and judgment.

Authors should endeavour to make their title-pages as concise as possible; for a crowded title can never be displayed with elegance or taste.

DEDICATIONS.

The dedication generally follows the title, and seldom exceeds one page. It should be set in capitals and small capitals, neatly displayed. The name of the person to whom the work is dedicated should always be in capitals, and the terms, Your very humble and very obedient, &c., should be in a smaller type, and the signature or name of the author in capitals of a smaller size than that in which the name of the personage is printed to whom the book is dedicated.

CONTENTS.

The contents follow the preface or introduction, and may be set either in Roman or Italic, generally two sizes smaller than the body of the work; the first line of each summary full, and the rest indented an em quadrate, with the referring figures justified at the ends of the respective lines.

PREFACES.

Formerly, the preface was uniformly set in Italic; at present Roman is used, one size larger or smaller than the body of the work. The running title to the preface is commonly set in the same manner as that of the body of the work. If the work has been printed without a running title, and paged in the centre of the line only, then the preface should be treated in like manner.

SIGNATURING.

The title, preface, &c. of a volume are commonly left till the body of the work is finished, as circumstances may arise in the course of its progress through the press which will induce the author to alter his original preface, date, &c., or the work may conclude in such a manner as to admit of their being brought in at the end, in order to fill out a sheet, and thus save both paper and press-work. For this reason, it is well to begin the first sheet of every work with signature B (or 2), leaving A (or 1) for the title-sheet.

It was formerly the custom to omit the letters J, V, and W in the list of signatures. But the greater convenience attending the use of twenty-five letters has recently induced several of our largest establishments to omit the letter J only.

ERRATA.