Chapter II: Part 2

The field box should be made of tin and should have a sheet of cork securely fastened at the bottom. In one corner of the box, tied in gauze and securely fixed in place, there should be a few lumps of cyanide. Into this box the specimens should be pinned as they are taken from the collecting jar, and the lid of this box should be kept tightly closed most of the time, being opened only when the transfer of the pinned specimens to the interior of the box is ready to be made. Inasmuch as pinning insects on the field is not always satisfactorily accomplished, the writer prefers not to pin them, but to carry with him a supply of small pay-roll envelopes, into which the insects are put, and these envelopes are then put into a box which has some cyanide secured in it, as has already been described. The writer also carries with him a little phial of chloroform in his vest pocket, and he sometimes uses this to stun insects or puts a few drops into the collecting box and then closes it. The objection to the use of chloroform is that it induces spasms of the thoracic muscles, and butterflies killed by the use of chloroform are not nearly so easily mounted as specimens which have been killed with cyanide. Beetles, wasps, and other hard-bodied insects should not be put into the same collecting jars as those which are used for butterflies, as they are very apt to injure the latter, tearing and spoiling the wings. If the collector is engaged in taking other insects besides butterflies and moths, he should have special jars in which to put the beetles and other hard-bodied and spiny things.

If the collector does not wish immediately to mount his specimens, but to preserve them for mounting at a future time, they may be left in the envelopes of which I have spoken, or may be “papered.” The simplest way of putting up butterflies in papers is to take an oblong piece of any kind of moderately good paper and fold it as indicated in the diagram (see Plate E, Fig. _b_), first folding on the line a-b, then on a-d and c-b; then on the lines b-f and e-a, as marked in the diagram. The result is the enclosure of the insect as shown in Plate E, Fig. _c_. A hundred or more of such envelopes may be put into an ordinary cigar box. Such boxes, filled with butterflies, in order to prevent mould and the ravages of pests, should have some chloroform or carbon bisulphide put into them and afterward a spoonful or two of naphthaline crystals. Then they should be closed and sealed up by pasting strips of paper over the edges. Butterflies thus collected on journeys may be safely carried for long distances without injury, or even transmitted through the mails provided the boxes are strong enough to resist crushing. When on journeys the writer of these paragraphs always papers his specimens, bringing them home to be later carefully mounted at his leisure. It is of the utmost importance to note on each envelope the place and the date of capture, so that these may later be placed upon the little labels or tickets which are put upon the pins after the insects have been expanded and mounted for display.

MOUNTING BUTTERFLIES

The writer cannot do better in dealing with this subject than to transfer from “The Butterfly Book” the substance of the directions there given in relation to this matter.

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When the collector has time enough at his disposal he should at once mount his specimens as they are intended to be displayed. The insect should first of all be pinned. For this purpose “insect pins” should be used. These are made either of soft steel or of pin metal. The first are to be preferred, except in very damp climates, where they sometimes rust if they have not been properly enamelled with shellac. The pin should be thrust perpendicularly through the thorax, midway between the wings, and at a considerable elevation upon the pin. It should then be placed upon the setting board or setting block. Setting boards or setting blocks are pieces of wood having a groove on the upper surface of sufficient depth to accommodate the body of the insect and to permit the wings to be brought to the level of the upper surface of the board (see Plate D, Figs. 6 and 7; and Plate E, Figs. _d_, _e_, _f_). They should also be provided either with a cleft or a hole which will permit the pin to be thrust down below the body of the insect for a considerable distance. As a rule the wings of all specimens should be mounted at a uniform elevation of about seven eighths of an inch above the point of the pin. This is known as the “continental method” of mounting, and is infinitely preferable to the old-fashioned “English method,” in which the insect was pinned low down upon the pin, so that its wings touched the surface of the box.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE E

Fig. a. Vivarium, or cage in which to breed caterpillars.

_a_, base, kept even by cleats, _g_, _g_; on this is placed a pan 4
inches deep made of sheet zinc, and filled with earth; to the middle
is soldered a tube of zinc, into which a large bottle fits; the
bottle is filled with water to keep the plants placed in it fresh and
green; _b_, outer case, with sides of glass, fitting closely about
the zinc pan; _c_, top, covered with wire-cloth, rabbeted on _b_, and
easily lifted off.

Fig. b. Diagram showing way to make paper envelopes for butterflies.

Fig. c. Envelope folded with butterfly inside.

Fig. d. Stretching board for expanding moths and butterflies. Strips
of tracing-muslin are used on this to keep the wings down, paper will
also serve the purpose.

Fig. e. Stretching board, showing how wings may be held in place by
pieces of thin cardboard.

Fig. f. Showing the way in which the antennæ and body may be held in
place with insect pins while the insect is drying.

Setting blocks are most advantageously employed in mounting small species, especially the Hesperiidæ, the wings of which are apt to be refractory. When the insect has been pinned upon the setting board or setting block, the next step is to set the wings in the position which they are to maintain when the specimen is thoroughly dry. This is accomplished by means of what are known as “setting needles.” Setting needles may be easily made by simply sticking ordinary needles into wooden matches from which the tips have been removed; steel insect pins will serve as well. In drawing the wings into position, care should be taken to plant the setting needle or pin behind the strong nervure on the costal margin of the wing; otherwise the wings are liable to be torn and disfigured. The rule in setting lepidoptera is to draw the anterior wing forward in such a manner that the hind margin of this wing is at right angles to the axis of the body, the axis of the body being a line drawn through the head to the extremity of the abdomen. The hind wing should then be moved forward, its anterior margin lying under the opposing margin of the front wing. When the wings have thus been adjusted into the position which they are to occupy, slips of tracing-muslin or of paper should be drawn over them and securely pinned, the setting needles being removed.

In pinning down the strips which are to hold the wings in place, be careful to pin around the wing, but never if possible through it. When the wings have been adjusted in the position in which they are to remain, the antennæ should be attended to and drawn forward on the same plane as the wings, and secured in place. This may ordinarily be done by setting pins in such a position as to hold them where they are to stay. Then the body, if it has a tendency to sag down at the end of the abdomen, should be raised. This may also be accomplished by means of pins thrust beneath on either side. Plate E, Fig. _e_, shows clearly what is intended. When the insect has been set, the board should be put aside in a place where it will not be molested or attacked by pests, and the specimens upon it allowed to dry. A box with shelves in it is often used for this purpose. This box should have a door at the front covered with wire gauze, and the back should also be open, covered with gauze, so as to allow a free circulation of air. A few balls of naphthaline placed in it will tend to keep away mites and other pests. The time which the specimen should remain on the board varies with its size and the condition of the atmosphere. Most butterflies and moths in dry weather will be sufficiently dried to permit of their removal from the setting boards in a week; but large, stout-bodied moths may require as much as two weeks, or even more time, before they are dry enough to be taken off the boards. The process of drying may be hastened by placing the boards in an oven, but the temperature of the oven must be quite low. If too much heat is applied great injury is sure to result. Only a careful and expert operator should resort to the use of the oven, a temperature above 120 F. being sure to work mischief.

When butterflies or moths have been put up in papers or mounted on pins without having their wings expanded and set, it becomes necessary before setting them to relax them. This may be accomplished in several ways. If the specimens have been pinned it is best to place them on pieces of sheet-cork on a tray of sand which has been thoroughly moistened and treated with a good dose of carbolic acid. Over all a bell glass is put. A tight tin box will serve the same purpose, but a broad sheet of bibulous paper should always be put over the box, under the lid before closing it, and in such a way as to leave the edges of the paper projecting around the edges of the lid. This is done to absorb the moisture which might settle by condensation upon the lid and drop upon the specimens. In a bell glass the moisture generally trickles down the sides. Earthenware crocks with closely fitting lids are even better than tin boxes, but they must have paper put over them before closing, in the same way as is done when tin boxes are used. When specimens have been preserved in papers or envelopes these should be opened a little and laid upon damp, carbolized sand under a bell glass or in a closed receptacle of some kind. Papered specimens may also be placed in their envelopes between clean towels, which have been moistened in water to which a little carbolic acid has been added. The towels should be wrung out quite dry before using them. Pieces of dampened blotting paper are even better than towels. The method of placing between towels should never be used in the case of very small and delicate species and those which are blue or green in color. Great care must be exercised not to allow the insects to become soaked or unduly wet. This ruins them. They should, however, be damp enough to allow the wings and other organs to be freely moved. When the insects have been relaxed they may be pinned and expanded on setting boards like freshly caught specimens. It is well in setting the wings of relaxed specimens, after having thrust the pin through the body, to take a small forceps and seizing the wings just where they join the body gently move them so as to open them and make their movement easy before pinning them upon the setting board. The skilful manipulator in this way quickly ascertains whether they have been sufficiently relaxed to admit of their being readily set. If discovered to be too stiff and liable to break they must be still further relaxed. Dried specimens which have been relaxed and then mounted generally require only a short time to dry again, and need rarely be kept more than twenty-four hours upon the setting boards.

The process of setting insects upon setting blocks is exactly the same as when setting boards are used, with the simple difference that instead of pinning strips of paper or tracing-muslin over the wings, the wings are held in place by threads or very narrow tapes, which are wound around the block (see Plate D, Figs 6 and 7). When the wings are not covered with a very deep and velvety covering of scales the threads or tapes may be used alone; but when the wings are thus clothed it becomes necessary to put bits of paper or cardboard over the wings before wrapping with the threads. Unless this is done the marks of the threads will be left upon the wings. Some little skill, which is easily acquired by practice, is necessary in order to employ setting blocks to advantage, but in the case of small species and species which have refractory wings they are much to be preferred to the boards.

The work of mounting small insects which have been relaxed must be done quite quickly and in a cool room or in a moist atmosphere. In a very dry and hot atmosphere the minuter things dry so quickly that difficulties are at once encountered.

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One of the best ways in which to secure perfect specimens is to breed them from the caterpillar, or even from the egg. A stylish and very good cage for breeding is shown on Plate E, Fig. 2. As good a cage as this is not necessary, and the collector will succeed with one or more clean store-boxes covered with a lid consisting of a frame over which gauze or muslin has been stretched. The food-plant on which the caterpillar feeds is kept fresh in bottles or jars. It is important, after the plants have been put into the jar of water, to stuff around the stems cotton or soft paper, so that the caterpillars may not crawl down and, falling into the water, drown themselves. The bottom of the box may be filled to the depth of four or five inches with loam and covered with dead forest leaves. The loam should not be allowed to dry out thoroughly, but should be kept somewhat moist, _not wet_. A little sprinkling of water from time to time will suffice when done with care. The caterpillars feed upon the food-plant, and finally undergo transformation in the cage into the pupa, and eventually emerge as the butterfly or moth. The breeding of lepidoptera in this way is a fascinating occupation for those who have leisure to attend to it. For more minute instructions in reference to this matter the reader is referred to “The Butterfly Book.” The caterpillars and chrysalids themselves may be preserved in little phials, in alcohol or in a solution of formaldehyde. The latter, however, is not to be recommended, because, although it preserves colors better than alcohol, and does not tend to shrivel up the bodies, it makes them stiff and difficult to handle and examine. The best way of preserving caterpillars is to inflate them. Directions for doing this are contained in “The Butterfly Book.”

THE PRESERVATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF COLLECTIONS

In order to preserve collections of lepidoptera in beautiful condition, light, moisture, and insect pests must be excluded. Light bleaches many species, especially those which are red, brown, or green in color. Moisture produces mold and mildew. Insect pests such as mites, _Anthrenus_, and _Dermestes_, the two latter being species of beetles, devour specimens. The receptacles containing collections should therefore be furnished with covers excluding the light, kept in a dry place, and be so tight that insect pests will not enter. However, as an additional precaution, it is well to place in every box or drawer moth balls or lumps of camphor, secured so that they cannot roll about. These tend to deter predaceous insects from entering the receptacles. If by any chance they have entered, neither the naphthaline nor the camphor in some cases will prevent their ravages. In the great collections which are under the care of the writer it is a rule from time to time to go over all the cases and put into every receptacle a small quantity of carbon bisulphide. The fumes of carbon bisulphide kill all grubs and matured insects which may have hidden themselves in the cases, and it is believed that it also tends to destroy the life in eggs which may have been laid in the boxes. Great care should be used, however, in employing carbon bisulphide, as the fumes mingled with the oxygen of the atmosphere form an explosive compound. The work should never be done where there is danger of ignition from an open fire or light. Boxes for the preservation of insect collections are made by many firms, and prices for such receptacles vary according to their size and the materials employed in their construction. All receptacles, however, should be lined at the bottom with cork or some other soft material into which the pins sustaining the insects can be put. We employ in the Carnegie Museum a composition cork covered with white paper, which is made in sheets of varying sizes, according to requirement, by the Armstrong Cork Manufacturing Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., the largest cork-manufacturing establishment in the world. This is the most satisfactory material which is made.

Large collections are advantageously preserved in cabinets, the drawers of which are covered with glass through which the insects may be inspected without handling them. Here again, for the details of the construction of boxes, trays, and cabinets, the reader is referred to “The Butterfly Book,” which may be found in every public library, and is in the hands of multitudes of individuals.

In arranging specimens the scientific order should be followed. The species belonging to a given genus should be placed together. The little labels attached to the pins should give both the generic and the specific name, the locality where the specimen was taken, and the sex, if known. For the purpose of designating the sex naturalists employ what are known as “sex marks,” the male being indicated by the sign of Mars, ♂, while the female is indicated by the sign of Venus, ♀. The inscription _Papilio philenor_, ♀, means that the specimen is a male, and the inscription _Papilio philenor_, ♀, means that it is a female of the same species.

The classification of the genera and species should be subordinated further to the classification into families. There are five families of butterflies represented in the United States and Canada. They are the following:

1. The Nymphalidæ, or “Brush-footed Butterflies.”
2. The Erycinidæ, or “Metal-marks.”
3. The Lycænidæ, or “Blues,” “Coppers,” and “Hair-streaks.”
4. The Papilionidæ, or the “Swallowtails” and their allies.
5. The Hesperiidæ, or the “Skippers.”

In every well-arranged collection of butterflies certain drawers or boxes should be set apart for the reception of the insects belonging to these families, and they should be placed under their proper genera, according to their species. Nothing is more beautiful or interesting to those who have a love of nature than a collection of butterflies thus classified and displayed.

In recent years an ingenious friend of mine has devised a system of mounting butterflies under glass in cases made of a shell of plaster of paris, which he backs with cardboard and seals around the edges with gummed paper. Latterly he has taken to mounting them between pieces of glass which he secures in the same way. Specimens thus preserved keep well, may be handled readily without fear of injury to them, and in the glass cases both sides of their wings may be examined. A collection of butterflies mounted in this way may be stored in shallow trays and placed in scientific order. The process of mounting in this fashion is, however, somewhat laborious and expensive, and is not generally adopted by scientific men, who wish to be free to examine their specimens under the magnifying glass, occasionally touching the wings with benzine to disclose the facts of neuration, and to minutely investigate the feet and other parts of the body, which, when sealed up in the way I have described, are not easily accessible.

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Having thus briefly outlined the principal facts as to the nature of butterflies in general, and the best methods of collecting and preserving them, we now pass on to the description of the commoner species which are found on the continent of North America, north of Mexico and the Straits of Florida.

Class INSECTA (Insects)
Order LEPIDOPTERA (Scale-winged Insects)
Suborder RHOPALOCERA (Butterflies)
Family NYMPHALIDÆ (The Brush-footed Butterflies)

The Nymphalidæ may be distinguished from all other butterflies by the fact that _in both sexes the foremost, or prothoracic, pair of legs is greatly dwarfed, useless for walking, and therefore carried folded up against the breast_. This is the largest of all the families of butterflies and has been subdivided into many subfamilies. Some of the genera are composed of small species, but most of them are made up of large or medium-sized forms. To this family belong many of the most gorgeously colored butterflies of the tropics, among them the brilliant blue _Morphos_ of equatorial America.

The caterpillars, when they emerge from the egg, have heads much greater in diameter than the rest of their bodies. In the earlier stages the bodies taper from before backward, and are adorned with little wart-like protuberances, which bear hairs. In later stages these little protuberances in many genera are replaced by branching spines and fleshy projections, which impart to the caterpillars a forbidding appearance. The mature caterpillar generally has a cylindrical body, but in the subfamilies, _Satyrinæ_ and _Morphinæ_, the larvæ are thicker at the middle, tapering forward and backward.

The chrysalids, which are generally marked by metallic spots, always hang suspended by the tail, except in the case of a few arctic species, which are found under a frail covering composed of strands of silk woven about the roots of tufts of grass, under which the larva takes shelter at the time of pupation.

In the region with which this booklet deals all the butterflies belonging to the _Nymphalidæ_ fall naturally into one or the other of the following subfamilies: (1) the _Euplœinæ_, or Euplœids; (2) the _Ithomiinæ_, the Ithomiids; (3) the _Heliconiinæ_, the Heliconians; (4) the _Nymphalinæ_, the Nymphs; (5) the _Satyrinæ_, the Satyrs; (6) the _Libytheinæ_, the Snout-butterflies.

KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES OF THE NYMPHALIDÆ OF TEMPERATE NORTH AMERICA

I. With the veins of the fore wings not greatly swollen at the base.
A. Antennæ naked, not clothed with scales.
(a) Fore wings less than twice as long as broad _Euplœinæ._
(b) Fore wings twice as long as broad and often translucent,
the abdomen extending far beyond the inner
angle of the hind wings _Ithomiinæ._
B. Antennæ clothed with scales, at least above.
(a) Fore wings at least twice as long as broad _Heliconiinæ._
(b) Fore wings less than twice as long as broad.
1. Palpi not as long as the thorax _Nymphalinæ._
2. Palpi longer than the thorax _Libytheinæ._
II. With some of the veins of the fore wing greatly swollen at the
base _Satyrinæ._

Subfamily EUPLŒINÆ (The Euplœids).

Large or medium-sized butterflies; fore wings somewhat produced at apex; hind wings rounded, never with tails; fore legs greatly atrophied in the males, somewhat less so in the females; hind wings of the males marked with one or more sexual brands which in the American species are located on or near the first median nervule; some of the oriental species are white, many are dark brown or black in color, shot with purple and violet; all of the American species are of some shade of reddish brown or fulvous, with the apex of the fore wings and the outer borders of both fore and hind wings margined widely with darker color, and the veins and nervules also darker, standing out in bold relief upon the lighter ground-color; the apex of the primary and the outer border of the secondary wings are more or less spotted with light color, often with white.

The adult caterpillars are cylindrical in form, adorned with long fleshy filaments, and with their bodies of some light shade of yellow or green banded with darker colors. The American species feeds upon the plants belonging to the family of the _Asclepiadaceæ_, or Milkweeds.

The chrysalis is smooth, pale in color, often ornamented with metallic spots, usually golden.

This subfamily, which is represented in the tropics of the Old World by many genera and species, is only represented in the United States by one genus, _Anosia_.

GENUS ANOSIA HÜBNER

_Butterfly_, large or medium-sized; fore wings triangular, produced; hind wings rounded, the inner margins clasping the abdomen when at rest; apex, outer margins, and veins, dark; male with sex-mark on first median nervule of hind wing. _Egg_ ovate conical, ribbed perpendicularly and horizontally. _Larva_ cylindrical, with long, dark, fleshy filaments before and behind; body usually pale in color, ringed with dark bands. _Chrysalis_ pendant, stout, cylindrical, abdomen rapidly tapering, and ending in long cremaster; pale, with metallic spots.

A large genus, many species being found in the tropics of both hemispheres, but only two in the United States. The insects are “protected,” being distasteful to other animals, thus escaping attack.

(1) _Anosia plexippus_ (Linnæus), The Monarch, Plate I, ♂; Plate C, Fig. g, _egg_; Figs. a-c, _larva pupating_; Fig. d, _chrysalis_.

Upper side of wings reddish brown, apex, margins, and veins black, under side paler; a double row of whitish spots on outer borders, apex crossed by two bands of light spots. Expanse of wings 3.25 to 4.25 inches. _Egg_ pale green. _Caterpillar_ feeds on milkweeds, and is found in Pennsylvania from June onward. _Chrysalis_ pale green spotted with gold.

Breeds continuously. As summer comes the butterflies move north, laying eggs. The insect spreads until it reaches its northern limit in the Dominion of Canada. In fall it returns. Swarms of the retreating butterflies gather on the northern shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario and in southern New Jersey. Recently the Monarch has become domiciled in many parts of the Old World.

(2) _Anosia berenice_ (Cramer), The Queen, Plate II, ♀.

Smaller than the Monarch; the ground-color of the wings livid brown. The markings, as shown by the Plate, are somewhat different from those of the preceding species. Expanse 2.5 to 3 inches.

This butterfly does not occur in the North, but ranges through New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and southward.

Subfamily ITHOMIINÆ (THE ITHOMIIDS).

_Butterflies_ of moderate size, though a few species are quite large. Fore wings at least twice as long as wide; hind wings small and rounded, without tails. Abdomen produced beyond the margin of the hind wing. Wings more or less transparent. Antennæ long and very slender, with a slender club at end, naked. Fore legs greatly atrophied, especially in the males. _Larvæ_ and _chrysalids_ resembling those of the _Euplœinæ_, the chrysalids being short, cylindrical, and marked with metallic spots. The family, with the exception of the Australian genus, _Hamadryas_, is confined to the New World, in the tropics of which there are swarms of genera and species. Like the _Euplœinæ_ they are “protected.” But two genera are reported from our territory.

GENUS CERATINIA FABRICIUS

Distinguished from other allied genera by the strongly lobed costal margin of the hind wings in the male.

There are fifty species of this genus known from the American tropics, but only one occurs within the limits of the United States, and only in the extreme southwestern portion of our territory.

(1) _Ceratinia lycaste_ (Fabricius), Plate III, Fig. 2, ♀ (Lycaste Butterfly).

This insect, which may easily be identified by the figure we give, is reported from southern California. The plate shows the variety, named _negreta_, which has a spot at the end of the cell of the hind wing instead of a black bar, as is the case in specimens from Panama. Expanse 2.1 to 2.25 inches. Wright does not include this species in his list of butterflies of the west coast.

GENUS DIRCENNA DOUBLEDAY

Medium-sized _butterflies_, with quite transparent wings. Abdomen not as long as in the preceding genus. Hind wing of male strongly bowed forward at middle, the costal vein tending to coalesce with the subcostal. Only one species occurs in our region. There are many species in the American tropics.

(1) _Dircenna klugi_ (Hübner), Plate III, Fig. 1, ♂ (Klug’s Dircenna).

The wings are pale brown, narrowly margined with darker brown; the fore wings have a pale yellowish diagonal bar at the end of the cell, followed by two bands of similar spots, curving from the costa to the inner margin. Expanse 2.5 to 2.75 inches.

_Habitat_: Southern California and Mexico according to Reakirt. The citation of California by this authority may refer to Lower California. In recent years no specimens have been taken in Upper California. It may be that with the changes which have taken place in the development of the country the insect has become extinct about Los Angeles and San Diego, where Reakirt collected.

SUBFAMILY HELICONIINÆ (THE HELICONIANS).

Moderately large _butterflies_. Fore wings twice as long as wide. Antennæ nearly as long as the body; club tapering, but stouter than in the _Ithomiids_, clothed with scales above. Fore legs feeble in both sexes. Color black, sometimes shot with blue, and variously marked with white, yellow, orange, or crimson spots. _Eggs_ cylindrical, twice as high as wide, tapering and truncate above, ribbed. _Caterpillar_, when mature, with six branching spines on each segment. _Chrysalis_ angulated, covered with curious projections, making it look like a shrivelled leaf, dark in color.

These insects, which are strongly “protected,” abound in the forests of tropical America. There are many species, but only one occurs in our region.

GENUS HELICONIUS LATREILLE

(1) _Heliconius charithonius_ (Linnæus). Plate IV, ♀ (The Zebra).

The figure suffices for identification. The caterpillar feeds upon the foliage of different species of Passion-flower. Common in the hot parts of the Gulf States, thence ranging all over the American tropics. Expanse 2.5 to 3.5 inches.

SUBFAMILY NYMPHALINÆ (THE NYMPHS).

The _butterflies_ belonging to this subfamily are usually medium-sized or large, although some are very small. Antennæ usually as long as, or longer than, the abdomen, more or less heavily clothed with scales. Palpi stout, densely clothed with hairs and scales. Thorax stout or very robust. Fore wings relatively broad, except in certain forms which mimic the _Heliconiinæ_, produced at apex, more or less excavated on outer margin; discoidal cell generally less than half the length of wing, and in most genera closed; costal vein terminating behind the middle of the front margin of the wing; the two inner subcostal nervules given off before, the outer subcostals beyond, the end of the cell. Hind wings rounded, or angulated, with the outer border either rounded, scalloped, or tailed, the inner border always forming a channel for the reception of the abdomen; discoidal cell often open, or closed by an almost imperceptible veinlet. _Eggs_ conoid, barrel-shaped, or globular, variously ornamented. _Larva_ when hatched with minute wart-like eminences, each bearing a hair, the hairs in later stages being replaced in many forms by branching spines. _Chrysalis_ suspended, variously ornamented, often having on the dorsal surface raised eminences, and the head bifurcate.

There are about thirty genera, containing somewhat less than two hundred species, which belong to this subfamily in the United States.

GENUS COLÆNIS DOUBLEDAY

The _butterflies_ of this genus mimic the Heliconians in form; their fore wings are long and narrow. The cell in the hind wing is open. There are a number of species, two of which are found in the hot parts of the Gulf States. The larvæ resemble those of the genera, _Dione_ and _Euptoieta_, and, like them, feed on the Passifloraceæ.

(1) _Colænis julia_ (Fabricius) (Julia). Plate V, ♂.

The figure on the plate obviates the necessity for a description. The insect occurs sparingly in Florida and in Texas, especially about Brownsville. It is very common in Mexico, and thence southward. Expanse 3 to 3.5 inches.

(2) _Colænis delila_ (Fabricius), Delila.

Imagine all the dark markings shown in the figure of _Colænis julia_ on Plate V effaced, and replaced by the lighter ground-color, only all of the wing a shade paler and yellower, and the fore wings a trifle more pointed at the tip, and you have a mental picture of this species, which has the same range as the one shown. Expanse 2.75 to 3.3 inches.

GENUS DIONE HÜBNER

This genus has the fore wings elongated, but less so than in _Colænis_. The cell in the hind wing is open. The palpi are much more robust and heavily clothed with hairs than in _Colænis_, thus resembling those of the genus _Argynnis_. Like _Argynnis_ the under side of the wings of all species of _Dione_ is spotted with silver.

There are a half dozen species of _Dione_ in the New World, all but one of which occur outside of our limits. They are gloriously beautiful insects.

(1) _Dione vanillæ_ (Linnæus) (The Gulf Fritillary). Plate VI, ♂.

This lovely insect ranges from southern Virginia southward and westward to southern California, and thence further south, wherever the sun shines and Passion-flowers bloom. The figure on the plate does not show the magnificent markings of the under side of the wings, but catch one, and you will see that you have a beauty in your possession. Expanse 2.75 to 3.25 inches.

GENUS EUPTOIETA DOUBLEDAY

There are two species of this genus found in the United States. The _butterfly_ has the cell of the fore wing closed by a feeble veinlet and the cell of the hind wing open. The antennæ and palpi resemble those of the genus _Argynnis_. The under sides of the wings are not spotted with silvery marks.

(1) _Euptoieta claudia_ (Cramer), The Variegated Fritillary. Plate VII, Fig. 1, ♂; Fig. 2, _under side_.

The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of Passion-flowers and violets. It is reddish yellow in color, with black spines on the segments, white spots on the back, and dark brown bands running the long way on the sides. The _chrysalis_ is pearly white mottled with black spots and streaks. The insect ranges from southern New England south and west, and is reported from as far north as Alberta. It goes as far as Argentina in the south. Expanse ♂, 1.75 to 2.25 inches; ♀, 2.25 to 2.75 inches.

(2) _Euptoieta hegesia_ (Cramer), The Mexican Fritillary.

Very much like the preceding species, only the wings, especially the hind wings, have very few dark markings, except about the borders, and the insect is smaller. Expanse ♂, 1.6 to 2.25; ♀, 2.25 to 2.5 inches.

Found in Texas, Arizona, and southward.

GENUS ARGYNNIS FABRICIUS

_Butterflies_ of medium or large size, generally of some shade of reddish fulvous, conspicuously marked on the upper side with dark spots and waved lines, which are less conspicuously repeated on the under side, and in many species in part replaced by silvery spots. In some species the males and the females are _dimorphic_, that is, very different in appearance from each other. The palpi are strongly developed and clothed heavily with hairs. The antennæ have a short, well-defined, flattened, somewhat spoon-shaped club. The cells of both fore and hind wings are closed. _Eggs_ cone-shaped, flattened, and depressed at the top, rounded at the base, ribbed both ways, mostly near the base. _Caterpillars_ dark in color, spiny, with the spines on the first segment the longest; feeding on violets at night, and hiding during the day. _Chrysalis_ angular, adorned with more or less prominent projections, head bifid.

This large genus has many species. It occurs in both hemispheres. Its metropolis is North America, and we can speak of only a few of the commoner and more conspicuous forms.

(1) _Argynnis idalia_ (Drury), The Regal Fritillary. Plate VIII, ♂.

The figure given will help the student to recognize this insect. The caterpillar, when fully grown, is about 1.75 inches in length, black, banded and striped with ochreous and orange-red, and ornamented with fleshy spines, of which the two rows on the back are white tipped with black, those on the sides black tinged with orange where they spring from the body. The chrysalis is brown mottled with yellow.

Ranges from Maine to Nebraska, and southward among the Appalachian highlands into West Virginia. Expanse 2.75 to 4 inches.

(2) _Argynnis diana_ (Cramer), Plate IX, ♂; Plate X, ♀ (Diana).

This lovely insect is dimorphic, the male having the outer borders of the wings orange-fulvous, while the female has the wings bordered with blue spots. Expanse 3.75 to 4.5 inches.

It belongs to the southern Appalachian region, and ranges from West Virginia and the Carolinas to northern Georgia, thence westward to the Ozarks, being found sparingly in southern Ohio and Indiana, and commonly in parts of Kentucky.

(3) _Argynnis leto_ Edwards, Plate XI, ♀ (Leto).

The male of this species is in some respects not unlike the two following species, but with the wings darker at their bases; the female, on the other hand, is quite different, the dark spots on the inner half of the wings running together and giving this part of the wings a dark brown or black appearance, while the outer borders are pale yellow. Expanse 2.5 to 3.25 inches.

This beautiful form occurs on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, in California and Oregon.

(4) _Argynnis cybele_ (Fabricius), Plate XII, ♀, _under side_ (The Great Spangled Fritillary).

The male is bright reddish-fulvous on the upper side of the wings, with the characteristic dark markings of the genus; on the under side the wings are heavily silvered. There always is a pale yellowish submarginal band shown on the under side of the hind wings which does not appear in the next species, and by the presence or absence of which they may be discriminated from each other. The caterpillars hibernate as soon as hatched, and pass the winter in this state, feeding up and maturing in the following spring when the violets begin to grow. Expanse 3 to 4 inches.

This species ranges from Maine to Nebraska and southward to Georgia and Arkansas. It is our commonest species in the Middle States.

(5) _Argynnis aphrodite_ (Fabricius). Plate XIII, ♀, _under side_ (Aphrodite).

Closely resembling the preceding species, but smaller. The under side of the hind wings has the submarginal band narrower than in _A. cybele_ and often wholly wanting, as shown in the figure. The fore wings on the under side are redder at the base than in _A. cybele_. Expanse 3 to 3.5 inches.

The range is the same as that of the preceding species.

The two species _A. cybele_ and _A. aphrodite_ usually are found flying at the same time and in the same places, and when on the wing it is often very difficult to distinguish them from each other. In fact they seem to intergrade into each other, and in a long series of specimens such close resemblances often occur that it is puzzling to decide which is which. The deeper red of the fore wing of _A. cybele_ is the best diacritical character. The paler outer margin of the hind wing of _A. aphrodite_, which is typically shown in Plate XII, sometimes occurs also in _A. cybele_, and I have specimens of the latter which very closely approximate the former in this regard. In selecting specimens for illustration I have chosen the two extreme forms in which the pale wing of _A. aphrodite_ is seen to contrast on the under side with the darker wing of _A. cybele_ shown on Plate XIII.

It may be remarked in passing that the genus _Argynnis_ is very difficult, and the writer has been in the habit of comparing it to the genus _Salix_, the willows, among flowers. Botanists know how the willows seem to run together, and how hard it is to discriminate the species. The same thing is true of this great genus of butterflies with which we are now dealing. It is particularly true of the species which occur in the region of the Rocky Mountains, of which the writer has probably the largest collection in existence, including all of the types of the late William H. Edwards. The test of breeding has not been fully applied as yet to all of these forms, and it is doubtful whether some of them are more than varieties or local races. There is here a field of inquiry which should tempt some young, ardent, and careful student. The day for more thorough work is at hand, and I hope some reader of these pages may be converted to the task. Entomological study should become more intensive, as well as extensive. The fathers of the science have paved the way and laid foundations; it remains for the rising generation to complete the work which the fathers have begun.

(6) _Argynnis atlantis_ Edwards. Plate XIV, ♂ (The Mountain Silverspot).

Smaller than _A. aphrodite_, with narrower wings, darker at the base on both the upper and lower sides. The submarginal band below is pale yellow, narrow, distinct, and always present. Expanse 2.25 to 2.5 inches.

Ranges from Quebec to Alberta and southward, but is confined to the Appalachian mountain ranges in southern Pennsylvania and West Virginia.

The specimen figured on the Plate is the type of the male contained in the collection of the late William H. Edwards. Although taken long ago, it retains all its original freshness and beauty.

There used to be near Cresson on the summit of the Allegheny Mountains a field surrounded by woodland in which violets grew. When the clover was in bloom myriads of Fritillaries, belonging to the species _aphrodite_, _cybele_, and _atlantis_, congregated there. What captures we made! Many a collection on both sides of the Atlantic contains specimens taken in that field, but no possessor of these specimens can have the happy memories of the days passed in that field by their captor.

(7) _Argynnis callippe_ Boisduval. Plate XV, ♀, _under side_ (Callippe).

Wings on the upper side obscured with dark brown on which the pale buff spots, margined with black, stand out conspicuously. On the under side the wings are pale buff, with a greenish cast, the spots well silvered. Expanse 2.3 to 3 inches.

Abundant in southern California, according to W. G. Wright, preferring plains, and being confined mainly to the little hot valleys which traverse them. According to the same author the life of the insect as an imago is very brief, “the shortest of any Argynnid that I know of, being only a few days in length.”

Many of the western species do not have the spots on the under side silvered, but are none the less beautiful for that. One of these species, without silvery spots, the spots being creamy white, without metallic lustre, is the beautiful insect figured on Plate XVI, _A. rhodope_, the under side of the female type of which we show. There are nearly a dozen species of _Argynnis_ belonging to the same group with _A. rhodope_, but the latter is the most beautiful of all of them.

(8) _Argynnis rhodope_ Edwards. Plate XVI, ♀ _under side_ (Type) (Rhodope).

The wings of the two sexes are quite alike on the under side. On the upper side, which we do not figure, the wings are bright fulvous, dark at the base, marked with heavy, black, confluent spots. Expanse 2.2 to 2.4 inches.

Found in Washington and British Columbia.

GENUS BRENTHIS HÜBNER

(THE LITTLE FRITILLARIES).

Small or medium-sized _butterflies_, closely resembling those of the genus _Argynnis_. The chief difference is that in _Brenthis_ only the first subcostal nervule branches off before the end of the cell, while in _Argynnis_ the first and second are thus given off; palpi not so stout as in _Argynnis_; the basal spur of the median vein of the fore wing, found in _Argynnis_, is wanting in _Brenthis_. _Eggs_ subconical, twice as wide as high, truncated, vertically ribbed. _Caterpillars_ like those of _Argynnis_, but smaller, and often lighter in color, feeding on violets. _Chrysalis_ pendant, about 0.6 inch long; two rows of conical tubercles on back.

Sixteen species are found in North America, all of which but two are subarctic or occur on high mountains.

(1) _Brenthis myrina_ (Cramer), Plate XVII, Fig. 1, ♂, _upper side_; Fig. 2, ♂, _under side_ (The Silver-bordered Fritillary).

Well depicted in the figures we give. Expanse 1.40-1.70 inch. _Eggs_ pale greenish yellow. _Caterpillar_, when fully grown, about 0.87 inch long, dark olive-brown, marked with lighter green, and covered with spiny, fleshy tubercles. _Chrysalis_ yellowish brown marked with darker brown spots, some having a pearly lustre.

Ranges from Nova Scotia to Alaska and southward as far as the mountains of the Carolinas.

(2) _Brenthis montinus_ Scudder, Plate XVII, Fig. 3, ♀, _under side_ (The White Mountain Fritillary).

Upper side fulvous, the wings at base darker than in _B. myrina_, the black markings heavier. Hind wings below much darker than in _B. myrina_, the silvery spots being quite differently arranged, the most conspicuous being a bar at the end and a round spot at the base of the cell of the hind wing. Expanse, ♂, 1.50 inch; ♀, 1.75 inch.

A small species living on the summit of Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, where a little colony has survived the glacial epoch, when the northeastern parts of the United States were covered with glaciers, as Greenland is to-day.

(3) _Brenthis bellona_ (Fabricius), Plate XVIII, ♂ (The Meadow Fritillary).

The only species of the genus, except _B. myrina_, found in the densely settled portions of the continent. Easily distinguished from _myrina_ by the absence on the under side of the wings of the silvery spots, which make the Silver-bordered Fritillary so attractive. It is generally found upon the wing in the late summer and the fall of the year. In Pennsylvania it may be found when the asters are in bloom.

Common throughout Canada and the northern United States as far west as the Rocky Mountains and as far south as the Carolinas. Expanse 1.65-1.80 inch.

GENUS MELITÆA (THE CHECKER-SPOTS).

Generally small or medium-sized _butterflies_. Palpi not swollen; the third joint finely pointed; clothed with long hairs. Antennæ about half as long as the costal margin of fore wing, ending with a short, heavy, spoon-shaped knob. The cell in the fore wing is closed, in the hind wing open. The spots and markings are differently arranged from those in _Argynnis_ and _Brenthis_; the wings are never silvered on the under side. _Eggs_ subconical, flattened on top, fluted on the sides. _Caterpillars_ gregarious when young, then separating; cylindrical, covered with short spines set with diverging hairs; feeding upon the _Scrophulariaceæ_, _Castileja_, and allied plants. _Chrysalis_ rounded at the head, with sharply pointed tubercles on back, white or pale gray, adorned with dark markings and orange spots on back.

There are many species in the north temperate zone. Most of the more than thirty species in North America are confined to the western part of the continent, only two being found east of the Mississippi.

(1) _Melitæa phaëton_ (Drury), Plate XIX, ♂ (The Baltimore).

Easily recognized by the figure. One of the larger species, the male having a width of 1.75-2.00, the female of 2.00-2.60 inches. Eggs brownish yellow when laid, changing to crimson, and later to black; deposited in clusters on balmony (_Chelone glabra_). Hatching in early fall, the little caterpillars spin a web or tent of silk, where they pass the winter. When spring comes, they scatter, fall to feeding, and after the fifth moult turn into chrysalids, from which the butterflies soon emerge.

Found locally in colonies in swampy places, where balmony grows, from Quebec to west of Lake Superior and south to the Carolina mountains.

(2) _Melitæa chalcedon_ Doubleday and Hewitson, Plate XX, Fig. 1, ♂ (Chalcedon).

A common species in northern California, ranging eastward as far as Colorado and Wyoming. One of the larger species, expanding 1.75-2.5 inches. The caterpillar feeds on _Mimulus_ and _Castileja_. The butterfly is variable, the females in particular differing in the size of the light spots on their wings.

(3) _Melitæa macglashani_ Rivers, Plate XX, Fig. 2, ♀ (Macglashan’s Checker-spot).

One of the largest species in the genus, exceeding in size the two foregoing, having a width of from 1.85-3.00 inches; closely resembling _M. chalcedon_, but the outer marginal red spots always bigger and the yellow spots paler and larger than in that species. Occurs in Utah, Nevada, and California.

(4) _Melitæa harrisi_ Scudder, Plate XXI, Fig. 1, ♀, _under side_ (Harris’ Checker-spot).

Fulvous on upper side; base of wings and outer margins black, black margins widest at apex. Five fulvous spots in cell of fore wing, two below it; two white spots on apex. Under side of wings well shown in the figure we give. Expanse 1.5-1.75 inch. _Eggs_ lemon-yellow, conoid, flattened at top, ribbed. Adult _caterpillar_ reddish, with a black stripe on middle of back, nine rows of black, branching spines on body. On each segment a black band in front of the spines, and two black-bands behind them. Food-plants _Aster_ and _Diplopappus_. _Chrysalis_ pale gray or white, blotched with dark brown.

Ranges from Nova Scotia to Lake Superior.

(5) _Melitæa perse_ Edwards, Plate XX, Fig. 3, ♂. _Type_ (The Arizona Checker-spot).

One of the very small species of the genus. The specimen we figure is the _type_, that is to say, the specimen upon which Edwards founded his description of the species. Expanse ♂, 1.00 inch; ♀, 1.10 inch.

_Habitat_ Arizona and northern Mexico.

(6) _Melitæa dymas_ Edwards, Plate XX, Fig. 4, ♀. _Type_ (The Least Checker-spot).

Even smaller than the preceding, having an expanse of only 0.85 to 1.00 inch. It is much paler on the upper side than _M. perse_, and the markings are different.

Ranges from southwestern Texas and Arizona to Mexico.

GENUS PHYCIODES DOUBLEDAY

(THE CRESCENT-SPOTS).

Usually quite small _butterflies_, the species found in our region being some shade of fulvous or reddish, above with dark markings, which are less distinctly reproduced on the paler under side of the wings. Of the spots on the under side the most characteristic is the crescent between the ends of the second and third median nervules. This, when present, is pearly white or silvery in color. Structurally these insects differ most markedly from the preceding genus in the enlarged second and the fine very sharp third joint of the palpi. _Eggs_ higher than wide, slightly ribbed on top, pitted below, giving them a thimble-like appearance. _Caterpillars_ cylindrical, with rows of short tubercles, much shorter than the spines in _Melitæa_, dark in color, marked with paler longitudinal stripes. _Chrysalis_ with head slightly bifid, generally pale in color, blotched with brown.

Numerous species occur in Central and South America, but only about a dozen in the United States and Canada, most of them in the Southwestern States.

(1) _Phyciodes nycteis_ Doubleday and Hewitson, Plate XXI, Fig. 2, ♂ (Nycteis).

Easily mistaken on the wing for _Melitæa harrisi_, which it closely resembles on the upper side, and with which it is often found flying, but an examination of the under side at once reveals the difference. The redder fore wings, paler hind wings, and the crescent on the lower outer border of these are marks which cannot be mistaken. Expanse ♂, 1.25-1.65 inch; ♀, 1.65-2.00 inches.

Ranges from Maine to the Carolinas and westward to the Rocky Mountains.

(2) _Phyciodes tharos_ (Drury), Plate XXII, Fig. 1, ♂. Variety _marcia_ Edwards, Plate XXII, Fig. 2, ♂ (The Pearl Crescent).

A very common little _butterfly_, which everybody must have noticed in late spring or early summer flitting about lawns and gardens, and in fall abounding upon clumps of asters. It may easily be recognized from the figures given. Expanse from 1.25-1.65 inch. The variety _marcia_ comes from larvæ which have hibernated during the winter, and is lighter and brighter in color, especially beneath, than butterflies of the later summer and fall broods.

_Eggs_ laid on asters and related plants; greenish yellow. Matured _caterpillar_ dark brown, dotted on the back with yellow; adorned with short, bristly, black spines, yellow at base. _Chrysalis_ pale gray, blotched with spots of brown.

Ranges from southern Labrador to Florida and westward to the Pacific Coast.

(3) _Phyciodes batesi_ (Reakirt), Plate XXII, Fig. 3, ♂, _upper side_; Fig. 4, _under side_, ♀ (Bates’ Crescent-spot).

Above closely resembling _P. tharos_, but with the dark markings much heavier; below hind wings quite uniformly pale yellowish fulvous, with a row of very pale marginal crescents; ends of veins tipped with brown. Expanse 1.25-1.65 inch.

Ranges from New England to Virginia and westward to the Mississippi.

(4) _Phyciodes pratensis_ (Behr), Plate XXIII, Fig. 1, ♂ (The Meadow Crescent).

Closely resembling the preceding, but fore wings not as curved on the costal margin, and relatively longer and narrower; the pale markings more whitish, not so red, and more clearly defined. On the under side, especially in the female, the markings are heavier than in _P. batesi_. Expanse 1.15-1.40 inch.

Ranges from Oregon to southern California, Arizona, and northern Mexico.