Chapter II: The South Atlantic Group (3)

Dr. Paul Ehrenreich describes them as they are to-day, splendid riders and daring soldiers, but faithless and tricky;[518] so they have not much improved since Father Chomé in 1730 stigmatized them as _francs voleurs de grand chemin_.[519]

The _Guatos_ or Vuatos were accolents of the upper Paraguay and Araguay, and had fixed settlements near Albuquerque. Travelers report them as an unusually handsome people. They are well-built, light in hue, with Roman noses and regular features, and the men with a well-developed beard on lip and chin. This appearance does not belie their intelligence, which is above the average. Polygamy prevails to an uncommon extent. Von Martius thought that they were of a northeastern origin, connected perhaps with the Malalis of Bahia, who are a Tapuya people.[520] There may have been some admixture, as from a small vocabulary I quote the following resemblances:

GUATO. TAPUYA.
Water, _maguen_, _magnan_.
Head, _dōken_, _dicran_.
Hand, _ida_, _danicra_.
Foot, _apoo_, _po_, _ipaa_.
Tooth, _maqua_, _aiqua_.
Tongue, _chagi_, _dageuto_.

A recent writer does not give so favorable an opinion of this people. He found them living about the junction of the Rio San Lorenzo with the Rio Paraguay, and in a depraved condition. Girls who were not more than five or six years old were used by the men as wives. Sterility and premature decrepitude were the natural consequences.[521]

On the western border of the Chaco, in the provinces of Tucuman and Catamarca, resided the _Calchaquis_, a tribe interesting as the only one in the South Atlantic Group who constructed walls of cut stone. At least, such are found in their country, as for instance, one about thirty miles from Andalgala, where there is a well-constructed dry wall about ten feet high, enclosing a space nearly a mile in diameter, evidently once a walled city. Stone built tombs are also frequent, from which the rifler is rewarded with mummies, ornaments of impure gold, and small idols of copper. But I doubt if the Calchaquis developed any such ripe arts as these. History tells us that they voluntarily accepted the rule of the Incas about the middle of the fifteenth century, and that their land became part of the _Collasuyu_ or southern district of the empire. All these remains have a distinct impress of Kechua art, and we may be sure that their inspiration was throughout Peruvian.[522]

The earliest missionaries depict the Calchaquis with curious usages and with a certain barbaric splendor. A widow became the wife of her husband’s brother, as of old in Israel. So long as she was a virgin, a girl could dress in the gaudiest colors, but once _prostrato pudore_, as the monk delicately puts it, she must change to sober weeds. Their ornaments were of silver and copper, and the nobles wore a circlet of gold and brilliant feathers. Their seasons of mourning were accompanied with the most violent orgies. Over the dead they raised heaps of stones, and held that the souls became stars.[523]

We have no specimen of the language of the Calchaquis, although a grammar of it was written by the Jesuit, Alonso de Barcena, and perhaps published. It is called the Katamareño or Cacana tongue, terms derived from the Kechua. The proper names, however, which have been preserved in it indicate that it was different from the Kechua.[524] I have already referred (page 227) to Von Tschudi’s suggestion that it survives in the modern Atacameño.

From the few specimens of skulls which have been examined, the Calchaquis appear allied to the Aucanian stock,[525] and it may be that further research will prove them a branch of the Araucanians.

The following tribes are mentioned by old writers as members of the

CATAMAREÑA LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Acalianes_.
_Cacas_ or _Cacanas_.
_Calchaquis_.
_Catamarcas_.
_Diagitas_ or _Drachitas_.
_Quilmes_.
_Tamanos_.

The learned Barcena also prepared a grammar of the Natixana or Mogana language, spoken by the _Naticas_, whom we find mentioned by later authorities as neighbors of the Calchaquis in the government of Santa Fé.[526] They apparently belonged among the Chaco tribes. Barcena adds that nine different tongues were spoken in the district of Cordova, among which were the Sanavirona and Indama, which had not been learned by the missionaries.[527]

_2. The Pampeans and Araucanians._

South of the Gran Chaco, say from south latitude 35°, begins the true Pampas formation. This, according to the geologist Burmeister, is not a marine deposit, but the result of fluvial overflows and dust storms. It is diluvial and quaternary, and overlies the Patagonian formation, which is marine and early Pleistocene. The pampas are in parts wide grassy plains, like the prairies of the upper Mississippi valley; in parts they are salt deserts, in parts more or less wooded. With little variety, this scenery reaches from the Chaco to the Rio Negro, S. lat. 40°. Nearly the whole of this territory was occupied by one linguistic stock. It is the same which is found in Chili, where its most prominent members are the Araucanians.

Which was the course of migration, whether from the Pacific coast to the Pampean plains or the reverse, is not positively decided, but I am inclined to believe it was the latter. The ancestors of the Araucanians would not willingly have crossed the barren wastes of the desert of Atacama; there are evidences of a different people inhabiting Chili before they possessed it, and we have traces that they had not obtained full possession of that country at its discovery. This view does not deny subsequent migrations of the Araucanians into the Pampas under the pressure of the Spanish invasion.[528] In such moving they were simply returning to the traditional homes of their ancestors. As the name of the whole stock, I adopt the word Aucanian, from the Araucanian verb _aucani_, to be wild, indomitable, from which are derived the tribal names Aucanos and Aucas, occurring on both sides of the Andes.[529]

The Pampeans are principally nomadic hordes wandering from pasture to pasture with their horses, cattle and sheep. Their transitory encampments, called _tolderias_, are pitched by the side of some pond or stream. There their low tents made of dried horse skins are grouped confusedly, one to each family. Their food is chiefly horse flesh and mutton, often eaten raw. They raise no vegetables, and dislike agriculture. They carry on, however, many small industries, tan and dye leather, which they work up into boots and horse furniture, and forge with skill iron heads for their long lances, and knives for the chase, while the women trim the ostrich skins into rugs, and weave wool into blankets and ponchos, highly prized for their serviceable qualities.[530] These products are bought up by the merchants in the cities, and thus the tribe is supplied with what it most prizes from European markets.

These roving hordes have no particular names. They are referred to as the northern, eastern or western peoples by the Aucanian terms having these significations, Puelches, Moluches, Huiliches. Besides these, there are the Ranqueles on the Rio Quinto, directly west of Buenos Ayres, who are said to have immigrated from Chili,[531] and the Querandies, now probably extinct, who once dwelt near that city.

Those living on the eastern slopes of the Andes, about the city of Mendoza, and in the ancient province of Cuyo, are described as taller and stronger than the Araucanians of Chili, and as claiming descent from the Pampean tribes.[532] They were locally known as Guarpes, and spoke dialects called the Allentiac and the Milcocayac, not distant from the Pampean proper, concerning which some grammatical description has been preserved.[533]

Few of the Pampean tribes have been induced to accept civilization or Christianity. They still believe in their good spirit, _Chachoa_, and in one of evil or misfortune, _Gualicho_; they continue to obey their priests or medicine men; and the resting places of the dead are regarded with superstitious awe. Marriage among them, while it has the appearance of violence, is really carried out with the consent of the girl and her parents, for a sum agreed upon.

The Molu-Che or Manzaneros are said to be the best of the Pampeans. They are sedentary and have extensive orchards of apples and flocks of sheep to the north of the Rio Limay. They have well-cut features, fresh light complexion, black fine hair, and their women are considered really handsome.[534]

The Araucanians of Chili, known as singularly bold warriors who defied successfully the Incas, and gave the Spaniards the greatest trouble, occupy the Pacific coast from south latitude 25° to about 43°, and number about 20,000. In physical appearance they resemble the Pampeans, and present marked differences from both the Kechuas of Peru and the Tapuyas of Brazil, having high, brachycephalic skulls,[535] and a clear copper color of skin. They are of moderate stature, but muscular, with black hair, round faces, small eyes, and small feet and hands. They are divided locally into northern and southern tribes, but there is little difference in dialects. Their tongue, the _Chilidungu_, has been extravagantly lauded by some who have studied it, and one worthy missionary was so enamored with it that he published a grammar and dictionary of it in Europe, that it might be introduced as the learned language there, to supersede the Latin:[536] it certainly is harmonious and flexible.

The Araucanians did not at any time rise in culture above the level of the Iroquois and Algonquins in the northern continent. It is true that in the tombs in their country we discover fine specimens of pottery, some good work in bronze, gold, copper and silver, and beautiful specimens of polished stone implements.[537] But if one examines closely the art-forms of these relics, he can not fail to recognize in them the potent inspiration of the Inca civilization; and we may be sure that if they were not directly booty from that nation, they were the products of its trained workmen, and are not to be put to the credit of Aucanian industry.

AUCANIAN LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Araucanos_, in northern and central Chili.
_Aucanos_ or _Aucas_, in the central Pampas.
_Chauques_, in the Archipelago of Chiloe.
_Chonos_,(?) on Pacific, south of Chiloe.
_Cuncos_, in Chili, south of Rio Valdivia.
_Divie-ches_, on Rio Colorado.
_Guarpes_, near Mendoza.
_Huiliches_(southern people), tribes to the south.
_Moluches_ (western people or warriors), on Pacific coast.
_Pehuenches_ (pine-forest people), east of Cordillera, north of
Rio Colorado.
_Picunches_ (northern people), north of Pehuenches.
_Puelches_ (eastern people), on both banks of Rio Negro.
_Querandies_, near site of Buenos Ayres.
_Ranqueles_, between Rio Quarto and Rio Quinto.

The Pacific coast of Patagonia, gashed by ancient glaciers into deep fiords and rocky islands, harbors various tribes whose affinities are uncertain. The most curious of them would seem to be the _Chonos_ or Chunos, or Cuncones. They lived south of the archipelago of Chiloe, and are described as having red hair, a light olive complexion, and of mild and friendly manners. They raised a breed of dogs (perhaps guanacos), and wove their clothing from its coarse long hair.

This account comes to us from as far back as 1619, when the first missionaries visited them,[538] and these traits cannot therefore be attributed to intermixture with Europeans. They are not peculiar in these respects. Similar traits are reported of the Boroas, a tribe in one of the valleys of central Chili;[539] and I have already referred to the red hair of the boys among the Matacos of the Gran Chaco. Perhaps it was not unusual among these nations, as I can in no other way explain the strange idea of the poet Ercilla the Homer of the Araucanian Conquest, that these people were descendants of the Frisians of North Holland![540]

The language of the Chonos is said to be quite different from that of the Araucanians. Pöppig believed it to be a distant dialect of the same stock. Some recent travelers assert that they are now extinct, but Dr. C. Martin informs us that the original inhabitants of the Chonos Islands, who were the “Huaihuenes” Indians, were transported in 1765 to the island of Chaulañec, where their posterity still survive.[541]

_3. The Patagonians and Fuegians._

The Patagonians call themselves Chonek or Tzoneca, or Inaken (men, people), and by their Pampean neighbors are referred to as Tehuel-Che, southerners. They do not, however, belong to the Aucanian stock, nor do they resemble the Pampeans physically. They are celebrated for their stature, many of them reaching from six to six feet four inches in height, and built in proportion.[542] In color they are a reddish brown, and have aquiline noses and good foreheads. They care little for a sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as the Rio Negro. They are not without some religious rites, and are accustomed to salute the new moon, and at the beginning of any solemn undertaking to puff the smoke of their pipes to the four cardinal points, just as did the Algonquins and Iroquois.[543]

Their language differs wholly from the Araucanian, though it has borrowed many words from it. An interesting fact illustrating its stability in spite of their roving life has been brought out by Ramon Lista. He has compared its present form with the vocabulary of it given by Pigafetta in his voyage in 1520, and shows that in the intervening generations it has undergone scarcely any change.[544]

Von Martius believed that a connection between the Patagonian and the Tapuya stocks could be shown, and gives a tabular comparison of the two.[545] I have extended this by means of Ramon Lista’s vocabulary of the former and Dr. Ehrenreich’s corrected forms of the Tapuya, and conclude that the resemblances are illusory, depending on incorrect orthography of the sounds.

About the beginning of the last century the tribes known as Poyas (_Pey-yuy_) and Reyes (_Rey-yuy_) were collected at a Mission established on Lake Nahuelhuapi, about south latitude 42°. Hervas reports them as speaking a language radically different from the Araucanian, and probably they should be classed with the Tzonecas.[546]

On the inhospitable shores of Tierra del Fuego there dwell three nations of diverse stock, but on about the same plane of culture. One of these is the _Yahgans_ or Yapoos, on the Beagle canal; the second is the _Onas_ or Aonik, to the north and east of these; and the third the _Alikulufs_, to the north and west.

Of these the Yahgans are the best known, through the efforts of the English missionaries who have reduced their language to writing. It is a polysyllabic, agglutinative tongue, with both pre- and suffixes, and is extremely rich in expressions for the ordinary needs of their life. The verb has four numbers, a singular, dual, trial and plural. It does not seem in any way related to the Aucanian stock.[547]

The tongue of the Onas, who are known as the _Yakanna-Cunni_, is apparently connected with the Tsoneca or Patagonian, which people they also resemble in stature and physical traits.[548]

The Fuegians are generally quoted as a people on the lowest round of the ladder of culture; and so they are painted by many observers. They have no government, they can count only to three, ordinary family affection is not observable, and even mothers manifest a lack of love for their offspring. Their shelters are wretched, and they go almost naked in a climate which is both cold and damp.

On the other hand, they display singular ingenuity in their utensils for hunting and fishing; they use the sling, the club, the bow, the bola and the lance; the women weave reed baskets so firmly that they will hold water, and their bark canoes are light and seaworthy.

In hunting they have the service of a native dog which they have trained, and whose welfare they look after with sedulous attention. Though devoid of idols and external rites of worship, they manifest in many ways a sense of religion. Thus the relations of the sexes are surrounded with ceremonies of fasting and bathing, to neglect which would entail misfortunes, and the name of the dead is not pronounced out of superstitious awe. The songs and legends of the Yahgans show some imaginative power. Many of them relate to the marvelous achievements of the national hero, _Umoara_, who appears to be a wholly mythical individual. Their strongest passion would seem to be for personal adornment, and for this purpose shells, vegetable beads, bright pebbles and variegated feathers, are called into requisition.[549]

These traits are not those of an enfeebled intellect, and an examination of their physical powers supports a favorable opinion of their capacities. Some of them are unusually tall and strong, especially those on the east coast. Their skulls are mesocephalic and prognathic, and their brains, which have been examined most carefully by a German anatomist, show not a single point of inferiority to the average European brain.[550]

From examinations which have been carried on in the numerous shell-heaps which line the shores, there is no evidence that any other people ever occupied the islands. Skulls and relics are such as those of the present inhabitants.[551] The total number of these is about 8000, nearly equally divided between the tribes named.

The classification of the smaller tribes under the above stocks is not yet complete. So far as I can make it out, it is as follows:

ALIKULUF LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Alikulufs_, on the western end of the Beagle Channel.
_Karaikas_, south of the Alikulufs.

ONA LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Aoniks_ or _Onas_, on Magellan Strait, both shores.
_Huemuls_, near Skyring and Otway Bays.
_Irees_, see _Pescherees_.
_Oensmen_, see _Aoniks_.
_Pescherees_, on central portions of the Strait.
_Yacanas_, see _Aoniks_.

YAHGAN LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Kennekas_, see _Takanikas_.
_Takanikas_, on both shores of the Beagle Channel.
_Yahgans_, see _Yapoos_.
_Yapoos_, on the central Beagle Channel.

The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker of Paris,[552] that the Fuegians represent the oldest type or variety of the American race. He believes that at one time this type occupied the whole of South America south of the Amazon, and that the Tapuyas of Brazil and the Fuegians are its surviving members. This interesting theory demands still further evidence before it can be accepted. It is not confirmed by such linguistic comparisons as I have been able to institute.

LINGUISTIC APPENDIX

The linguistic classification of the American tribes is at present imperfect in many regions on account of the incomplete information about their tongues. A proper comparison of languages or dialects includes not merely the vocabulary, but the grammatical forms and the phonetic variations which the vocal elements undergo in passing from one form of speech to another. In some respects, the morphology is more indicative of relationship than the lexicon of tongues; and it is in these grammatical aspects that we are peculiarly poorly off when we approach American dialects. Yet it is also likely that the tendency of late years has been to underestimate the significance of merely lexical analogies. The vocabulary, after all, must be our main stand-by in such an undertaking.

For that reason I have thought it worth while to bring together a short list of common words and show their renderings in a number of American tongues. Inasmuch as the languages north of Mexico--those in the United States and Canada--have been frequently studied and are readily accessible in published books, I have confined my specimens to the tongues of the central and southern regions of the continent.

The words I have selected for the vocabulary are those which I think would be most likely to indicate relationship, when such existed. But as every comparative linguist is aware, neither these nor any words are free from the risk of ambiguity and equivocation. Thus, in many languages there are two or three different terms for “man,” as _homo_, _vir_ or _male_; “woman” is _wife_ or _female_; “sun” and “moon” are often merely descriptive terms or synonyms of day, light, night and darkness; the parts of the body have in American tongues the personal possessive noun prefixed or suffixed; what is worse, the terms for such may differ with the person, as in Kechua, where the word for “eye,” “arm,” etc., differ as it is _my_ or _thy_ eye, etc. “Hand” and “arm,” “foot” and “leg,” are frequently not discriminated, the corresponding words meaning properly “upper extremity,” “lower extremity,” etc.; and so on for almost every word that could be chosen.

The proper inference to draw from these facts is, not that a comparison of vocabularies is worthless or nearly so, but just the contrary. Where we find that a short vocabulary, imperfect for the above reasons, and still more so for the general ignorance of linguistics on the part of collectors, and the varying values they give to the alphabets employed, yet reveals identities with others, we are justly authorized to consider such analogies as highly significant and suggestive of profounder comparisons.

YUMA DIALECTS NEAR THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA.

_Cochimi._ _Guaicuru._ _Seri._ _Yuma._
Man, uami, tama, éte, _pl._ ti, eketam, hamuk.
Woman, wakoe, wuetu, anai, ekemam, hanya.
Sun, ibo, ibunga, untairi, shaa, rahj, inyaa.
Moon, gamma, isah, kilshia.
Fire, usi, amak, aua.
Water, kahal, ahj, aχ, aha.
Head, agoppi, ihlit, ilta,
Eye, ayibika, ito, ido.
Ear, istla, ismahlka.
Mouth, ahà, iten, ya-à.
Nose, namu, ife, ihu.
Tongue, ipχl, ehpelh.
Teeth, itast, ehdoh.
Hand, neganna, titshuketa, intlash, israhl.
Foot, agannapa, itova, ime.
House, ajihuenen, ambuja, aki, ava.
1, teguep, tashχo, sitik.
2, goguò, kamoe, ko-okχ, o’ak.
3, kombio, meakunju, ka-pka, hamok.
4, magacubugua, kshuχkua, hoba.
5, naganna teguep, ko-oχtom, harabk.

The above vocabularies illustrate the extension of the Yuma stock to the southward. The Cochimi and Guaicuru are remote dialects, but of positive affinities. The Yuma words which I have added for comparison are principally from the Mohave dialect, and are taken from the vocabularies published by the “U. S. Geographical Surveys west of the 100th Meridian.”

The Seri words are chiefly from the satisfactory vocabulary obtained by the late John Russell Bartlett. The relationship of the dialect to the Yuma stock is evident.

DIALECTS OF THE UTO-AZTECAN STOCK.

_Tarahumara._ _Pima._ _Nahuatl._ _Ute._
Man, tehoje, tinot, tlacatl, tawatz.
Woman, muki, upi, uba, cihuatl, oubea.
Sun, taica, tash, tonatiuh, tabi.
Moon, maitsaca, { maskat, } metztli, mytogé.
{ massar, }
Fire, naïki, tletl, tē vua, M.
Water, { shontik, } atl, pah.
{ sueti, }
Head, moola, nemoah, totzontecon, totsein.
Eye, pusiki, ixtololotli, puevi.
Ear, nechcala, naank, nacaztli, nangk.
Mouth, camatl, temb.
Nose, jachcala, yacatl, yaga, M.
Tongue, tenila, nenepilli, lengi, M.
Tooth, ptahan, tlantli, tahwan.
Hand, noh, maitl, mōu, makhde.
Foot, tala, icxitl, igug.
House, { nip-ki, } calli, kahan.
{ ki, }
1, yumako, ce, shui.
2, oca, guoca, kuak, ome, wyune.
3, vaīk, yey, pay.
4, ki-ak, nahui, vachue.
5, huitas, macuilli, manuy.

The eight dialects which I give from the extensive Uto-Aztecan stock will illustrate the relationship of its members. The words marked M. in the Ute or Shoshonian vocabulary belong to the Moqui dialect, which appears to approach nearer the Aztecan branch than the speech of the northern tribes. The Tepehuana words are from the vocabulary obtained by M. Tarayre, and published in his _Explorations_ (see _anté_, p. 136). I have placed the geographical extremes, the Nahuatl and the Ute, side by side, to illustrate the really striking similarity of these dialects, the one current on the Columbia river, the other extending to Chiriqui lagoon, near the Isthmus of Panama. Buschmann, in his works already referred to (_anté_, p. 119), cites numerous other examples.

DIALECTS OF THE UTO-AZTECAN STOCK.--(_Continued._)

_Heve._ _Tepehuana._ _Opata._ _Cora._
Man, dor, chiuaitcam, uri, teuit, teáta.
Woman, { hub, } osi, _pl._ nau, uita.
{ hoquis, }
Sun, tuui, tanaol, tät, xeucat.
Moon, metzat, maasol, metza, añahupi.
Fire, te, tay, thai, teujcuarit.
Water, bat, suudai, vat, ahti.
Head, zonit, maao, muuti.
Eye, vusit, bopoe, mäua, hiuziti.
Ear, nacat, naxaihti.
Mouth, tenit, intrigni.
Nose, dacat, yak.
Tongue, nenet, nuin, nanuriti.
Tooth, tanus, tatama.
Hand, mamat, ingnaono.
Foot, tarat, incaiao, moamati.
House, quit, vāāk, kit, chapoariti.
1, sei, homad, se.
2, godum, gaok, hualpoa.
3, veidum, baech, vaide.
4, nausi, maukao, nago.
5, marqui, chetam, marizi.

Still more substantial proof of the unity of this stock is furnished by the comparative grammar of its different members. These present various phases of morphological development, but always on the same lines. The Nahuatl is much the higher of them all, and in some of its forms attains to a truly inflectional character, as has been shown by Professor Steinthal.

CENTRAL STOCKS.

_Totonaco._ _Tarasco._ _Otomi._
_Upper._ _Lower._
Man, tziuereti, n’yōh.
Woman, chajat, tac, taco, cucha, cuxareti, datsu, sitzu.
Sun, co, chichini, huriata, ’hiadi.
Moon, papa, malcoyo, cutzi, rzana.
Fire, turiri, tzibi.
Water, chochot, xcan, itsi, dehe.
Head, ayxaca, ehpu, ña.
Eye, lacaztaponitni, lacacholna, eskua, da.
Ear, tangan, cacaxcolna, kutsikua, gu.
Mouth, quilni, quelpaja, haramekua, ne.
Nose, quincan, quin, tz-ure, siu.
Tongue, katamba, qhane.
Tooth, tatzanitni, taizalatna, sini, ttzi.
Hand, macanitni, macatatna, haqui, ’ye.
Foot, tohuan, tojolat, gua.
House, quahta, ngu.
1, tom, omollana, ma, ’ne, r’e.
2, toy, toy, tziman, yoho.
3, toto, toton, tanimo, hiu.
4, tat, tamu, gooho.
5, quitziz, yumu, cqtta.

The Totonaco is spoken in two diverse dialects by the inhabitants of the plains and the uplands. The difference is not so great as appears in the written tongue, as they are mutually intelligible.

A number of works on the Tarascan language have recently been edited or written by Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Morelia, Michoacan, so that there is abundant material for the study of the tongue.

The Otomi presents so many sounds unfamiliar to the European ear that the attempt to represent it by our alphabets can be only remotely accurate. I have a very extensive MS. dictionary of the tongue, based on the _Vocabulario Mexicano_ of Molina.

CENTRAL STOCKS.

_Zoque._ _Mixe._ _Zapotec._ _Mixtec._
Man, puen, yai-tohk, beni niguio, yee.
Woman, yoma, toix, beni gonaa, ñahadzehe.
Sun, hama, xeuh, { chii,
{ gobiche.
Moon, poya, xapa, xona xibeo.
Fire, hucata, xöön, guii.
Water, na, noo, niza.
Head, copac, cobaac, icqui, dzini.
Eye, vitem, huin, bizaloo, tenu.
Ear, tatzec, tatzc, tiaga, tutnu, dzoho.
Mouth, angnaca, au, rua, rohua, yuhu.
Nose, quina, höp, xii, dzitui.
Tongue, totz, yen, luuchi, yaa.
Tooth, tetz, tötz, chitalaaga, noho.
Hand, tzamguica, cöö, naa, daha.
Foot, manguica, teic, nii.
House, töc, tenk, yuu, lichi, huahi.
1, tuma, tuuc, tubi, ek.
2, metza, metzc, tiopa, uvui.
3, tucay, tucoc, chona, uni.
4, macscuy, mactaxc, tapa, kmi.
5, mosay, mocoxc, guayo, hoho.

In the above vocabularies the relation of the Zoque to the Mixe is more clearly shown than that of the Zapotec to the Mixtec. A more extended comparison of the two latter has been instituted by Pimentel in his work on the languages of Mexico, which appears to strengthen the belief that they belong to the same stock. Prof. Friedrich Müller, however, continues to regard them as separate stocks (_Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. II., Ab. I., s. 298, sq.). The question is discussed with fullness in the introduction, by Dr. Nicholas Leon, to the _Arte del Idioma Zapoteco_, of Juan de Cordova (ed. Morelia, 1886), to which the student is referred. I think the evidence is sufficient to regard them as allied idioms. The Zapotec of the mountains, _Zapoteco serrano_, differs considerably from that which is given above.

CENTRAL STOCKS.

_Chinantec._ _Huave._ _Maya._ _Chapanec._
Man, { cha, } náshui, uinic, dipaju, naha.
{ ñuh, }
Woman, mui, { naptah, } ixal, nafui.
{ nostah, }
Sun, mañui, noet, kin, napiju, nyumbu.
Moon, zei, cahau, u, yuju.
Fire, nigei, kaak, niiyu.
Water, mui, ha, nimbu.
Head, gui, pol, hol, tkima.
Eye, manihi, uich, naté.
Ear, xicin, nyujmi.
Mouth, cuhaha, chi, duŭi, nunsu.
Nose, ni, nyungu.
Tongue, uak, baelu, griji.
Tooth, co, niji.
Hand, nquaha, cab, dila, diro.
Foot, nni, uoc, oc, laku, gura.
House, nu, piem, otoch, nangu.
1, cna, anop, hun, tike, ticao.
2, tno, epoem, ca, jomi, hăo.
3, nne, erof-poef, ox, jami, haui.
4, quiu, apûkif, can, haha.
5, ña, akukif, ho, hāomo.

The Chinantec is included in the Zapotec stock by Pimentel, who follows the dictum of Hervas, confessedly without examination (_Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico_, Tom. III., cap. 37). This was not the opinion of Dr. Berendt, who has compared both tongues, and a comparison of the short vocabularies which I give shows only one word, that for “foot,” which is identical in both.

The Huaves, who claim a migration from the south, do not reveal a connection in their language with any of the southern stocks.

The Maya of the Vocabulary is the pure tongue as spoken in Yucatan. Its various dialects have been carefully studied by Berendt, Stoll and others. The most corrupt is probably the Chaneabal of Chiapas, of which I gave a short analysis in the _American Anthropologist_, Jan., 1888.

INTER-ISTHMIAN STOCKS.

_Musquito._ _Lenca._ _Xicaque._ _Ulva._
Man, waikna, amashe, jomé, all.
Woman, mairen, mapu, pitmé, yall.
Sun, lapta, gasi, behapoi, moa.
Moon, kati, numui, uaigo.
Fire, pauta, uga, inqueamoos, ku.
Water, li, güas, sur, uas.
Head, lel, toro, laipuco, tunik.
Eye, nakro, saring, non, miniktaka.
Ear, kiama, yang, fora, tabaki.
Mouth, bila, ingori, muipane, dinibas.
Nose, kakma, napse, meguin, nangitak.
Tongue, twisa, navel, rin, tuki.
Tooth, napa, nagha, quir, anaki.
Hand, mita, gulala, mor, tumi.
Foot, mena, güagl, san, kalkibas.
House, watla, tahu, chef, u.
1, kumi, ita, pani, { aslar,
{ aloslag.
2, wal, na, matis, muye bu.
3, niupa, lagua, contis, muye bas.
4, wälwäl, aria, urupan, muya runca.
5, matasip, saihe, casanpani, muye sinca.

The above four vocabularies are taken from MS. material in my possession collected by E. G. Squier and Dr. C. H. Berendt. They do not appear to indicate the slightest relationship either between themselves, or with any other known stocks. The careful researches of Lucien Adam on the Musquito grammar do not bring it into connection either with the Carib or the Chibcha families, with which it has sometimes been supposed to be affined.

The Lenca dialects, of four of which I have vocabularies, do not differ materially, but the exact distribution of the stock at the period of the conquest is uncertain.

INTER-ISTHMIAN STOCKS.--(_Continued_.)

_Guatuso._ _Subtiaba._ _Matagalpan._ _Xinca._
Man, ochapa, rabu, misa, jumu, jurac.
Woman, curijuri, rabaku, yūeiya, ayala.
Sun, toji, daska, lal, pari.
Moon, ziji, dŭkkú, aiko, ahua.
Fire, cuepala, agu, lauale, ŭra.
Water, ti, iĭa, li, ui.
Head, machia, edi, ekxu, ma’ike, gesalia.
Eye, mafi zicu, siktu, kuñke, yurati.
Ear, nato coto, nyahu, topalke, mami.
Mouth, macoquica, daghu, taŭake, xajac.
Nose, natain, dakko, namke, jutu narin.
Tongue, macu, duhun, tomamke, eilan.
Tooth, oca, sinnyu, ninike, jari xajan.
Hand, macu quichia, nyau, panake, pum, pu.
Foot, naho quichia, nasku, napake, guapan.
House, uh, guá, u, macu.
1, anacachumaru, imba, bas, ica.
2, ponca, pangi, apu, buyo, ti, piar.
3, assu, gūatba, uala.
4, paque, posai, asku, bota´jio, iria.
5, uissu, pijar.

The Guatuso is taken from the vocabularies collected by Bishop Thiel, and several times republished. The remaining three are from MS. materials collected by Dr. C. H. Berendt. The Xinca I have previously published, with a general discussion of the tribe, in the _Proc. of the Amer. Philosoph. Soc._, 1885.

The Matagalpan or “Chontal of Nicaragua” (see _anté_, p. 149), is from the vocabulary collected by the Rev. Victor Noguera. It appears to stand quite alone. A few remote resemblances to the Talamanca dialects of Costa Rica seem to exist, which, if real, would connect the Matagalpan with South American stocks.

COLUMBIAN STOCKS.

_Cuna._ _Changuina._ _Andaqui._ _Tucura._
Man, mastule, taro, himbera.
Woman, puna, bia.
Sun, ipe, querele, caqui, ahumautu.
Moon, ni, sirala, mitae, jedeco.
Fire, chau, quebu, jifi (= candle).
Water, ti, si, ti, yi, jiji, pania.
Head, chag’la, { duku, } quinaji, poru.
{ quinunuma, }
Eye, ibia, oko, sifi, tabu.
Ear, ugua, kuga, sunguajo, quiburi.
Mouth, kagya, caga, ité.
Nose, ŭchue, neko, quifi, kaimbu.
Tongue, guapina, cuba, sonae.
Tooth, nugada, zuu, sicoga.
Hand, changa, kulosol, sacaá, juwajimi.
Foot, nacamali, ser, soguapana, jenu.
House, neca, hu, cojoo, té.
1, quenchigue, que, aba.
2, pogua, como, unmé.
3, pagua, calabach, unpia.
4, paquegua, calacapa, kimare.
5, atale, calamale, cuesume.

The Cuna and the Changuina or Dorasque are from M. Alph. Pinart’s various publications on these dialects; the Andaqui from the collections of the Presbyter Albis; and the Tucura, a Choco dialect, from the report of Dr. A. Ernst (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1887, 302). The last mentioned was obtained on the upper Sinu river, near the junction of the Rio Verde. It is not of the San Blas (Cuna) family, but clearly Choco.

I have already referred (p. 200) to some slight similarity of the Andaqui to the Chibcha; but until we have more extensive material of the former, the question must be left open.

DIALECTS OF THE CHOCO STOCK.

_Noanama._ _Tado´._ _Chami._ _Sambo or Choco._
Man, emokoyda, umujina, muguira, { umachina,
{ muguira.
Woman, uida, uena, huera, auera.
Sun, edau, pesia, umata, pisia, imuanba.
Moon, edau, jedego, tedeco, jedecó.
Fire, igdn, tibúa, tibuzhia, tŭjoor.
Water, du, panea, pania, { pania.
{ do = river.
Head, púdu, paru´, boro, poro.
Eye, daū, taū, tao, tau.
Ear, cachi, kŭru´, guru, juru.
Mouth, i, itai´, gu, ji, itai.
Nose, keun, kung, y, cung, jun.
Tongue, meujina, kinóme, guiranee, quirame.
Tooth, hierra, kida´, guida, tida.
Hand, hua, hua´, tua, jua.
Foot, bopidi, jinuga´, tiui, jinu.
House, di, tee´, te, dhe.
1, aba, aba, aba, aba.
2, nu, ume, ube, ome.
3, tanjupa, kimaris, umpea, ompea.
4, jay upa, guasuma, guimare, quimari.
5, juambo, kisona, guasome, guasoma.

The Choco family had probably at one time a much wider extension than we are familiar with in historic times. I have suggested (_anté_, pp. 274, 275), that even the sparse material for comparison as yet available seems to indicate an affinity with the Betoya stock. As our knowledge of the Orinoco and the Columbian region extends, probably other tribes will be discovered speaking related dialects. The four vocabularies which I give above serve to illustrate the comparatively slight differences of the phonetics. Another dialect, the Tucará (see _anté_, p. 176, note), is given on the preceding page.

DIALECTS OF THE CHIBCHA STOCK.

_Chibcha._ _Aroac._ _Chimila._ _Guaymi._
Man, muysca, sökue, söökué, nitocua.
Woman, ti-güi, yun-kue, yuunkué, meri.
Sun, sua, yuia, neiin-á, ninguane.
Moon, chie, tii, tii, só.
Fire, gata, gué, uuñé, nocua.
Water, sie, yira, niitake, si, ña.
Head, zysqui, zankalla, oökrá, thokua.
Eye, upcua, uba, uaákua, ocua.
Ear, cuhuca, kuhcua, kuúsaka, olo.
Mouth, quihica, köhka, köökua, cā da.
Nose, saca, niksaiñ, naañakra, secua.
Tongue, pcua, kuca, kuá, tudra.
Tooth, sica, köhka (?), né, tu.
Hand, yta, atta-kra, aattakra, cuse.
Foot, quihicha, ksa, pukré, pookré, ngoto.
House, güe, húi, aátaka, jú.
1, ata, kuté, kuté, kr-ati.
2, boza, moga, muuhná, kro-bu.
3, mica, maigua, teieme´, kro-mai.
4, muihica, murieié, murieié, kro-boko.
5, hisca, achigua, kutendeu-rehattagra, kro-rigua.

The relations of the Chibcha dialects are so important in their bearings on the question of the migrations from South into North America, that in addition to the specific comparisons on page 186, I here add vocabularies of six dialects; three, the Chibcha, Aroac and Chimila, from south of the Isthmus, and three, the Guaymi, Talamanca and Boruca, from north of it.

The Chibcha proper is a language of extremely difficult phonetics for a European, and doubtless the Spanish orthography, in which it is rendered, is far from accurate.

The fundamental identity of the dialects of the stock becomes much more apparent after a study of their laws of phonetic variation, as set forth by Dr. Max Uhle (_anté_, p. 185).

CHIBCHA STOCK. COLUMBIAN STOCKS.
_Talamanca._ _Boruca._ _Paniquita._ _Timote._
Man, vipá, con-rokh, piz, petam, { mayoi,
{ kak, nachu.
Woman, arácra, kam-rokh, neyo, cuenas, { kursum,
{ naktun.
Sun, divu, kak, itaqui, mpú.
Moon, turu, tebe, ate.
Fire, yuk, dukra, ipi, chirip, fú.
Water, di, di, yo, chimpué.
Head, tsuko, sagra, dicté, kicham.
Eye, vubra, caix, yafi.
Ear, cucüh, cuaga, tógnue, timabum.
Mouth, sacu, casa, yugue, { macabó,
{ karichnuck.
Nose, chi´scah, xiska, inz.
Tongue, ku, tone, chiqui vú.
Tooth, aka, quith.
Hand, ura, dijurre, cose.
Foot, iucra, di-krescua, chinda, kuju.
House, huh, yath, nakot.
1, et, yas, vitech, kari.
2, bug, enz, gem.
3, mang, tec, sut, hisjut.
4, keng, panz, pit.
5, skera, taz, { caboc,
{ mubes.

The Talamanca and Boruca are Chibcha dialects (see preceding page). The Paniquita (see _anté_, pp. 190-192) has no positive affinities with its neighbors. The grammatical character of its Paez dialect has been analyzed by Fr. Müller (_Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. II., Ab. I., p. 356). He points out some similarity in the numerals to the Kechua and Goajiro. But this is not significant.

The various vocabularies of the Timote stock differ considerably, and none of them is at all complete.

DIALECTS OF THE DIALECTS OF THE
BARBACOA STOCK. COCANUCO STOCK.
_Colorado._ _Cayapa._ _Moguex._ _Totoro._
Man, zachi, unilla, liu-pula, muck, mujel.
Woman, sona, sonala, su-pula, schut, ishu.
Sun, ió, pacta, puizarum.
Moon, pe, macara, puil.
Fire, ni, ninguma, ipt.
Water, pi, pi, pii.
Head, muchú, mishpuca, pusro, pushu.
Eye, cacó, capucua, cap, captchul.
Ear, pungui, calo.
Mouth, fiquiforo, tipaqui, chidbchad, trictrap.
Nose, quinfu, kijo, kind, kim.
Tongue, nigca, nile.
Teeth, tesco, tchugul.
Hand, tede, fia-papa, coze, cambil.
Foot, nede, ne-papa, kadzigd.
Home, ia, ya, yaatk, ia.
1, manga, kanendova.
2, paluga, pubuin.
3, paimun, puinbun.
4, humbaluló, pipuin.
5, manta, tchajpun.

A comparison of the above vocabularies will probably strengthen the supposition I have advanced (_anté_, p. 199), that these two stocks were originally branches of one and the same. The material on all the dialects is scanty, and for a proper grammatical collation is quite wanting. As they are yet living idioms, it is to be hoped that some energetic traveler will supply the facts to solve the question. The sources of the vocabularies are indicated in the text.

PERUVIAN STOCKS.

_Kechua._ _Aymara._ _Yunca._ _Atacameño._
Man, runa, hague, chacha, ñofœn, sima.
Woman, huarmi, marmi, mecherrœc, licau.
Sun, inti, inti, villca, xllang, capim.
Moon, quilla, phakhsi, çamur.
Fire, nina, nina, humur.
Water, una, yacu, uma, la, leng, puri.
Head, uma, ppekeña, lecq, hlacsi.
Eye, ñaui, nayra, locq, kjepi.
Ear, rincri, hinchu, medeng, aike.
Mouth, simi, lacca, ssap, khaipe.
Nose, sencca, nasa, fon, misi, sipe.
Tongue, ccallu, lakhra, ed, lasi.
Tooth, quiru, lacca, cchacca, œcquang, quenne.
Hand, maqui, ampara, mœcqua, suyi.
Foot, chaqui, cayu, loc, khoche.
House, huasi, uta, enec, lec, an, turi.
1, huc, mayni, maya, onöc, na, sema.
2, iscay, pani, paya, atput, pac, poya.
3, quimsa, quimsa, çopæt, çoc, palama.
4, tahua, pusi, nopœt, noc, chalpa.
5, pichka, pisca, exllmätzh, mutsma.

The wide differences between the four main Peruvian stocks are seen in the above vocabularies. The Kechua and Aymara alone have anything in common. The Yunca is presented in the Mochica dialect, which is that adopted by Carrera in his Grammar. The vocabulary of the Etenes, as furnished by Bastian, differs from it only in the word for “eye,” _tassack_, and “head,” _chätz_, which is remarkable, considering the extreme difficulty of the Yunca phonetics. The grammars of these three tongues are carefully analyzed by Fr. Müller.

The Atacameño words are from the authorities quoted on p. 227. Of its grammar we have only the imperfect account furnished by San Roman, which seems to remove it from the character of the Kechua and Aymara.

SOUTH ATLANTIC LINGUISTIC STOCKS.

_Arawak._ _Tapuya._ _Tupi._ _Kiriri._
Man, wadili, { samnaha, } apyaba, klöh.
{ waha, }
Woman, hiaeru, zokna, cunhá, kütsi.
Sun, haddali, taru te mu, curasse, utschih.
Moon, katti, kmuniak, jaçi, cayacu.
Fire, hikkihi, chompek, tatá, issuh.
Water, wuini, muniā, hy, dzu.
Head, krain, canga, tzambu.
Eye, akussi, ketom, tesa, po-nubi.
Ear, adikkehi, nunk-hōn, namby, benjen.
Mouth, uelleru kuhu, nimā, juru, oriza.
Nose, issirihi, kigin, iting, nambih.
Tongue, uejehi, kzigiok, japecong, nunuh.
Tooth, ari, { zhún, } ainha, dza.
{ yune, }
Hand, uekabbu, po, ypo, mnssang.
Foot, ukutti, po, py, bouih.
House, bahü, kjiemm, oka, era, bate.
1, abba, pogik, jebe, bihe.
2, biama, nom, mucuing, wachani.
3, kabbuhin, tscho caorhu, musapui, wachani dikie.
4, bibiti, iapes chacoron, erundi.
5, abbatekabbe, nonhoron.

The four chief stocks of the eastern Amazon region present a fundamental diversity both in vocabulary and grammar. The Arawak is shown as it is, as current in Guiana and along the northern affluents of the Amazon; the Tapuya is in the dialect of the Botocudos, as presented by Dr. Paul Ehrenreich; the Tupi is the “lingua geral” of Brazil; and the Kiriri is from the _Arte_ of Mamiani.

In most of the South Atlantic stocks the numerals are imperfectly developed, all quantities above three being usually expressed by compound words.

DIALECTS OF THE ARAWAK STOCK.

_Chontaquiro._ _Baniva._ _Piapoco._ _Guana._
Man, geji, enami, ima, { hapohitai,
{ tahanan.
Woman, sichuné, neyau, inanahi, zeeno.
Sun, intiti, amorci, ureri, kat-hai.
Moon, cachiri, { pia, } keri, kohaivai.
{ achita, }
Fire, chichi, arsi, kitsai, incu.
Water, uné, ueni, huni, houna.
Head, huejijua, { ibupi, } ivita, kombaipoi.
{ nombo, }
Eye, huijarsajé, nu puri, nouto ui, onguei.
Ear, huijepe, notarifara, gua-wui, guaihaino.
Mouth, huespé, e-noma, wa-numa, baho.
Nose, huisiri, pe-yapa, nouïacou, agueiri.
Tongue, guenè, n-hotare, wa-nimi, nahainai.
Tooth, huisé, na-si, yai, onhai.
Hand, huamianuta, capi, ha-capi, no.
Foot, huisiqui, itsipara, ouabari, djahavai.
House, panchi, panisi, capi, maihaino.
1, suriti, abehita, poikoja.
2, apiri, pucheibata, pid-djaho.
3, noquiri, maisibba, mopoa.
4, ticti, bainoco, honaton.
5, tictisiri, abemo hacapi, houakoo.

These four vocabularies of some dialects of the Arawak stock, from localities wide apart, disclose extensive variations from the standard tongue. They are, however, rather apparent than real, and often depend on either variations in orthography, or the substitution of synonymous or allied words. This is well seen in the comparative table of thirty-six Arawak dialects presented in tabular form by Karl von den Steinen in his _Durch Central-Brasilien_, s. 294. Neither he nor Adam includes the Chontaquiro in the Arawak stock, but a comparison of vocabularies leaves no doubt about it. The Chontaquiro prefix _hue_ is the Piapoco _gua_, = “thy.”

DIALECTS OF THE CARIB STOCK.

_Bakairi._ _Motilone._ _Guaque._ _Tamanaca._
Man, uguruto, ya´kano, guire, nuani.
Woman, pekoto, esate, guerechi, aica.
Sun, tsisi, güicho, uehi.
Moon, nuna, kuna, nuna.
Fire, pĕ´to, güesta, majoto.
Water, paru, kuna-siase, tuna.
Head, kχinaraχu, jutuye, prutpe.
Eye, kχānu´, anú, emuru, januru.
Ear, kχi uanata´, pana, janari, panari.
Mouth, kχi ta´λ, indare.
Nose, kχana´λ, ona, onari.
Tongue, kχ u´lu, inico, nuru.
Tooth, kχ ie´λ, kiyuko, yeri.
Hand, kχ ama´λ, oma, niñare, jamgnari.
Foot, kχ uχuλ, pisa, iyu puru, ptari.
House, ŏtá, pesoa, migna.
1, tokalole, tukum-arko, ovin.
2, asage, kos-arko, oco.
3, asage-tokalo, koser-arko, orva.
4, asage-asage, kos aj-taka.
5, oma (hand).

The oldest existing forms of the Carib stock are believed by Von den Steinen to be preserved in the Bakairi, which I have accordingly placed first in the vocabularies of this family.

The Motilone, which is placed beside it, is one of the most northwestern dialects, and shows singular tenacity of the radicals of the language.

The Guaque, which is substantially the same as the Carijona, is the extreme western member of the family, but presents unmistakably the physiognomy of the stock.

Of the Tamanaca I have seen but incomplete specimens, but on account of its former importance, I insert it in this connection.

DIALECTS OF THE CARIB STOCK.--_Continued._

_Roucouyenne._ _Macuchi._ _Maquiritare._ _Cumanagoto._
Man, okiri, uratâe, rahuwari, guarayto.
Woman, oli, nery, wiri, guariche.
Sun, chichi, uci, ouéi, chi, sis.
Moon, nunu, capoui, nonna, nuna.
Fire, uapot, apo, guahato.
Water, tuna, tuna, tona, tuna.
Head, itepuru, popahy, iyoha, putpo.
Eye, yanuru, yénu, tenu, yenur, ono.
Ear, panari, panure, ihanarri, panar.
Mouth, uaiamu, unta, intarri, umptar.
Nose, yemna, yuna, yonari, ona.
Tongue, nulu, unum, iwini, nuri.
Tooth, yéré, piriabura, adderri, yer.
Hand, yamuru, yanda, arra mori, yemiar.
Foot, pupuru, uta, ohorro, putar.
House, pacolo, euete, ahute, pata.
1, auini, tiuim, toni, tibin.
2, uakéné, sagané, hake, achac.
3, eleuau, siruané, arrowawa, achoroao.
4, sacreré, hake kiema, yzpe.
5, matiquim, petpe.

The Roucouyenne and Macuchi are dialects on either slope of the sierra south of Guyana. Both appear to have been affected by their proximity to the Arawak stock.

The Maquiritare of the Orinoco and the Cumanagoto of the northern portion of Venezuela are comparatively closely related, and both present few foreign elements.

We may expect a thorough treatment of the comparative grammar of the Carib dialects from M. Lucien Adam, who is engaged in this study at the present time.

A large amount of material has been collected by Von den Steinen, of which but a small portion has been published. It relates principally to the southern Carib dialects.

LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN.

_Opone and _Peba._ _Yahua._ _Saliva._
Carare._
Man, comoley, huano, cocco.
Woman, watoa, huaturuna, gnacu.
Sun, bueno, wana, hini, mumesechecocco.
Moon, cano, remelane, arimaney, vexio.
Fire, fotó, feula, jigney, egussa.
Water, tuna, ain, aah, cagùa.
Head, iube, siyoco, raino, firignio.
Eye, ieu, yeo, vinimichi, huiranca, pacuté.
Ear, itana, stana, mituva, ontisiui, aicupana.
Mouth, rito, huiçama, aajà.
Nose, iena, yena, vinerro, unirou, incuu.
Tongue, inu, syno.
Tooth, viala.
Hand, iaso, iyaso, vi-nitaily, hui janpana, immomó.
Foot, idebu, stuyo, vi nimotay, muniumatu, caabapa.
House, mune, lowarrey, rore.
1, tomeulay, tekini.
2, nomoira, nanojui.
3, tamoimansa, munua.
4, namerayo, naïrojuiño.
5, taonella, tenaja.

The Opone and the Carare have evidently been subjected to foreign influences, but still retain the characteristics of the Carib dialects.

The Peba and the Yahua are not attached to the Carib family. They, however, reveal the traces of its influence, and appear to have adopted many words from it. Probably they are largely jargons, and between themselves indicate a rather close relationship.

Of the Saliva, which seems to stand alone, the materials are inadequate. Some texts, with an effort at a grammatical analysis, are given in the _Mithridates_, III., s. 625.

LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN.--(_Continued._)

_Otomaca._ _Piaroa._ _Guaraouna._ _Guahiba._
Man, andoua, ovo, guarao, pebi.
Woman, ondoua, ysaho, { ibama, petiriba, C.,
{ tira, pihaoua.
Sun, noua, morho, hoke, { wameto, C.,
{ icatia, isota.
Moon, oura, chawa, guanica, oamito.
Fire, noua, ocoura, hècouno, isoto.
Water, ia, ahiia, ho, mera.
Head, chû, { pemoto hocota, C.,
{ ibun.
Eye, chiahere, yto huto.
Ear, cacoco, { pemohuyo roto, C.,
{ nu tanipara.
Mouth, chaha, doco, pinpierda.
Nose, chihino, ca-icari, pepomuteito.
Tongue, chame, peeberta.
Tooth, chacou, ca-ycay, bono.
Hand, chumu, ca-mahu, napi.
Foot, chinepo, omu, petahu.
House, hanouco, ta-habo (my).
1, enga, itchaca, cahene.
2, dé, manamo, nawanube.
3, yakia, dianamo, acueyani.
4, depitade, urabocaya, penaya autsiva.
5, ionga pinibo, uabachi, cahecobe.

The above four _lengue matrice_ were among the most important on the Orinoco. The Guaraouna or Warrau was, and continues to be, spoken by the tribes of the delta, who are numerous and intelligent, when they have a fair chance to live undisturbed.

Of the Otomaca only the merest fragments have been published, and my vocabulary is nearly empty.

Several recent travelers have brought back information about the Piaroa and Guahiba, some of which may be found in the eighth volume of the _Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine_ (Paris, 1882), with observations by M. Adam. C. refers to Chaffanjon.

LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN.--(_Continued._)

_Omagua._ _Yarura._ _Betoya._ _Correguaje._
Man, ava, mena, pume, umasoi, emiud, pai.
Woman, huaina, cunia, ibi, ain, ro.
Sun, huarassi, do, teo-umasoi, ense.
Moon, yase, goppe, teo-ro, paimia.
Fire, tata, condé, futui.
Water, uni, uui, ocudú, ocŏ.
Head, yacue, pacchá, rosaca, sijope.
Eye, zaicana, { batchioo, C., } ufoniba, ñancoca.
{ jonde, }
Ear, nami, cajoroso.
Mouth, yuru, yaoo, C.
Nose, ti, nappe, jusaca, jinquepui.
Tongue, cumuera, { hihn, C., } ineca, chimenu.
{ toppono, }
Tooth, say, hundee, C., cojini.
Hand, pua, icchi, rum-cosi, jete.
Foot, pueta, tahoo, C., rem-ocá, coapi.
House, uca, guce.
1, uyepe, canāme, edojojoi.
2, mucuica, { adotchami, } edoi.
{ ñoeni, }
3, iruaca, tarani, ibutu.
4, adoitchemī.
5, canikiro.

The Omagua is a well-marked Tupi dialect. Adam has shown the grammatical concordances clearly (_Compte-Rendu du Cong. des Amer._, 1888, p. 496).

The Yarura and Betoya reveal faint resemblances in the words for “sun” and “tongue”; but not enough to justify assuming a relationship. Their grammars are quite unlike, that of the Yarura preceding by suffixes, that of the Betoya by prefixes (see Müller, _Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. II., Ab. I., s. 361).

The Correguaje shows less analogy to the Betoya in the above vocabulary than in a more extended comparison. The word for water, _ocŏ_, reappears in a number of dialects not akin to this stock, and is perhaps allied to the Chinchasuyu _yacu_ (see _anté_, p. 205).

DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN.

_Pano._ _Culino._ _Baré._ _Puinavi._
Man, buene, huebo, nukung, ehinari.
Woman, avio, yusabu, auy, hinatape.
Sun, bari, wari, camuhu, iama.
Moon, usde, osi, ozii, ki, heboet.
Fire, si, yuai, cameni.
Water, uaca, unpas, uaka, huni, u, eti.
Head, macho, mapo, mazu, dosia, ahouiat.
Eye, buero, würru, iwiti, ambic.
Ear, pauké, tsaybynky, idatini, about.
Mouth, uschà, ibi, ecuacha, inuma, ayé.
Nose, desan, rüky, itti, mohec.
Tongue, āna, anu, inene, arok.
Tooth, seta, sena, sita, heheyi.
Hand, maku, nucobi, arap.
Foot, tacu, tarú, whyta, isi, asim.
House, subo, subu.
1, pajü, uüty, bacanacari, atam.
2, dabui, rubä, rabii, bicunama, ahao.
3, muken aute, takuma, kirikunama, apaoui.
4, akaouno.
5, daptan.

The grammatical and phonetic relations of the Pano stock have been judiciously analyzed by M. Raoul de la Grasserie (_Compte-Rendu du Cong. des Amer._, 1888, p. 438, sq.). The Pano and Culino are seen to be closely connected, those who use the one doubtless understanding the other.

The Baré, which is an Arawak dialect, I have inserted here for the sake of convenience.

The Puinavi is unclassified (see _anté_, p. 278). In the few words above given, those for “sun,” “water,” and “foot” appear to have affinities to the Baré.

DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN.--(_Continued._)

_Catoquina._ _Ticuna._ _Zaparo._ _Tucano._
Man, eu, iyate, táúcuo, euma, mina.
Woman, ainà, niai, itiúmu, numea.
Sun, tscha, ehajeh, yano´cua, muipu.
Moon, wahlya, cashi´cua, mama nunpo.
Fire, ychta, ejheh, anamis-hu´cua, pecaméê.
Water, uata-hy, aaitchu, muricha, ocó.
Head, ghy, nahairu, a´naca, diptuá.
Eye, yghó, nehaai, namijia, caperi.
Ear, masaehta, nachiuai, taure, umepero.
Mouth, nunaghy, naha, atupa´ma, sero.
Nose, opaghpó, naran, najúcua, ekéá.
Tongue, nogho, kohny, ririccià, yéménó.
Tooth, y, taputa, icare, upiry.
Hand, paghy, tapamai, ichiosa, amupamá.
Foot, achman, nacoutai, iñocua, dipoca.
House, ih, hi, itia, uiy’.
1, heghykty, hucih, nucua´qui, nekeu.
2, upaua, tarepueh, anamis-hiñaqui, piana.
3, tupaua, tomepueh, aimucuraque, itiana.
4, hoyhan, ague mouji, { huet sara maja } bapalitina.
{ itiaca, }
5, hueamepueh, manucua, nicumakina.

The Catoquina and Ticuna are mixed dialects or jargons, but clearly related to each other. Martius hesitated whether to assign them to his “Guck” or his “Gês” stem. They both contain elements of the Arawak, probably by borrowing. Locally they are neighbors. The vocabulary of Ticuna is from Paul Marcoy’s work.

The Tucano, which is in the form obtained by Coudreau, shows elements of Betoya and Arawak. Its relationship to the Tapuya is not fully established.

The Zaparo from the Putumayo is from the collection of Osculati. It does not seem in any way related to the great stocks of the Amazonian region.

DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN.--(Continued.)

_Tacana._ _Maropa._ _Sapibocona._ _Araua._
Man, deja, dreja, reanci, maquida.
Woman, ano, anu, anu, waidaua.
Sun, ireti, isjeti, mahi.
Moon, bari, bantri, bari, massicu.
Fire, quati, cuati, cuati, sihu.
Water, { eave, } yuvi, eubi, paha.
{ jene,
Head, echu, echujā, echuja.
Eye, etra drun dru, eta chundru, etua churu.
Ear, edaja, eshacuena.
Mouth, equatri, equatra.
Nose, evieni, evi, evi.
Tongue, eana, eana, eana.
Tooth, etre, etré.
Hand, ema, eme, eme, usafa.
Foot, equatri, evatri, ebbachi, otama.
House, ejtej, etai, zami.
1, pea, pembive, carata, warihi.
2, beta, beta, mitia, famihi.
3, quimisha, camisha, curapa, arishafaha.
4, puchi, puschi.
5, puchica, pischica.

The interesting group of the Tacana stock is illustrated above by three of its dialects. I regret that the recent publication on the Arauna by Rev. Nicolas Armentia (_Navegacion del Rio Madre de Dios_) has not been accessible to me.

The scanty vocabulary of the Araua does not permit any extended study of its relations.

I call attention to the numerals of the Sapibocona and Cayubaba as given above and on page 360. Prof. Fr. Müller has transposed the two in his lists of examples (_Sprachwissenschaft_, II., I., p. 438. Compare _Mithridates_, III., p. 576).

LANGUAGES OF THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS.

_Yurucare._ _Itene._ _Samucu._ _Chiquito._
Man, suñe, huatiki, { vairiguè, } ñoñich.
{ nani, H., }
Woman, yee, tana, { yacotea, } paich.
{ cheke, H., }
Sun, puine, mapito, yede, anene, zuuch.
Moon, subi, panevo, etosia, vaach, paas.
Fire, aima, iche, pioc, pee.
Water, sama, como, yod, tuuch.
Head, dala, mahui, yatodo, taanys.
Eye, tanti, tauté, to, yedoy, nosuto.
Ear, meye, iniri, yagorone, { nonemasu,
{ umapus.
Mouth, pile, ai.
Nose, unte, yacunachu, iña.
Tongue, otu.
Tooth, sansa, oo.
Hand, bana, uru, ymanaetio, { panaucos,
{ ees, H.
Foot, te farafka, irie, pope.
House, { vive, techte, } poo.
{ siba, }
1, lecia, lecca, chomara, etama.
2, lasie, gar.
3, libi, gaddioc.
4, lapsa.
5, cheti.

The variety of stocks on the Bolivian highlands is clearly shown by the vocabularies on this and the following page. I have taken them from the D’Orbigny MSS., in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, the collections of Hervas, and the papers of E. Heath in the _Kansas City Review_, 1883. I have not been able to connect any one of the eight tongues with any other, although each has some words which have been borrowed from others or from some common stock. Thus, the Yurucare _suñe_, man, Mosetena _zoñi_, Chiquito _ñoñich_, are too similar not to be from the same radical. It must be remembered that the Chiquito was adopted by the missionaries as the general language for instruction, and other tribes were persuaded to learn it whenever possible. Thus some of its words came to be substituted for those originally familiar to the speakers.

The Chiquito and the Yurucare are the only tongues of the eight given of which I have found satisfactory grammatical notices; and that of the latter is still unpublished (see _anté_, p. 297).

LANGUAGES OF THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS.--(_Continued._)