Chapter XXVI: Part II: Reptilia (14)

"In March 1854 a friend of mine was riding, with some other civil officers of the Government, along a jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw one of two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into the forest and return, holding in both hands a Cobra de capello, which he had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for assistance to place it in their covered basket, but in doing this, he handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and retained its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its fangs. The blood flowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately; but with all expedition the friend of the sufferer undid his waist-cloth, and took from it two snake-stones, each of the size of a small almond, intensely black and highly polished, though of an extremely light substance. These he applied, one to each wound inflicted by the teeth of the serpent, to which they attached themselves closely; the blood that oozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of {631}the article applied. The stones adhered tenaciously for three or four minutes, the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his arm downwards from the shoulders towards the fingers. At length the snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the man appeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints cracked, and went on his way without concern. Whilst this had been going on, another Indian of the party, who had come up, took from his bag a small piece of white wood, which resembled a root, and passed it gently near the head of the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to the ground; he then lifted the snake without hesitation, and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his basket. The root by which he professed to be enabled to perform this operation with safety he called the "Naya-thalic kalanga" (the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professed his ability to approach any reptile with impunity."

The following narrative, communicated to Sir E. Tennent by H. E. Reyne, of the Department of Public Works, Colombo, seems to exclude the possibility of deception:–

"A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in 1854, requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I had frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a cobra that I knew frequented the place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test the truth of the charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch over them until I returned with him. Before going I examined the man, and satisfied myself he had no snake about his person. When we arrived at the spot, he played on a small pipe, and after persevering for some time, out came a large cobra from an ant-hill, which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man it tried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round until we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it bit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite, and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually went away, the stone falling off just before he was relieved. When he recovered he held a cloth up, which the snake flew at, and caught its fangs in it; while in that position, the man passed his hand up its back, and having seized it by the throat, {632}he extracted the fangs in my presence and gave them to me. He then squeezed out the poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oily substance, and when rubbed on the hand produced a fine lather. I carefully watched the whole operation, which was also witnessed by my clerk and two or three other persons."

_N. haje_ is the common hooded cobra of Africa, the "Aspis," so called on account of its shield or hood–the "Spy-Slange" of the Boers. As a rule the spectacle-marks on the neck are absent or indistinct, the general colour varies much, either brown above, yellowish beneath, with or without brown spots; or dark brown above with yellowish spots, dark brown beneath; or blackish above and beneath. The name Spy-Slange, meaning Spitting Snake, refers to the habit which this and other African Cobras have of letting the poison drop from the mouth like saliva when they are excited. This is not a particularly economical habit, nor is it of the slightest use to the snake.

_N._ (_Ophiophagus_ s. _Hamadryas_) _bungarus_ s. _elaps_ is the "Hamadryad" or "Snake-eating Cobra" or "King Cobra." It has a well dilatable hood; the very variable coloration is yellowish to black, with or without an olive gloss. Many specimens have more or less distinct dark cross-bands or rings around the body, while others are olive above with black-edged scales, and others again are very dark above and beneath. The distinctive, specific character is the small number of scales, these forming only fifteen rows on the middle of the body, nineteen or twenty-one on the dilatable neck. There is a pair of large occipital shields behind the parietals.

This snake reaches the length, enormous for a poisonous snake, of 12 feet or more. Its size and very poisonous nature make it the curse of the jungle. It ranges from India to South China, and to the Philippines. The food seems to consist entirely of other snakes.

_Sepedon haemachates_ is another hooded snake in South Africa, where it is known as the "Ringhals," _i.e._ banded neck. It differs from _Naja_ by the absence of small teeth on the maxillaries behind the fangs, and by the strongly keeled scales, which form nineteen rows. The general colour is black above variegated with yellow or pale brown; the under parts are also black, often with one or two whitish bands across the lower portion of the neck.

{633}The Rev. G. Fisk[191] mentions the case of two young "Ringhals," of 10 and 9 inches in length, having been attacked and partly devoured by a mouse, supposed to be _Dendromys melanotis_, which was put with the snakes in a band-box. On the habits of the Ringhals see Symonds.[192]

_Bungarus._–The scales are smooth, and form thirteen to seventeen rows. The spine is very prominent, and the median row of scales which covers the ridge is much enlarged. There is no dilatable hood. In other respects _Bungarus_ is closely allied to _Naja_; about half-a-dozen species, in South-Eastern Asia.

_B. fasciatus_ reaches a length of 5 feet. The general colour is bright yellow, alternating with blackish rings.

_B. coeruleus_ s. _candidus_ is the dreaded "Krait," occurring in the whole of the Indian sub-region. It is dark brown or bluish black with narrow cross-bars or white specks, or it is alternately barred brown and yellow; the under parts are uniform white. Total length rarely 4 feet.

The "Krait" seems to cause more deaths in India than any other snake, since it is very common, especially in Bengal and in {634}Southern India, and often creeps into the houses. It lives chiefly on rats, lizards, and snakes.

_Callophis._–With only thirteen rows of smooth scales. The head is small, not distinct from the neck. The small eye has a round pupil. The short tail has two ventral rows of scales. The whole body is cylindrical. Several small species, one or two feet in length, in South-Eastern Asia. _C. macclellandi_ in India and Indo-China is reddish brown above, yellow below, with regular, equidistant, black, light-edged cross-bands or rings. Total length up to 2 feet.

_Doliophis_ differs from _Callophis_ mainly by the enormously developed poison-glands which, instead of being restricted to the head, extend along the anterior third of the body, gradually thickening, and terminating in front of the heart with club-shaped ends. Owing to the extension of these glands, which can be felt through the skin as thickenings at the end of the first third of the body, the heart has been shifted farther back than in any other snake. Several species in Indo-China and in the Malay Islands, _D. intestinalis_ with many colour-variations.

Australia suffers from an abundance of Elapine snakes, of which we will mention only the three commonest.

_Pseudechis_ e.g. _Ps. porphyriaceus_, the "Black Snake" of Australia, has seventeen rows of smooth scales on the body, a few more on the neck, which however is not, or is only slightly, dilated. A few of the sub-caudal scales are undivided, the rest are paired. The head is distinct from the neck; the pupil is round. Total length up to 5 or 6 feet. The general colour above is black, with the outer row of scales red at the base; the ventral scales are red with black edges. The females are generally more brown than black, and are therefore sometimes known as "Brown Adders." They live on small mammals, birds, lizards and other snakes.

_Notechis scutatus_ s. _Hoplocephalus curtus_, the "Tiger Snake," has rather small eyes with round pupils. The head is distinct from the cylindrical body, which is covered with fifteen to nineteen rows of smooth scales. The sub-caudals are single. The head of this variably coloured snake is mostly black, the body olive brown with dark cross-bands; towards the tail the coloration becomes more uniformly blackish. The under parts are pale {635}yellow. The range of this very common snake extends over Tasmania and Australia.

_Acanthophis antarcticus_, the "Death Adder," is easily recognised by the peculiar tail, the end of which is laterally compressed, beset with a few rows of enlarged imbricating scales, and terminates in a thin horny spine. The head is distinct from the neck, and flat; the eye has a vertical pupil. The short and thick body is covered with twenty-one or twenty-three rows of keeled scales. The anterior caudals are single, the posterior double. The colours of the upper parts are a mixture of brown, reddish and yellow, with dark cross-bands. The belly is pale yellow, often spotted with brown or black. The end of the tail is yellow, reddish brown or black. The total length of this stout and ugly viviparous creature remains under 3 feet. It is widely distributed from South Australia to the Moluccas. The use of the peculiar tail very probably consists in attracting or fixing the attention of small animals; the snake, lying coiled up on a dry and sandy spot, slightly raising and vibrating the tip of the tail.

_Elaps_ is an entirely American genus, with many species, most of which are extremely prettily coloured, red and black in alternate rings being a favourite pattern. The maxillaries carry no teeth behind the poison-fangs. The scales of the body are smooth and form fifteen rows. The tail is short. The small eye has mostly a vertical pupil. The head is very small, not distinct from the neck. The squamosal and quadrate bones are short, and the gape of the mouth is so limited that these beautiful snakes, although possessing strong poison, are practically harmless to man. One of the prettiest is _E. corallinus_ of the forests of Tropical South America and the Lesser Antilles. The whole body, above and below, is adorned with about twenty deep black rings, which are edged with yellow and again separated by red rings equalling in width the black ones. Sometimes the red rings are dotted with black, and the black dots may form additional rings between the red and the yellow. Total length under 3 feet.

SUB-FAM. 2. HYDROPHINAE (Sea-Snakes).–The tail is strongly compressed, sometimes the body also. All the scales are small, and there are often no enlarged ventrals. The eyes are small, with round pupils. All these snakes are very poisonous and live in the sea, often at considerable distances from the land, {636}with the exception of one species of _Distira_, _D. semperi_, which is confined to the land-locked freshwater Lake Taal at Luzon in the Philippines. They live on fish, and range from the Persian Gulf to Central America. In conformity with their absolutely aquatic life they are viviparous, and they die when kept out of the water for any length of time. About fifty species are known.

_Enhydrina valakadien s. bengalensis_ has scales with a small tubercle or keel, which is stronger in the males; the ventrals are very small, forming a scarcely enlarged series. The maxillaries carry two or more small grooved teeth in addition to the poison-fangs. The back is olive or dark grey, with black transverse bands, which are most distinct in the young. The under parts are white. This species ranges from Persia to the Malay Islands.

_Hydrophis_ e.g. _H. obscura_.–The body is long; the head and neck are very slender, the body becoming much thicker farther back. The small teeth behind the poison-fangs are not grooved. The ventral scales are very small, the others are keeled, strongly so {637}in the males. The general coloration of this Sea-Snake, which reaches about one yard in length, is dark olive-green above with yellowish cross-bars, which form complete rings round the slender part of the body. Other specimens are pale olive, with dark cross-bands. This species occurs in the Bay of Bengal and the Malay Archipelago.

As a rule Sea-Snakes are not found in mid-ocean. After leaving Ceylon, the steamer meets them again in the Straits of Malacca. Those which occur near the south coast of Japan, e.g. _Distira cyanocincta_, are found there only in the summer, and are probably carried there by the south-west monsoon.

According to Semper the gravid female visits the shores of low islands, there to give birth to its young between the rocks, and she remains with her offspring for some time. Semper once found a large female, probably _Platurus fasciatus_ s. _colubrinus_, coiled up amongst rocks, and between the folds were at least twenty young, each already about 2 feet long.

Boulenger[193] has written an interesting popular account of Sea-Snakes.

FAM. 8. AMBLYCEPHALIDAE.–Some thirty species of Neotropical and Oriental Snakes have been separated from the Colubridae on account of the pterygoids, which are widely separated from the quadrates, the posterior ends of the pterygoids not reaching beyond the level of the occipital condyle. This condition can be ascertained when the mouth is opened widely. The prefrontals are not in contact with the nasals. The squamosals are reduced to pad-like vestiges. Externally the Amblycephalidae are easily distinguished from the Colubridae by the absence of a longitudinal median mental groove. The head is thick, very distinct from the neck, and gives these harmless snakes a "poisonous" appearance. The pupil is vertical.

_Amblycephalus_, e.g. _A. monticola_.–Maxillaries short, with only five or six teeth. Sub-caudals in two rows. Body compressed, covered with fifteen rows of scales. South-Eastern Asia.

FAM. 9. VIPERIDAE.–The maxillaries are very short, movably attached to the prefrontals and ectopterygoids, so that they can be erected together with the large poison-fangs, which (besides reserve-teeth) are the only maxillary teeth. The prefrontals are not in contact with the nasals. The squamosals are very loosely {638}attached. For further details see Fig. 180. The poison-fangs are perforated, having a wide hole on the anterior side at the base, in connexion with the large poison-gland; the hole leads into a canal, which opens gradually as a semi-canal on the anterior surface of the distal third or quarter of the tooth. As usual in poisonous snakes, several reserve-teeth are stowed away behind the acting fang. When the latter is broken off or has served its time it is cast off at the base, and the next reserve tooth takes its place. The supply of reserve-teeth is indefinite, half-finished teeth down to mere germs constantly growing.

All the Viperidae are very poisonous, and all, except the African _Atractaspis_, are viviparous. They include terrestrial, arboreal, semi-aquatic, and burrowing types. The family is cosmopolitan, excepting Madagascar and the whole of the Australian region; it is divided into Vipers and Pit-Vipers.

SUB-FAM. 1. VIPERINAE (Vipers).–There is no sensory external pit between the eye and the nose, and the maxillary is not hollowed out above. The Vipers are absolutely restricted to the Old World, ranging over the whole of Europe, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of Madagascar; their northern extension is limited only by the permanently frozen condition of the underground. Nine genera with about forty species are known.

_Causus_ with a few species in Africa and _Azemiops feae_ in Upper Burmah are the only vipers which have the head covered {639}with large symmetrical shields, while in the other genera the head-shields are broken up into scales or small shields. _Causus rhombeatus_ is very common in Africa, from the Gambia to the Cape. It reaches a length of a little more than 2 feet. Pale olive-brown above, usually with a dorsal series of large rhombic or V-shaped dark brown, sometimes white-edged spots, and with a dark arrow-shaped mark on the occiput; under parts yellowish white or grey.

_Bitis_ s. _Echidna_.–Very much like _Vipera_, but the nasal shields are separated from the rostral by small scales, and the postfrontal bone is very large. Several species in Africa.

The head is very distinct from the neck, chiefly owing to the large poison-glands and to its being, like the body, much depressed. The small eye has a vertical pupil, and is separated from the labials by a series of small scales. The scales are keeled, and form many, from twenty-nine to forty-one, rows; the tail is very short, with two rows of scales below.

In _B. arietans_, the "Puff Adder," the nostrils are directed upwards. This ugly brute is yellowish to orange brown above with regular, chevron-shaped dark bars or other markings, helping {640}to conceal the creature when it is lying on sandy and stony ground; the under parts are yellowish white. The Puff Adder reaches a length of 4, or very rarely 5 feet, ranging all over Africa, except the north coast, and extending into Southern Arabia. It is very slow, and trusts to not being discovered when lying in the dry grass; when approached it inflates the body and hisses loudly with a puffing sound, watches the enemy with raised and characteristically bent head and neck; but it bites only when actually touched or attacked. The effect of the bite is very dangerous. Its prey consists chiefly of small mammals, which are hunted during the night.

_B. (Echidna) nasicornis_, of Tropical West Africa, has two or three enlarged scales above the supranasals; they stand upon erectile tissue so as to form horn-like elevations. This "Nose-horned Viper" grows to a length of 4 feet, and is rather prettily marked; the ground-colour is purplish or reddish brown, with a vertebral series of large, pale, dark-edged spots and oblique crosses. The young are at birth as much as one foot in length, and are very tastefully coloured.

_Cerastes_ and _Echis_ prefer to burrow in sand. The lateral scales are smaller than the dorsals, and arranged obliquely with serrated keels, so that the snakes can cover themselves with sand by lateral shovelling motions of the sides of the body.

_Cerastes cornutus_, the "Horned Viper" of North-Eastern Africa, from Algeria to Arabia, extending also into Palestine, has the sides of the ventral scales bent angularly, with an obtuse keel on either side. Above each eye stands a large horny, spiky scale. The upper parts are pale yellowish brown, mostly with dark spots arranged in several longitudinal rows. The under parts are white. This, or perhaps _C. vipera_, which has no horns, is supposed to be the species which has become famous through the suicide of Cleopatra.

About twenty years ago a number of "Horned Vipers" were brought to the Zoological Gardens of London, and attracted attention by their unusually long horns. It was found that some wily Egyptian snake-catcher had tried to manufacture a new species by taking specimens of the hornless _C. vipera_ and inserting a pair of hedgehog's spines, pushing them upwards through the mouth.

The "Horned Viper" attains a length of two feet and a half. {641}In the daytime it is invisible, being buried in the sand with only the eyes, nostrils, and the "horns" appearing above the surface.

_Vipera._–The head is distinct from the neck, and is covered with small scales and a few larger shields. The eye is separated from the labials by scales; the nasals are in contact with the rostral shield or separated by one naso-rostral shield. The scales on the body are strongly keeled; they are in two rows on the short tail. This genus with about ten species ranges over Europe, Asia, and the greater part of Africa.

_V. berus_, the Common European Viper (see Fig. 165, p. 620). The snout is not turned up at the end; between the small head-scales there is generally a pair of well-developed parietal and frontal shields. The scales of the trunk form twenty-one rows. The coloration is very variable, there being grey, brown, red, or black specimens in the same country, and the much-spoken-of black zigzag line along the back is so often indistinct that it is a character not to be relied upon. Usually the grey, yellowish, olive, brown or red ground-colour is set off by a dark zigzag band along the spine, and by a series of lateral spots; an oblique or St. Andrew's cross or two diverging bold streaks of dark brown or black are usually present on the back of the head, and there is a dark streak behind the eye. The under parts are grey, brown, or black, uniform or speckled; the end of the tail is usually yellow or red.

{642}

According to Boulenger, who is making a special study of the individual variations of Vipers (concerning colour, scaling, number of vertebrae, etc.), some specimens are entirely black in the males through extension of the black markings, in the females through darkening of the ground-colour. Males are usually distinguishable from females by darker, deep black markings and lighter ground-colour. The females are mostly larger than the males. The largest specimen in the British Museum measures 700 mm. = 28 inches, but a viper 2 feet long may be considered a very large specimen. The Common Viper has a wide range, from Wales to Saghalien Island, and from Caithness to the north of Spain. It ascends the Alps to a considerable altitude, up to 6000 feet. J. Blum[194] has published an elaborate statistical account of the Viper in Germany, unfortunately confining himself strictly to the political frontiers. According to the map attached to his work, the Viper is common all over Germany with the exception of South-Western and parts of Middle Germany. It is absent in Alsace, the Bavarian Palatinate, Rhenish Prussia, Hesse, the northern half of Baden, Würtemberg, and Franconia, countries which, speaking broadly, have a warm subsoil, composed of Red Sandstone and Basaltic formation. As a rule the Viper prefers heaths, moors, and mixed woods with sunny slopes. Brambles, clumps of nettles, hedges, the edges of little copses, heaps of stones, are favourite places of retreat, affording shelter, holes, and the vicinity of mice, which form its chief sustenance. At harvest-time it is often found in cornfields, and it frequently hides in the sheaves. Vipers are fond of basking on certain spots, on the top of a stone, the stump of a tree, or a patch of sand: a shower of rain or even passing clouds drive them back into their holes. They are eminently nocturnal, when they regularly "beat" their district, biting and paralysing their prey before swallowing it. A fire kindled at night is sure to draw vipers near; the same applies to other vipers, for instance _Cerastes_, which appears in perplexing {643}numbers at the camp-fire. They cannot climb, and they avoid going into water. The pairing takes place as a rule from March to May, a number of individuals, mostly males, collecting around the females, and forming entangled lumps of snakes; parturition takes place in the following July and August. In exceptionally warm winters they have been known to pair in December, having left their winter-quarters. They hibernate for about six months, more or less according to the climate, congregating in great numbers, sometimes in dozens. With very rare exceptions Vipers do not take food in captivity, but prefer starving themselves to death. The bite is as a rule not fatal. The seriousness of the case depends of course upon many circumstances, as for instance the state of concentration of the venom, the position and depth of the bite, and last but not least upon the general condition of health of the victim. General depression aggravated by nervousness, weakness of the bitten limb, occasional breaking out of the wound, are of frequent and protracted occurrence. (See also p. 590.)

_V. aspis_ is a more southern and western European Viper, occurring from France to the Tyrol, and in Italy. The snout is slightly turned up at the end, and still more so in _V. latastei_ of Spain and Portugal. In _V. ammodytes_, of South-Eastern Europe, the raised portion is produced into a soft, scaly appendage (see the lower figure on p. 641). Vipers are sometimes unpleasantly common in certain localities. This was for instance the case at the drill-ground near Metz, and the military authorities paid a price for each viper delivered to them. The supply of the latter increased to an alarming extent until the German authorities discovered that a regular trade had been established across the frontier, and that the French Lorrainers were importing vipers briskly.

_V. russelli_, the "Daboia" or Russell's Viper, is one of the scourges of India, Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. The scales form about thirty rows on the body. The upper surface of the head is covered with small, imbricating, usually keeled scales. The general colour is pale brown above with three longitudinal series of black, light-edged rings, which sometimes encircle reddish spots. The under parts are yellowish white, uniform, or with small crescentic black spots. Total length up to about 5 feet. The poisoning symptoms are described on p. 590.

{644}SUB-FAM. 2. CROTALINAE ("Pit-Vipers").–With a deep cavity or pit between the eye and the nose, lodged in the hollowed-out maxillary bone. This pit is lined with a modified continuation of the epidermis, and is amply supplied with branches from the trigeminal nerve. It is undoubtedly sensory, but we do not know its function. A good anatomical account of this organ has been given by West.[195] Some of the Pit-Vipers have a rattle at the end of the tail; these are the Rattle-Snakes. The rattle is composed of a number of horny bells which fit into each other. The oldest or terminal bell is in reality the horny covering of the tip of the tail, and with each moult or shedding of the skin the youngest bell becomes loose, but is held by the new covering which has been developed in the meantime. There is thus produced an ever-increasing number of loosely-jointed bells, but now and then most or all the bells break off, probably when they are worn out, and a new set is gradually developed. Rattles with a dozen bells are, for instance, very rare. They naturally increase in bulk with the age of the snake, but the number of joints is no indication of the snake's age.

Pit-Vipers have a very wide distribution. They are divided into four genera with about sixty species. Rattle-Snakes are {645}restricted to America, but other Pit-Vipers occur in North and South America and in the southern half of Asia.

_Ancistrodon._–Without a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered with nine large shields, but the internasals and prefrontals are sometimes broken up into scales. The scales of the body have apical, sensory pits. About ten species, some in Central and North America, others in the Caspian district (_A. halys_), in the Himalayas (_A. himalayanus_), in Ceylon, Java, etc.

_A. piscivorus_ s. _Trigonocephalus cenchris_ (part), the "Water-Viper," inhabits North America from Carolina and Indiana to Florida and Texas. The general colour is reddish to dark brown, with darker cross-bands or with C-shaped markings; a dark, light-edged band extends from the eye to the angle of the mouth. The under parts are yellowish, spotted with black, or the latter is the prevailing colour. Total length up to 5 feet. The Water-Viper is semi-aquatic and lives chiefly on fishes, but it also eats other snakes and various Amphibia, Birds, and Mammals. This snake is very good-humoured in captivity, and becomes {646}easily tame. A gentleman in Berlin, rather too much addicted to making pets of poisonous snakes, had a pair which propagated regularly. When I was a boy he invited me to feed the young Water-Vipers with fishes cut into strips, and I enjoyed this immensely until he warned me not to touch the mother, which might bite strangers.

_A. contortrix_ s. _Trigonocephalus cenchris_ (part), the "Moccasin-Snake" or "Copper-head," is one of the few poisonous snakes which possess a loreal shield, _i.e._ a shield intercalated between the pre-oculars and the nasals; below it lies the pit. The general colour is yellowish to pink or pale brown, with dark brown or red cross-bars or triangular marks. The under surface is yellowish or reddish, speckled with grey or brown, and with a lateral series of large blackish spots. Total length of full-grown specimens about one yard. The Moccasin-Snake ranges from Massachusetts and Kansas to Northern Florida and Texas. It prefers swampy localities or meadows with high grass, where it hunts for small Mammals and Birds.

_Lachesis._–Without a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered with very small shields or with scales. About forty {647}species in South-Eastern Asia and in Central and South America.

_L._ (_Bothrops_ s. _Craspedocephalus_) _lanceolatus_ inhabits nearly the whole of South America, extending into Mexico and the Lower Antilles, _e.g._ Martinique, Guadaloupe, and Santa Lucia, where it is known as the "Fer-de-Lance," and is the curse of the sugar-plantations on account of its being so very common and so deadly poisonous. The Mongoose was introduced as a possible antagonist, but the little Indian Mammal wisely left the dangerous reptile alone, and has in some places established himself as another pest–as a destroyer of poultry. The Fer-de-Lance grows to a length of 6 feet, establishes itself everywhere–in swamps, plantations, forests, in the plains and in the hills–and is very prolific, producing, according to its size, dozens of young which are 10 inches long, very active and snappy.

_L._ (_Trimeresurus_) _gramineus_ s. _viridis_, to mention one Asiatic species, grows to less than 3 feet in length, is bright green above, sometimes with faint blackish bars; green, yellow, or whitish below, and with a light streak along the outer row of scales. The end of the tail is usually bright red. This beautiful snake has a prehensile tail and is arboreal. Its range extends over the whole of India, to Hong-Kong and to Timor, and even into the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

_Sistrurus._–With a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered with nine large shields. A few species in North America east of the Rocky Mountains, e.g. _S. miliarius_.

{648}_Crotalus._–With a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered with small scales. Range from Southern Canada and British Columbia to Northern Argentina, but not in the West Indian Islands. About ten, mostly closely-allied species.

{649}The effect of the poison of Rattle-Snakes has been discussed on p. 589.

_C. horridus_ is the common Rattle-Snake of the United States; _C. confluentus_ is the species in Western and _C. durissus_ the common species in South-Eastern North America. Very large Rattle-Snakes, _C. durissus_, attain a length of 8 feet, others not often more than five. They prey chiefly upon small Mammals, hunting for them at night. In the daytime they are also about, mainly in order to bask. Although they occasionally take to the water in pursuit of their prey, they dislike being wetted by rain, withdrawing then into their holes, appropriating as a rule those of ground-squirrels, rats, and Prairie-dogs. The often-repeated story about Rattle-Snakes living in neighbourly friendship in the holes of Prairie-dogs, together with the little Prairie-owls, is an exaggeration. We do not know how many of the original inmates are eaten. Pairing takes place in the spring. During the cold months they hibernate under ground, often in considerable numbers.

Rattle-Snakes have few enemies besides man and pigs. The latter kill and eat them wherever they can. The rattle is decidedly useful to the snake as an instrument of warning off any approaching possible enemy, since no snake likes to bite unless in self-defence or in order to kill its prey. The noise of the rattle is very loud in dry weather, much duller on clammy days; it is a shrill sound like that of a rattling alarm-clock, and a well-conditioned snake in a room can make conversation well-nigh impossible, and can keep on rattling for half an hour or longer. The rattle is kept in such rapid lateral vibrations that it shows only a blurred image, the rattle standing with its broader sides vertically, not horizontally. They endure captivity for many years, and become tame enough not to hiss and to rattle whenever they are approached.

_C. horridus_ is grey-brown above, usually with a rusty vertebral stripe and with V- or M-shaped blackish cross-bands; the under surface is yellowish; the end of the tail is blackish. The supra-ocular shields are smooth and much narrower than the scaly space between them, and there is only one pair of internasals.

_C. durissus_ s. _adamanteus_ differs from the previous species chiefly by possessing two pairs of internasals; and the dark {650}markings on the body form a handsome pattern of rhombs with lighter centres and yellowish edges. This is the largest species of Rattle-Snake, reaching a length of 8 feet.

_C. confluentus_ has broader, transversely striated, supra-ocular shields. The specific name refers to the continuous series of large brown or red rhomboidal spots on the back.

_C. terrificus_ ranges from Arizona to Argentina, and is the only species of Rattle-Snake in South America. It differs from the others by having a pair of prefrontal shields behind the pair of internasals.

{651}INDEX

Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or
species; figures in italics indicate that the reference relates to
systematic position; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. =
and in following page or pages; n. = note.

Abdominal armour, of _Cricotus_, 287;
of Microsauri, 289;
of Prosauri, 290
Abdominal ribs, of Rhynchocephali, 292, 298;
of Dinosauria, 414;
of _Megalosaurus_, 421
Aberrant scaling of Lacertilia, 495
_Ablepharus_, 560;
eyelids, 494
_Acanthodactylus vulgaris_, _559_
_Acanthophis antarcticus_, _635_
Acentrous vertebrae, _i.e._ those without a centrum or body, 4
_Acris_, 186, _189_;
_A. gryllus_, _207_ f.
Acrochordinae, _606_
_Acrochordus javanicus_, _607_
_Acteosaurus_, _489_
_Actinodon_, _83_, 287, 288
Adams, visit to the Mugger-peer, 455 f.
Adaptive characters of Anura, 142
Adhesive apparatus, of tadpoles, 57, 57;
of Tree-frogs, 187;
of _Thoropa_, 209;
of finger-discs of Raninae, 239;
of Geckos, 505, 505
_Aelurosaurus_, _307_
Aestivation, of Crocodiles, 457;
of Tortoises, 357, 365, 404
_Aetosaurus_, 432;
_Ae. ferratus_, _433_, 448
_Agalychnis_, _189_, _206_
_Agama_, _520_;
_A. sanguinolenta_, _520_;
_A. stellio_, _521_, 521
Agamidae, _513_, _515_ f.
_Agamura_, tail, 506
Agassiz, on habits of Alligator Turtle, 341;
of _Trionyx_, 407
Age of Chelonia, how to estimate, 326;
great age attained by Tortoises, 369, 376, 377;
_see also_ Growth, rate of
Aglossa, 139, _140_, _143_ f.;
distribution, 143
Aglypha, _592_, _606_ f.
_Ahaetulla_ s. _Leptophis_, _618_, 619
Aistopodes, _81_
Aldabra, gigantic tortoises of, 373 f., 375
Algae, destructive to shell of tortoises, 357
Allantois, an embryonic outgrowth from the posterior part of the gut,
acting as a respiratory organ, 278
_Alligator_, _450_, _466_ f.;
_A. mississippiensis_, _467_ f.;
skull, 468;
nesting, 469;
_A. sinensis_, 471
Alligator Turtle, 340
_Allopleuron hofmanni_, 380
_Allosaurus_, _422_
Alpine, Newt, _126_;
Salamander, _119_
Altitude, high, in which Anura have been found, 181
_Alytes_, _157_ f.;
_A. cisternasi_, _160_;
_A. obstetricans_, _158_;
urino-genital organs, 49
Amblycephalidae, _592_, 593, _637_
_Amblycephalus monticola_, _637_
_Amblyrhynchus_, 528;
_A. cristatus_, _533_
_Amblystoma_, skull, 17, 94, 96, _109_, _110_ f., 112;
_A. jeffersonianum_, _111_;
_A. mavortium_, _115_;
_A. opacum_, _110_;
_A. persimile_, _111_;
_A. punctatum_, _110_;
_A. talpoideum_, _110_;
_A. tigrinum_, _111_ f.;
metamorphosis of, 112 f.
Amblystomatinae, _102_, _109_
_Ameiva_, 549
Amnion, a membrane round the embryo, 278
Amphibia, 3 f.;
definition, 5;
systematic position, 5;
numbers of species, 4
Amphicondylous, _i.e._ the occipital part of the skull articulates with
the neck by a right and a left knob, 4
_Amphignathodon_, 185;
_A. guentheri_, _188_
Amphignathodontinae, _139_, _188_
_Amphisbaena_, _566_;
_A. fuliginosa_, _566_
Amphisbaenidae, _514_, _565_ f.
_Amphiuma_, 88, 96;
_A. means_ s. _tridactyla_, _100_, 101
Amphiumidae, _94_, _97_ {652}
_Amphodus_, _210_;
_A. wucheri_, 211
Anaconda, 603, 603
_Anaides_ = _Autodax_ (q.v.), _107_
Anal sacs of Chelonia, used as additional respiratory organs, 330
_Anarosaurus pumilio_, _477_
_Anchisaurus_, 415, 417, _421_;
skull of _A. coelurus_, 421
_Ancistrodon_, _645_;
_A. contortrix_, _646_, 646;
_A. halys_, _645_;
_A. himalayanus_, _645_;
_A. piscivorus_, _645_, 645
Anderson, on nest of _Gavialis_, 452
Andrews, on _Amblystoma_, 110
_Andrias scheuchzeri_, 84
Anelytropidae, _514_, _564_
_Anelytropsis papillosus_, _564_
Anguidae, _513_, _537_ f.;
distribution, 501, 529
_Anguis fragilis_, _539_, 539
_Aniella pulchra_, _564_
Aniellidae, _514_, _564_
Annandale, on habits of _Calotes_, 518;
of _Liolepis_, 527;
of _Rhacophorus_, 247;
of _Varanus salvator_, 544
_Anodonta_, as food of _Trionyx_, 407
_Anodontohyla_, _236_
_Anolis_, _528_;
_A. carolinensis_, _529_
Anomodontia, _309_
Anura, 7;
characters, 138;
classification, 139 f., 141;
phylogenetic tree of, 142
Anus, asymmetrical position of, 60
Apoda, _84_ f.;
affinities, 88;
distribution, 89;
eyes, 86;
skin, 87;
skull, 84, 85;
spermatozoa, 87;
tentacular apparatus, 88;
vertebrae, 86;
visceral arches, 86
_Archaeopteryx_, 417
_Archegosaurus_, vertebrae, 13, _82_, 287
Arcifera, of Cope, 140;
of Boulenger, 140
Arciferous, type of shoulder-girdle, 24, 25
_Arion_, slug, eaten by tortoises, 363
Arrau-turtle (_Podocnemis_), 391 f.
Arteria cutanea magna, 144;
A. sacralis of Anura, 144
_Arthroleptis_, _241_, _242_;
_A. seychellensis_, _243_, 243
_Ascaphus_, _153_
_Asterophrys_, _161_
Athecae, _333_;
definition of name, 337
_Atlantosaurus_, 415, _419_;
_A. immanis_, _419_, 420
Atlas and Axis, _i.e._ first and second cervical vertebrae; of
_Cryptobranchus_, 13;
of Crocodilia, 283;
of Chelonia, 283, 316;
of _Sphenodon_, 283, 294;
atlas fused with axis, 307
Atoposauridae, _453_
_Atractaspis_, _638_;
dentition, 593 n.
Atria, the thin-walled receptive parts (auricles) of the heart
Auditory columellar apparatus, of Amphibia, 24;
of Anura, 29
Australian, Anura, spawning time and habits of, 201;
Lacertilia, 502
_Autodax_, 96, _104_, _107_;
_A. lugubris_, _107_;
_A. iecanus_, _107_
Autosauri, _491_ f.
Axis;
_see_ Atlas
Axolotl, 65, _112_ f., 112;
Neoteny of, 65, 112
_Azemiops feae_, _638_

Balancers of Amphibia, 45
_Baptanodon_, 483, _484_
Barfurth, on absorption of Tadpole's tail, 61
Bartlett, on _Boa constrictor_, 602;
on _Pipa_, 152
_Basiliscus_, 528, _530_;
_B. americanus_, _530_, 530
Bates, on habits of _Podocnemis_, 392 f.
_Batrachomyia_, fly infesting Bufonidae, 177
_Batrachophrynus_, _224_;
_B. macrostomus_, 225;
_B. brachydactylus_, 224
_Batrachopsis_, _161_
_Batrachoseps_, 96, _104_
_Batrachylodes_, _241_
_Batrachyperus_, 96;
_B. sinensis_, _109_
Baur, on _Sphargis_, 336
_Bdellophis_, _90_
Bedriaga, on Axolotl, 114;
synopsis of Urodelous Larvae, 59 n.
Bell, J., on classification, 8
Bell, Napier, on habits of _Iguana_, 531
_Belodon_, 305, _434_, 448
Bemmelen, on _Sphargis_, 336
Berg, on _Spelerpes fuscus_, 106
Bert, quoted, 571 n.
Bidder's organ, 49, 52
Biedermann, on change of colour in _Hyla_, 35
Birds not related to Dinosaurs, 416 f.
_Bitis arietans_, _639_, 639;
_B. nasicornis_, _640_
Black Snake, of Australia, _634_;
of North America, _613_
Blainville, de, on classification, 7
_Blanus cinereus_, _566_
Blood, shape of red corpuscles, 4;
temperature, 67 f.
Blood-sucker = _Calotes ophiomachus_, 519
Blum, quoted, 642 n.
_Boa_, _602_;
_B. constrictor_, _602_;
_B. dumerili_, _602_;
_B. madagascariensis_, _602_
Boettger, on influence of climate and country upon reptiles, 492 f.
Boidae, _592_, _596_ f.;
skull, 596, 597
Boinae, _601_ f.
_Bombinator_, _154_ f., 155;
habits, 156 f.;
tadpoles, 157;
abnormal vertebrae, 22;
shoulder-girdle, 25;
urino-genital organs, 49;
_B. igneus_, _154_, 155;
_B. pachypus_, _155_
_Bothrops_, _647_
Boulenger, classification of Amphibia Caudata, 9; {653}
on vertebrae of _Pelobates_, 20;
on vertebrae of _Bombinator_, 22;
number of phalanges in Anura, 27;
on poison of Amphibia, 36;
on vocal sacs, 48;
on modes of fecundation and nursing habits, 54, 56;
synopsis of Tadpoles, 59 n.;
on tadpoles of _Rana opisthodon_, 260;
on classification of Anura, 140, 141;
on _Pipa_, 152;
on _Scaphiopus solitarius_, 165;
on _Alligator sinensis_, 471;
on _Lanthanotus_, _542_;
on aberrant scaling, 495;
on _Heloderma_, 540 n.;
on classification of Snakes, 592;
on Sea-Snakes, 637;
on _Sphargis_, 336
_Boulengerula_, _90_
Box-Tortoises, _362_, 364, 365
Brachial plexus, of Anura, 39
_Brachycephalus_, 226, _227_;
_B. ephippium_, _231_
_Brachylophus_, distribution, 501, _528_
Brain, of _Scaphognathus_, 485;
small size of, in Dinosaurs, 425
Branchial arches, of Urodela, 16;
of Anura, 42
Branchiosauri, _80_
_Branchiosaurus_, skull, 80;
_B. salamandroides_, _80_
Brauer, on development of Apoda, 92;
on nursing habits of _Arthroleptis_, 243
Breeding of Axolotl, 113
_Breviceps_, shoulder-girdle, 26, 225, 226, _227_, _232_;
_B. mossambicus_, _232_
_Brithopus_, _308_
Brongniart, on classification, 7
_Brontosaurus_, 415, _418_;
_B. excelsus_, 418
_Brontozoum_, 415, 417;
_B. giganteum_, _420_
Brood-pouches, of Anura, 151, 248;
of _Hyla goeldii_, 198;
of _Nototrema_, 202;
of _Rhinoderma_, 228
_Brookesia_, _580_
Brown Adder, _634_
Brown Frog, Common, 251 f., 255
Brücke, quoted, 571
Buchholz, on _Chiromantis_, _244_ f.
Budgett, on breeding habits of _Phyllomedusa_, 204;
on _Paludicola_, 220;
on _Lepidobatrachus_, 218;
quick development of _Phryniscus_, 231;
on _Bufo marinus_, 179
_Bufo_, sacral vertebra, 22;
shoulder-girdle, 26;
urine-genital organs, 49;
development of adhesive apparatus, 57;
_B. agua_, _178_;
_B. americanus_, _178_;
_B. calamita_, _181_ f.;
_B. ceratophrys_, _179_;
_B. empusus_ and _B. peltocephalus_, dermal ossifications, 179;
_B. jerboa_, 166;
_B. lentiginosus_, _178_, _179_;
map of distribution, 167, _168_, _169_ f.;
_B. marinus_, _178_;
_B. mauritanica_ s. _pantherina_, _184_;
_B. melanostictus_, _177_, _179_;
_B. quercinus_, _178_;
_B. variabilis_ = _viridis_, _180_;
_B. viridis_, _180_ f., 493;
_B. vulgaris_, 170 f., 172;
large-sized specimens, 171;
immured in buildings, 174;
diseases, 176;
distribution, 177
Bufonidae, _139_, _166_ f.;
distribution, 167;
affinities, 166
Bufoniformes, 139
Bullfrog, of America, _Rana catesbiana_, 261;
of India, _Callula pulchra_, 234;
_Rana tigrina_, 261
_Bungarus coeruleus_ s. _candidus_, _633_;
_B. fasciatus_, _633_
Butler, on fat-bodies, 500

_Cabrita_, 551
_Cacopus_, shoulder-girdle, 25, 225, 226, _228_
_Cacosternum_, 225, _227_
_Caiman_, _450_, _471_;
vomer, 435;
_C. niger_, _471_, _472_;
_O. palpebrosus_, _471_;
_C. sclerops_, _471_;
_C. trigonatus_, _471_, _472_
Calcareous deposits in the skin of Amphibia, 31, 34
_Calliphora silvatica_, fly infesting _Bufo_, 176
_Callophis macclellandi_, _634_
_Calluella_, 235, _236_
_Callula_, 226, _228_, _234_;
_C. pulchra_, habits of, _234_ f.
_Callulops_, 225, _228_
_Calophrynus_, 225, _227_
_Calotes_, _517_;
_C. emma_, _518_;
_C. mystaceus_, _519_;
_C. ophiomachus_, _519_;
_C. versicolor_, _518_
_Calyptocephalus_, 179, _212_, _215_
_Camptosaurus_, _426_
_Capitosaurus_, _83_
Carapace, 321 f., 319, 320, 322, 323;
posterior portion movable in _Cinyxis_, _364_, 365;
carapace of tortoises, evolution of, 337;
composition of, 324 f.;
reduction of component elements, 325;
reduction in thickness, 373;
correlative changes, 328;
of _Sphargis_, 335 f.;
of _Chelone_, 379;
of _Testudo_, 322;
of Pleurodira, 389;
reduction in Trionychidae, 325;
fenestration, 325;
with hinge in _Cinyxis_, 364, 365
_Cardioglossa_, _274_
Carettochelydidae, _313_, _314_
_Carettochelys_, 337, 389, 390;
_C. insculpta_, _404_;
absence of horny shields, 325
Carpet Snake, _598_, 599
Carpus (_see also_ Limbs), of _Eryops_, 286;
of _Sphenodon_, 294;
of Chelonia, 320, 320;
of Eusuchia, 440
_Casarea_, _603_
Case, on _Sphargis_, 336
_Cassina_, _240_
_Causus_, _638_;
_C. rhombeatus_, _639_
_Centrolene geckoideum_, _211_
_Cerastes cornutus_, _640_, 641
Ceratobatrachidae, 141 {654}
Ceratobatrachinae, _139_, _237_ f.
_Ceratobatrachus guentheri_, _237_
_Ceratohyla_, 211
_Ceratophora_, _517_;
_C. stoddarti_, _517_;
_C. tennenti_, _517_
_Ceratophrys_, _212_, _215_ f.;
_C. cornuta_, 216;
_C. dorsata_, 215;
_C. ornata_, 216, 217
Ceratopsia, _430_
_Ceratosaurus_, 413, 416, 417;
_C. nasicornis_, _422_, 422
_Cerberus rhynchops_, _625_
_Cetiosaurus_, _419_
_Chalarodon_, _528_;
geographical distribution of; 501
_Chalcides_, _562_;
_Ch. bedriagae_, 563;
_Ch. guentheri_, 563;
_Ch. lineatus_, 563;
_Ch. ocellatus_, 563;
_Ch. tridactylus_, 563
_Chamaeleon_, _573_;
_Ch. bifidus_, 580;
_Ch. calcaratus_, 579;
_Ch. parsoni_, 580;
_Ch. pumilus_, 579, 575;
_Ch. vulgaris_, 573, 574, 575
Chamaeleontes, _567_ f.;
distribution, 568;
skull, 568, 569;
tongue, 569 f.;
colour-changing mechanism, 570, 571, 573 f.;
eggs, 572
Chamaeleontidae, _573_ f.
_Chamaerops humilis_, dates of, eaten by _Testudo_, 367
Chameleon, misnamed _Calotes_, _518_;
misnamed _Polychrus_, _529_
Chauvin, Marie von, on Axolotl, 113;
on _Salamandra atra_, 120
_Chelodina_, suppression of neural plates, 324;
intergular shields, 389, 315;
skull, 399;
_Ch. longicollis_, _402_ f., 403
_Chelone_, skull, 317;
skeleton, 320;
plastron, 321;
shields, 327;
intergular shields, 325;
_Ch. mydas_, _381_ f.;
various modes of fishing, etc., 382, 383;
_Ch. imbricata_, _384_, 385
Chelonemydidae, 380
Chelonia, 312;
number of species, 312;
affinities of, 312;
classification, 313;
key to living families, 314;
plastron, names of the horny shields, 315; 321, 325;
vertebrae, 314 f., 316;
skull, 280, 317, 356, 364, 379, 400, 405;
skeleton of _Testudo_, 319;
of _Chelone_, 320;
pectoral arch, 318;
pelvis, 319;
plastron, bones of, 321;
limbs, 320;
bony shell, 321 f., 322, 323;
evolution of, 337;
evolution of the horny shields, 326 f., 327;
regeneration, 329;
sense-organs, 329;
digestive apparatus, 330;
respiration, 331;
growth of _Chrysemys_, 349
Chelonidae, _313_, _314_, _378_ f.;
affinities of, 380
Chelydidae, _313_, _314_, _399_;
distribution, 332, 333
_Chelydosaurus_, _82_, 287
_Chelydra_, 328;
_Ch. serpentina_, _338_
Chelydridae, _313_, _314_, _338_;
distribution of, 332
_Chelydropsis_, nuchal plates, 324
_Chelys fimbriata_, _400_;
skull, 400, 401;
intergular shields, 325
_Chersydrus granulatus_, _607_
_Chioglossa_, 96, _115_;
_Ch. lusitanica_, _121_
_Chirixalus_, _241_
_Chiroleptes_, 209, _213_, _221_;
_Ch. platycephalus_, _221_
_Chiromantis_, 238, _241_, _244_;
_Ch. petersi_, _244_;
_Ch. xerampelina_, _244_
_Chirotes_, 564;
_Ch. canaliculatus_, _566_
_Chirotherium_, _83_
_Chlamydosaurus kingi_, 522, 523
Choanae, or inner nasal openings, 47
Chorda dorsalis, the axial rod between the gut and the spinal cord,
around which the vertebrae are formed, 12
_Chorophilus_, 186, _189_;
_Ch. ornatus_, _208_
Chromatophores, 35
_Chrysemys_, costal plates of, 325;
green colour of, 328, _346_ f.;
colour of iris, 329;
_Ch. concinna_, _346_, 349, 350;
_Ch. elegans_, _346_;
_Ch. picta_, 346, _347_, 348;
_Ch. rubriventris_, _346_
_Chthonerpeton_, 87, _90_
_Cimoliasaurus_, _478_;
_C. australis_, _478_;
_C. cantabrigiensis_, _478_;
_C. chilensis_, _478_;
_C. haasti_, _478_
Cinosternidae, _313_, _314_, _342_;
distribution, 332
_Cinosternum_, 342 f.;
arrangement of neural plates, 324;
_C. leucostomum_, _342_, 344;
_C. odoratum_, _342_, 343;
_C. pennsylvanicum_, _342_, 344
_Cinyxis belliana_, _365_;
_C. erosa_, _364_, 365;
_C. homeana_, _364_
_Cistecephalus_, _310_
_Cistudo_, arrangement of neural plates, 324;
_C. Carolina_, 361 f., 364;
colour of iris, 329
_Claosaurus_, _429_
Clarke, on habits and development of _Alligator_, 467
Classification of Amphibia, historical account, 7 f.
Clawed Toad (_Xenopus_), _146_ f.
Claws or nails of Amphibia, 32
Cleithra = the pair of additional clavicles;
of Stegocephali, 79;
of _Pareiasaurus_, 304, 305
_Clemmys_, _356_ f.;
_C. caspica_, _358_;
_C. insculpta_, _359_;
_C. leprosa_, _356_ f., 353;
skull, 356
_Clepsydrops_, _308_
_Clidastes tortor_, _490_
Cloaca, of Chelonia, 330;
of Crocodiles, 445;
of Lacertilia, 498
_Cnemidophorus_, _549_;
_C. sexlineatus_, _549_
Cobra, _627_, 627
Coccyx, _s._ Os coccygeum, of Anura, 20, 21, 22 {655}
_Coecilia_, _89_
Coeciliidae, _89_ f.;
distribution of, 89
_Coelopeltis_, _624_;
_C. monspessulana_ s. _lacertina_, _624_
_Coelurus_, _415_;
_C. gracilis_, _423_
Colombo, gigantic tortoise of, 377
Coloration, warning colours of Amphibia, 38, 156;
protective, of Amphibia, 191, 238, 252;
of deserticolous reptiles, 494
_Colosthetus_, 238, _242_
Colour, changes of, in Anura, 35;
in _Calotes_, 518, 519, 520;
in Geckos, 509;
in Lacertilia, 498;
mechanism of changing, in Chameleons, 570, 571
_Coluber_, _615_ f.;
_C. aesculapii_ = _flavescens_ = _longissimus_, _616_ f.;
_C. leopardinus_, _616_;
_C. (Rhinechis) scalaris_, _617_
Colubridae, _593_, _606_ f.
Colubrinae, _607_ f.
Columella cranii, 496, 550, 551
Columellar auditory chain, of Amphibia, 4;
of Anura, 29;
of Crocodiles, 446;
of Lizards, 496
Comoro Islands, Tortoises of, 373
_Compsognathus_, _415_, 416, 417;
_C. longipes_, _423_, 425
Condyle, occipital, of Theromorpha, 302;
exaggerated importance of its character, 285
_Conolophus subcristatus_, _532_
Conus arteriosus, continuation of the heart beyond the ventricles so far
as it contains valves, 6
Cope, on classification of Amphibia, 9;
of Anura, 140, 141;
on _Siren_, 136;
on hand-skeleton of _Eryops_, 286;
on _Sphargis_, 336;
classification of Lacertae, 513;
classification of Snakes, 592
_Cophophryne_, 167, _168_
_Cophyla_, _236_
Copper-head, _646_, 646
Copulatory organs, of Lacertilia, 499;
absent in _Sphenodon_, 294;
of Chelonia, 330;
of Snakes, 585
Coqui, 214
_Coronella_, _619_;
_C. austriaca_ s. _laevis_, _619_, 620;
_C. girondica_, _621_
_Cornufer_, _241_, _243_;
_C. corrugatus_, _244_;
_C. johnstoni_, _243_;
_C. solomonis_, _244_;
_C. unicolor_, _244_
_Corythomantis_, _189_, _207_;
_C. greeningi_, 207
Costal plates of Chelonia, 324 f., 322, 323
_Craspedocephalus_, 647
Crested Newt, 125, 125
_Cricotus_, 285, _285_;
_C. heteroclitus_, 287
_Crinia_, _213_;
spawning, 223
Crocodilia, _431_ f.;
skeleton, 434 f.;
skull, 280, 434 f.;
atlas and axis, 283, 431, 439;
affinities, 432;
teeth, 437;
skin, 442;
dermal armour, 442;
skin glands, 443;
tongue, 443;
respiratory organs, 444;
"diaphragm," 444;
digestive organs, 444;
cloaca, 445;
heart, 445;
ear, 445;
eye, 446;
geographical distribution, 446, 446;
voice, 447;
habits, 447;
propagation, 447;
classification, 448
Crocodilidae, _454_
_Crocodilus_, _450_, _454_ f.;
teeth, 437;
skin glands, 443;
_C. acutus_, _446_, 449;
_C. americanus_, _466_;
skull, 466;
_C. biporcatus_ = _porosus_, _458_;
rate of growth, 459;
_C. cataphractus_, _465_;
_C. intermedius_, _466_;
_C. johnstoni_, _466_;
_C. niloticus_ = _vulgaris_, _460_ f., 449, 461;
habits, 462 f.;
_C. palustris_, 449, _454_;
skull, 455;
_C. porosus_, _458_;
skull, 458;
_C. vulgaris_, 449, _460_ f.
Crotalinae, _644_
_Crotalus_, _648_;
rattle of, 644;
_C. adamanteus_, _649_, 650;
_C. confluentus_, 649, _650_;
_C. durissus_, 648, _649_, 650;
_C. horridus_, _649_;
_C. terrificus_, _650_
_Cryptobranchus_, 84, _96_, _99_;
fossil, 84;
_C. alleghaniensis_, _97_;
_C. japonicus_, 98, 99
_Cryptoclidus_, shoulder-girdle, 474, 475, _478_
Cryptodira, _313_, _338_
_Cryptopsophis_, _89_;
_C. multiplicatus_, _92_
_Cryptotis_, _213_
Cutis, of Amphibia, 33 f.
_Cyamodus_, _311_
_Cyclanorbis_, _411_;
nuchal plate, 324
_Cycloderma_, _411_
_Cyclodus_ s. _Tiliqua_, _561_;
_C. gigas_, _561_, 562
_Cyclorhamphus_, _212_
_Cynognathus_, 301, 302, 303;
_C. berryi_, _307_;
_C. crateronotus_, _306_;
_C. platyceps_, _307_
Cystignathidae, _139_, _209_ f.;
distribution, 161
Cystignathinae, _139_, _211_ f.
_Cystignathus_ = _Leptodactylus_, 210, _218_

Dab = _Uromastix_, _526_, 526
_Daboia_, _643_
_Dactylethra_;
see _Xenopus_, _146_ f.
Darwin, on _Conolophus_, 532 n.;
on tortoises of Galapagos Islands, 377
_Dasypeltis scabra_, _622_, 622;
dentition, 593 n.
Davison, on breeding of _Amphiuma_, 101
_Dawsonia_, _289_
Death Adder, _635_
Denburgh, van, on _Autodax_, 107
_Dendrobates_, _272_;
_D. braccatus_, _273_;
_D. tinctorius_, _272_, 273;
_D. trivittatus_, _273_;
_D. typographus_, _273_;
various uses of its poison, 38
Dendrobatinae, _139_, _237_, _272_ f.; {656}
distribution, 239
_Dendrophis_, _618_;
_D. punctulatus_, _618_, 618
Dendrophryniscinae, _139_, _224_
_Dendrophryniscus brevipollicatus_, _224_
Dentition, of snakes, 582, 592, 593;
_see_ also Teeth
Dermal armour, of _Cricotus_, 287;
of Microsauri, 289;
of Prosauri, 290;
of Theromorpha, 302;
of Chelonia, 321 f., 337;
of Dinosauria, 415;
of Pseudosuchia, 433;
of Parasuchia, 434;
of Crocodiles, 442
Dermal ossification in Anura, 179, 190, 210
Dermatemydidae, _313_, _314_, _341_;
distribution of, 332
_Dermatemys mawi_, _341_, 342
_Dermatochelys coriacea_, _333_ f., 334
_Dermophis_, _89_, _93_;
_D. thomensis_, _93_
Deserticolous reptiles, 493 f.
Desmognathinae, _102_
_Desmognathus_, 96, _102_;
_D. fuscus_, _102_, 103
_Deuterosaurus_, _308_
Development, of Anura, 56 f., 57;
of horny teeth, 58;
of Apoda, 92;
of _Crocodilus_, 465;
of _Alligator_, 467
_Diadectes_, _308_
_Diademodon_, _309_
_Diaglena_, 185, _189_;
_D. jordani_, _207_;
_D. petasata_, _207_
Diaphragm, of Anura, 144;
of crocodiles, 444
Diapophyses (the lateral or "transverse" processes of the neural arches)
of Anura, 138, 141
Dibamidae, _514_, _564_
_Dibamus novae-guineae_, _564_
_Dicamptodon_, 96;
_D. ensatus_, _109_
_Diclonius_ = _Hadrosaurus_, _429_
_Dicynodon_, 301, 302, 303, _310_;
skull, 280;
_D. leoniceps_, _310_;
_D. orientalis_, _310_;
_D. tigriceps_, _310_
Digestive apparatus, of Chelonia, 330;
of crocodiles, 444;
of Lacertilia, 498
Digits = Fingers and Toes.
Number of digits in Urodela, 15, 16;
in Anura, 26;
terminal phalanges, 26;
number of joints, 27;
adhesive discs, 27;
variability in numbers, 563;
digits of _Eryops_, 286;
of Crocodiles, 441;
of Plesiosauri, 475;
of Geckos, 505
_Dimetrodon_, _308_
_Dimorphodon macronyx_, _486_
Dinosauria, _412_;
affinities of, 415;
analogies with Birds, 416
_Diplocynodon_, 448;
_D. hastingsiae_, _454_
_Diplodocus longus_, _419_ f.;
skull, 419
_Diplovertebron_, _287_, 288
Dipsadomorphinae, _623_ f.
_Dipsadomorphus_, _623_;
_D. cyaneus_, _624_;
_D. trigonatus_, _623_
_Dipsas bucephala_, _624_
Discoglossidae, _139_, _152_ f.
_Discoglossus_, urino-genital organs, 49, _153_;
_D. pictus_, 153 f.
_Dissorophus multicinctus_, _82_
_Distira cyanocincta_, _637_;
_D. semperi_, _636_
Distribution, geographical;
_see_ Maps
Dolichosauri, _489_
_Dolichosaurus longicollis_, _489_
_Dolichosoma longissimum_, _81_
_Doliophis intestinalis_, _634_
Dollo, on _Sphargis_, 336
_Dracaena_, _547_;
_D. guianensis_, _549_
_Draco_, _516_;
_D. dussumieri_, _516_;
_D. volans_, _516_, 516
Duméril, 7, 139;
and Bibron, on classification of Snakes, 592
Dwarf Chameleon, _579_
Dyscophinae, _139_, _235_ f.
_Dyscophus_, _236_;
_D. antongili_, _236_