Chapter XIII: Carnivora267--Fissipedia (2)

The genus _Icticyon_ contains but one recent species, the Bush Dog (_I. venaticus_, Lund) of British Guiana. The animal has a somewhat Paradoxure-like, at any rate a distinctly un-dog-like, aspect, being longish in the body (some 2 feet long), shortish in the legs, and big-headed. It is blackish in colour, verging towards golden brown on the head and back. Sir W. Flower, to whom we owe our chief knowledge of its structure, characterises it as like a young Fox, and with the playful manners of a puppy. The animal appears to hunt in packs and by scent, and has a reputation for ferocity. _Icticyon_ differs from _Canis_ and agrees with the Indian _Cuon_ in having but forty teeth, the last molar having disappeared from the upper and lower jaws. The caecum, unlike that of the majority of Canidae, is only slightly curved. The brain, oddly enough, shows a Cat-like peculiarity. It has been pointed out that in their long bodies and short legs the genera _Cuon_ and _Icticyon_ resemble the primitive dogs.[289]

A genus _Nyctereutes_ is usually separated from _Canis_ for the inclusion of _N. procyonides_ only. The separation is based upon {415} the strikingly unusual coloration of this Dog. It is a small animal, with numerous long white hairs dorsally. The face, chest, and much of the belly are black. Its aspect distinctly recalls that of a Raccoon,[290] especially in the black patches below the eyes, whence of course the scientific name and the pseudo-vernacular "Raccoon-like Dog." It inhabits China and Japan. As to structure, there is hardly anything that justifies its exclusion from the genus _Canis_. Garrod, however, mentions the unusually large size of the Spigelian lobe of the liver.

FIG. 206.--Raccoon-like Dog. _Nyctereutes procyonides._ x 1/6.

Wortman and Malkens[291] have instituted a genus _Nothocyon_ for Dr. Mivart's species _C. urostictus_[292] and _C. parvidens_, which are both South American forms.

The genus _Otocyon_ contains but one species, _O. megalotis_, an African species, ranging pretty widely in that continent (from the Cape to Somaliland, in sandy districts), and sometimes confused with the Fennec on account of its long ears. Its principal structural difference from other Dogs is that there is an additional molar in each jaw, the molar formula being thus M 3/4 or even 4/4. Moreover the carnassial teeth are not so pronounced, and Professor Huxley laid especial stress upon the {416} likeness of some of the cheek teeth to those of the more primitive Arctoids. The angle of the lower jaw is inflected, a character, however, which seems to be more general than is usually allowed among animals not referable to the Marsupials. It is possible that _Otocyon_ is a persistent Creodont-like form which has developed in a direction curiously, and in a most detailed fashion, parallel to the Dogs. If, however, we may assume the addition of the molar, then this anomalous but not necessarily untenable conclusion is obviated.

The genus _Cuon_, or _Cyon_, has been instituted for the two or three species of Eastern Dogs (_C. primaevus_, _C. dukkunensis_, etc.) which agree with each other in the constant loss of a molar in the lower jaw, or, it should be said, almost constant loss, for the missing tooth is occasionally represented. The latter of the two species mentioned, the Dhole, is, like its congeners, an animal which hunts in packs; it is said to hunt even the ferocious Tiger, and to be thus one of the few animals which can face the largest and fiercest of the Carnivora.

The genus _Lycaon_ is a very distinct type, being differentiated from other Dogs by the possession of only four toes on both fore- and hind-limbs, and by the dental formula, which is Pm 4/4 M 2/3. The one species is _L. pictus_, the Cape Hunting Dog. It is singularly like a Hyaena[293] in general appearance; the ochraceous grey ground-colour with black markings and the long ears produce this likeness. The animal has got its vernacular name from the habit of hunting in packs. Its range is over a good part of Africa. The occurrence of this species (or at least genus, for the name _L. anglicus_ has been used) in caves in Glamorganshire seems to show that it is a comparatively recent immigrant into Africa. As to its visceral structures, _Lycaon_[294] does not differ widely from other Dogs. It has, however, no lytta beneath the tongue. The intestines are thus divided: large, 9 feet 1 inch; small, 1 foot 3 inches. This contrasts with the proportions observable in some other Dogs. While other Dogs have but a cartilaginous rudiment of the clavicle, _Lycaon_ has a considerably larger representative of this bone.

FIG. 207.--Fennec Fox. _Canis zerda._ x 1/5.

FIG. 208.--Prairie Wolf or Coyote. _Canis latrans._ x 1/8.

The bulk of the Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, and Jackals are thus left over for inclusion in the genus _Canis_. But the numerous {417} members of this genus can, according to Professor Huxley, be sorted into two series by certain cranial characters. The two series he termed the "Alopecoid" or Fox-like, and the "Thooid" or Wolf-like. It was suggested that the generic name _Vulpes_ be used for the former, and _Canis_ for the second. The characters which will be dealt with immediately are also to be noted among {418} the Dogs belonging to genera that have already been separated off. Thus _Lycaon_ is distinctly Thooid. The characters in question are these:--In the Fox series, the frontal air-sinus of the Thooids is absent; the cranial cavity is pear-shaped, without an abrupt angle coinciding with the supra-orbital sulcus, such as exists in the other group; the coronoid process of the mandible is rather higher and more turned back in the Foxes, while the depth of the mandible at the level of the first molar is greater.

FIG. 209.--Japanese Wolf. _Canis hodophylax._ x 1/8 (From _Nature_.)

To the Fox series belong among others the species _C. lagopus_ (Arctic Fox), _C. zerda_ (the Fennec), _C. chama_ (the Silver-backed Fox of Africa), _C. virginianus_ (the Virginian Fox), _C. velox_ (the Kit Fox), and of course the Common Fox of this country. On the other hand, the Dogs proper (such as _C. dingo_), the Wolves (_C. lupus_, _C. pallipes_, _C. niger_), the Japanese Wolf (_C. hodophylax_), the Red Wolf of America (_C. jubatus_), the Jackals (_C. aureus_, _C. anthus_, etc.), the Prairie Wolf (_C. latrans_), and a number of American forms, such as _C. azarae_, its close ally _C. cancrivorus_ ( = _C. rudis_), _C. antarcticus_, _C. magellanicus_, etc., are decidedly Wolves rather than Foxes. {419}

The Arctic Fox, _Canis lagopus_, is known by its bluish summer and pure white winter dress as "Blue Fox" and "White Fox" respectively. It is an inhabitant of the Arctic north; but in former days, as its remains show, it descended to such southern latitudes as Germany and this country. The most southern point which it now inhabits is Iceland. This small Fox is well known as being one of the few animals which change their dress to a complete white in winter. This change is, however, not absolutely universal; and M. Trouessart has even stated that the supposed change does not exist, but that the colours are a question of age and sex. This Fox feeds on birds and cast-up carcases of Whales and Seals; it is also said to devour shell-fish, and actually to store up food when abundant for seasons of scarcity. A Fox has been observed to "carry off eggs in his mouth from an eider duck's nest, one at a time, until the whole were removed"; and in winter to "scratch a hole down through very deep snow to a _cache_ of eggs beneath." These anecdotes are told by Sir Leopold McClintock; but others have also asserted the storing habits of this Fox, which really has only a short time of the year in which it can catch suitable living food.

_Canis vulpes_, the Fox, is not only a native of England, but extends as far to the east as Egypt, the so-called _C. aegyptiacus_ being at most a mere variety. Varieties indeed occur in these islands; the English Fox being redder, the Scotch greyer. Not only is the Fox a truly indigenous English beast, but its remains go back a very long way into past time. Its bones occur in the Red Crag, a deposit of Pliocene times. Its prevalence now is no doubt due to its preservation as a beast of chase. It lives in burrows, either excavating them itself or taking possession of those of some other animal; the Badger suffers in this way, and is said to be vanquished not by the teeth of the burglarious Fox, but by its far fouler habits! It is curious that the expression "foxing" is not so suitable to this animal as to many others. The habit of "shamming death" is a widely-spread one in the animal world, but at least not common with our Fox. The sagacity of the Fox appears to be a little more proverbial than actual; literature teems with its accomplishments. The worthy Archbishop of Upsala, Olaus Magnus, figured Foxes dipping their tails in the streams, and then pulling out inquisitive crayfishes {420} which had seized upon them. "It is a crafty, lively, and libidinous creature," observed a writer of the last century.

Of Jackals there are many species, both African and Oriental. Mr. de Winton allows the following list of African species[295]:--_C. anthus_, _C. variegatus_, _C. mesomelas_, _C. lateralis_. _C. mesomelas_ is distinguished by the broad black patch in the middle of the back. These animals do not appear to go in packs as so many Canidae do; they live upon carrion, but also rob hen-roosts, and commit other depredations upon the live stock of farmers. The "Quaha," _C. lateralis_, is distinguished from the last by its sharp bark, and by the obvious side stripe which has given to it its name. It is curious that it should live in apparent amity with _C. mesomelas_, since the habits of the two are identical and would lead, one might suppose, to a severe struggle for existence, in which one of the two would disappear. Of Indian Jackals _C. aureus_ is the most familiar type.

FIG. 210.--Wolf. _Canis lupus._ x 1/8.

The European Wolf, _Canis lupus_, was once, but is no longer, an inhabitant of the British Islands. Their former prevalence is indicated by many names of towns and villages, such as Ulceby and Usselby in Lincolnshire, the town of Wolverton, and Woolmer Forest. In Saxon times Wolves were very abundant; and even so recently as the reign of Elizabeth they were to be seen on {421} Dartmoor and in the Forest of Dean. In the New Forest they were hunted in the twelfth century. It would seem that the last English Wolf was slain some time during the reign of Henry VII. In Scotland, however, they persisted very much longer. So recently as 1743 was the last killed. But before this period they had begun to get exceedingly scarce, for the price of a skin in 1620 is quoted at L6:13:4. In Ireland Wolves lingered yet longer; about 1770 is believed to be the date of their final extinction in that island. The Wolf nowadays is distributed over the greater part of Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, the American form not being considered to be distinct from its European ally. Much legend has collected round this fierce Carnivore. Aristotle, usually accurate in the main, still "states more of wolves than experience warranted." Pliny, unable to sift truth from falsehood, was in this matter "an eager listener to all old women's tales." Aelian added to his marvels and asserted that the Wolf cannot bend its head back; if it should happen to tread on the flower of the squill it at once becomes torpid. So the wily fox, fearing his more powerful enemy, takes care to strew his path with squills! The conversion of men into Wolves was a well-known superstition, dating from Grecian and Roman times; it formed the basis of much of the witchcraft persecutions of the Middle Ages and onwards, and has left its mark in folklore, _e.g._ the Wolf in "Red Riding Hood."

The Indian Wolves, _C. pallipes_, _C. chanco_, and _C. laniger_, are hardly, if at all, different from _C. lupus_. Professor Huxley has remarked upon the likeness of _C. pallipes_ to a Jackal, thus bridging over the very inconsiderable gap that may be held to divide Jackals and Wolves.

The Dingo, _Canis dingo_, is an interesting and somewhat mysterious species of Dog or Wolf. As is well known, it is an Australian species; but it does not seem to be certain whether it was tamed and brought over to Australia by the native races, or is a true and indigenous Australian species.

The colour of this species varies, but is usually of a reddish brown; it is, however, often grey and indeed almost black. Whether indigenous or introduced, the Dingo is a plague to Australian settlers, devouring Sheep, which it generally destroys by tearing out the paunch. It does not as a rule hunt in packs. The Dingo is stated to feign death with so much persistence that {422} an individual has been known to be partly flayed before moving. Dingo remains have been found in river-gravels in Australia where no human remains have been detected. This argues for its indigeneity; but, on the other hand, it has been pointed out that man himself in the Australian continent goes back a very long way into time, and may thus still have imported this companion with him. Anyhow it is quite a wild creature now. Dr. Nehring, an expert investigator into the subject of domestic animals, has stated that the skeleton of the Dingo does not suggest a feral animal at all but a purely wild race.

FIG. 211.--Dingo. _Canis dingo._ x 1/8.

The Domestic Dog is usually spoken of as _Canis familiaris_; but to remains in bone caverns the name of _C. ferus_ or _C. mikii_ has been given. There seems to be no doubt that the Dog was the "friend of man" in very early times. Its remains have been met with in Danish kitchen-middens, in the lake-dwellings of the Swiss lakes, and during the Bronze Age in Europe generally. But "there are few more vexed questions in the archaeology of natural history than the origin of the dog." Its remains already referred to may in many cases have argued its use as food. But in a Neolithic barrow a Dog was found buried with a woman, the {423} skeletons of both being _in situ_; this animal was about the size of a Shepherd Dog. The actual Dog of to-day is divisible into more than 180 different breeds; but in a work upon "Natural History" it would seem out of place to enumerate and characterise these artificial products. Authors vary in their opinion as to what stock gave rise to the domestic races of the past and of to-day. The Jackal, the Bunasu (_C. primaevus_), the Indian Wolf (_C. pallipes_), have been proposed as likely ancestors. It is more probable that there is much admixture, and that various wild types have been selected by man in various countries.

EXTINCT CANIDAE.--Many of the existing species of Canidae are also to be found in Pleistocene deposits of the countries which they now inhabit. A few show a wider range in the immediate past than in the present. Thus _Lycaon_ (_L. anglicus_) has been met with in caves in Glamorganshire, while _Icticyon_ of South America appears to be congeneric with _Speothos_ of the Brazilian caves. The African _Otocyon_ seems to occur in deposits in India. There are also numerous extinct species belonging to the genus _Canis_, which extend as far back as the Pliocene.

The earlier types of Dogs have been placed in different genera. _Cynodictis_ is an Eocene form from European strata. The skull is decidedly Civet-like, with a short snout. The fore- and hind-feet were five-toed, with well-developed pollex and hallux. The dentition was that of modern Dogs, the molars being two in the upper and three in the lower jaw. The general aspect of the creature and the form of the skeleton was much like that of the Viverrine genus _Paradoxurus_, of which, as well as of the Dogs, _Cynodictis_ might have been an ancestor.

_Simocyon_ of the Upper Miocene serves as the type of a separate sub-family of Dogs, Simocyoninae. The skull is short, broad, and high; the shortening of the skull affecting the jaws has reduced the teeth greatly; the first three premolars are very small, fall out soon, and are thus often deficient. There are only two molars in each jaw. This type is of course nowhere near the ancestral Dog. It is a much-specialised branch of an early type. _Cephalogale_ is less specialised; there are the usual four premolars. _Enhydrocyon_ is an intermediate form; it has lost one premolar in each jaw.

_Amphicyon_, forming the type of another sub-family, Amphicyoninae, though usually placed among the Dogs, presents us with {424} many Bear-like features in its organisation. The feet, for instance, were plantigrade and five-toed. The ulna and the radius are specially compared with the same bones in the Bear tribe. The skull on the other hand is as distinctly Dog-like in form. The molars are large, broad, and crushing, and Bear-like. The largest known species, _A. giganteus_, is of about the size of the Brown Bear. _Amphicyon_ is a Miocene genus. Eocene and allied to it is _Pseudamphicyon_. This genus has, like _Amphicyon_, the complete dentition of forty-four teeth. In the Amphicyoninae generally the feet are five-toed, the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen and the femur a third trochanter. The upper molars are large.

The closely allied and American genus _Daphaenus_ has also plantigrade feet, and has in its structure many reminiscences of the Creodonts. So, too, has the Eocene _Uintacyon_.

_Cynodesmus_ is closely allied to _Cynodictis_. It has ancient features combined with quite modern ones. The skull is described as being Creodont-like, but the dentition is that of the microdont modern Dogs. In accordance with its age the cerebral convolutions of this Dog are much simpler than in existing Dogs, and the hemispheres do not cover the cerebellum so much.

THE BEAR-LIKE CARNIVORA OR ARCTOIDEA.--That division of the Carnivora which is typically represented by the Bears embraces three recent families, which are united by a number of characters. These Carnivora are always plantigrade or nearly so. They have nearly always five toes. The claws are not retractile, or at most semi-retractile as in the Panda. In the skull the tympanic bulla is often depressed, and is not so globular and obvious as in the Cats. Its cavity is not divided by a septum. The paroccipital processes are not applied to it. The carnassial tooth is less emphasised in this group than in the Cats.

These characters, however, have to be used with caution, as they are hardly universally applicable. A fairly typical Arctoid bulla is seen in such a form as _Cercoleptes_. The bulla itself is a little more swollen than in _Ursus_, but it is flattened off in the same way towards the bony meatus. The paroccipital processes, slightly developed, are at a distance of 1/4-inch from the posterior margin of the bulla. In the Raccoon the bullae are much more swollen, and the paroccipital processes are closer to them. In the Marbled Polecat, _Putorius sarmaticus_, the bullae are fairly {425} swollen, and there is but little flattening towards the meatus: the paroccipital processes, though slight, are in contact with the bullae basally, though their free tips are turned away from them. Finally, in _Ictonyx_ the bullae are much swollen; there is but little flattening towards the meatus, and the paroccipital processes, themselves much swollen, are pressed closely against the bullae. The Mustelidae, therefore, in this as in other characters, approach the Aeluroids.

FIG. 212.--Section of the left auditory bulla and surrounding bones of a Bear (_Ursus ferox_). _am_, External auditory meatus; _BO_, basioccipital; _Car_, carotid canal; _e_, Eustachian canal; _g_, glenoid canal; _Sq_, squamosal; _T_, tympanic; _t_, tympanic ring. (From Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1869.)

There is no caecum, a feature which marks off the Arctoidea from all Carnivora except the Viverrids _Nandinia_ and _Arctictis_ (occasionally). The brain is characterised by the possession of what Dr. Mivart has described as the "ursine lozenge," a tract about the middle of the hemispheres, defined posteriorly by the crucial sulcus, and formed by the emergence on to the surface of the brain of the hippocampal gyrus.

The Arctoidea are very widely distributed. But there are some curious exceptions. Thus there are no representatives of the group (as might be expected) in the Australian region; they are completely absent from Madagascar; while the true Bears (family Ursidae) are totally absent from Ethiopian Africa, and are only represented by a single species, _Ursus ornatus_, in the Neotropical region.

It is noteworthy that the Arctoidea never show spots or {426} cross stripes (save rings on the tail), which are so common a feature of the coloration of the Cat-like forms.

In bracketing together the three families which are described in the following pages, emphasis is laid upon a number of undoubtedly common features. Palaeontology seems, however, to suggest that the Mustelidae come nearer to the Viverridae. That the Bears and Dogs are connected by extinct annectent genera does not interfere with their present distinctness.

The systematic arrangement of these Carnivora is not easy. It may be useful, however, to give a method of arrangement for the convenient placing of the genera.

The most primitive group is perhaps that of the true Bears, family Ursidae; for in them the molars are two above and three below, and have thus not become diminished in number as in some of the other members of the order. Moreover, the Bears have lobate kidneys, which character, often occurring in the young of animals which when adult have smooth kidneys, may be looked upon as a primitive character. The feet furthermore are completely plantigrade. This family will contain only three genera, _Ursus_, _Melursus_, and _Aeluropus_.

Next comes the family Procyonidae, in several members of which one molar is lost below, though in others the more archaic formula is retained. The kidneys are simple. This family contains the American genera _Procyon_, _Nasua_, _Bassariscus_, _Bassaricyon_, _Cercoleptes_, and the Old-World form _Aelurus_.

The third family, Mustelidae, has the molar formula reduced to 1/2 or 1/1. The kidneys are simple except in the Otters. To this family are assigned the following genera:--_Arctonyx_, _Conepatus_, _Meles_, _Mephitis_, _Taxidea_, _Mydaus_, _Mellivora_, _Helictis_, _Ictonyx_, _Mustela_, _Galictis_, _Grisonia_, _Putorius_, _Gulo_, and the aquatic _Lutra_, _Enhydris_, and _Aonyx_.

FAM. 6. PROCYONIDAE.--This family is mainly American in range, the genus _Aelurus_ alone being a native of the Old World. But Zittel would include with the genera of this family the Viverrine and Oriental genus _Arctictis_, a proceeding which is perhaps hardly admissible, though the occasional absence of a caecum in that animal is so far in favour of such an alliance. The largely vegetable nature of its food and its arboreal habits cause a certain amount of likeness to some of the members of the present group of Carnivores. The Procyonidae have two {427} molars in either half of each jaw. The carnassial teeth are not typically developed, and the molars are broad and tuberculate. The tail is long, often prehensile, and often ringed in the disposition of its colour pattern. The alisphenoid canal is absent save in the aberrant _Aelurus_. Both condyloid and postglenoid foramina are present. The members of this family are plantigrade.

FIG. 213.--Raccoon. _Procyon lotor._ x 1/5.

The genus _Procyon_ includes at least two species of Raccoon, the northern form, _P. lotor_, and the South American, _P. cancrivorus_. To these may possibly be added a third, _P. nigripes_. This genus is characterised by the length and the mobility of the fingers, and indeed it uses its hands greatly. It has no median groove upon the muzzle, which is found in many other Arctoids; the ears are moderately large; the tail is not long, being about one-third of the entire length of the animal, including the tail. The soles of the feet are naked. Its limbs are very long (for an Arctoid), and this gives to the animal a bunched-up appearance when walking. There are four premolars and two molars on each side of each jaw. There are fourteen pairs of ribs, of which ten pairs reach the sternum. The latter is composed of nine pieces.

The first-named species has received its name from the fact--of which there is abundant proof--that it dips its food into water. As a matter of fact, the animal frequents the margins of streams, and hunts in the shallow water beneath stones for {428} crayfish, and it also captures fish. Not only is this animal partially aquatic, but it can climb well--"they make their homes in trees, but carry on their business elsewhere." The animal can be readily tamed, but is a tiresome pet on account of its insatiable curiosity and its skill in the use of its hands, which enables it to unlatch doors and generally to pry about everywhere. The Raccoons are mostly nocturnal creatures.

The genus _Bassaricyon_[296] includes two species, both American, _B. alleni_ being from Ecuador, and _B. gabbii_ from Costa Rica. They have so much the aspect of a Kinkajou that a specimen, which arrived at the Zoological Gardens, was presented and entered as one of those animals. Nevertheless there are many differences between the two genera. The tail of _Bassaricyon_ is not prehensile, and the animal, as will be seen from Fig. 214, has a sharper snout; the brain is more like that of _Bassariscus_. The likeness to _Cercoleptes_ can hardly perhaps be regarded as an example of "mimicry" since the forms are so nearly related, and the advantage of such an imitation remains to be proved. The muzzle of _Bassaricyon_ is grooved; the ears are fairly large; the soles of the feet are naked; there is but a single pair of teats. There are two molars and four premolars to each half jaw.

FIG. 214.--Bassaricyon. _Bassaricyon alleni._ x 1/5.

The dorsal vertebrae are thirteen in number; nine of the ribs reach the sternum. The slenderness and convexity of the lower margin of the lower jaw, as well as the feeble angular process, distinguish this genus from its undoubtedly near ally _Cercoleptes_. The dental formula also is different.

_Bassariscus_ has a ringed tail like a Raccoon, and is also American in range; it furthermore agrees with the Raccoon in {429} being nocturnal and mainly arboreal in habit. There are apparently three species, of which _B. astutus_ is the best known, having been on several occasions exhibited at the Zoological Society's Gardens, the last examples so lately as 1900. The animal was for a long time believed to be allied to the Oriental Paradoxures, and its occurrence in America was therefore puzzling. The real affinities of the creature were, however, definitely set at rest by Sir W. Flower, and later accounts of its anatomy have confirmed this opinion.[297] The vertebrae are more numerous than in _Procyon_, and the teeth are slightly different; otherwise it presents many likenesses to its nearest ally. The ears are long; the nose is grooved; and the palms and soles are naked.

FIG. 215.--Cunning Bassarisc. _Bassariscus astutus._ x 1/5. (From _Nature_.)

The Kinkajou, _Cercoleptes_, is likewise an American Arctoid. It ranges from Central Mexico down to the Rio Negro in Brazil. It was at one time confounded, and, considering its external appearance, not unnaturally, with the Lemurs. Sir R. Owen dispelled this view by a careful dissection of the creature. Nevertheless, there are certain anatomical features in which it differs {430} from Carnivora and resembles Lemuroids.[298] It has been pointed out that the form of the lower jaw "much resembles that of the Lemuroid _Microrhynchus_." There is, however, no doubt that it is rightly placed in the present group. The tail is very prehensile, and the animal is therefore, as might be supposed from this circumstance, purely arboreal. It has some twenty-eight vertebrae. This genus has a median groove upon the nose. The claws are long and sharply pointed, and the palms and soles of the feet are naked. The premolars are three, the molars two. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae, of which nine are united to the nine-jointed sternum by ribs. There is but one species, _C. caudivolvulus_, of a uniform yellowish-brown colour.

FIG. 216.--Kinkajou. _Cercoleptes caudivolvulus._ x 1/6.

FIG. 217.--Coati. _Nasua rufa._ x 1/6.

_Nasua_, the Coati, ranges from Texas to Paraguay, and has two species. In Guatemala it reaches a height of 9000 feet on the mountains. The nose is produced into a short and very {431} mobile proboscis, hence its name. The native Mexican name for the creature is "Quanhpecotl."

The Coati is largely arboreal, and hunts iguanas in large bands, some of them being on the trees and some on the ground beneath. It also grubs up worms and larvae, for which purpose its long snout is suited. The molars of the genus resemble those of _Procyon_.

There is not a median groove upon the nose. The palms and soles are naked. Six teats occur. There are thirteen dorsal vertebrae. _Nasua nasica_[299] and _N. rufa_ are the best known and perhaps the only species. The colour of the fur varies a good deal, and has led to the use of other names for supposed species.

_Aelurus_, the Panda, is a largish animal found in the south-eastern Himalayas up to a height of 12,000 feet. It has a glossy fur of a reddish colour, and a "white somewhat cat-like face." The molar formula which distinguishes it from the New-World Arctoids belonging to the Procyonidae, as well as from its possible ally _Aeluropus_, is Pm 3/4 M 2/2. The anatomy of the animal has been described by Sir W. Flower.[300] Dr. Mivart has pointed out that the muzzle though short is upturned in a way distinctly recalling that of _Nasua_. The animal inhabits forests, and feeds almost entirely upon vegetable food. It eats eggs, however, and insects. Though living to a great extent upon the ground, it is also arboreal, and has sharp semi-retractile claws. It is said to be dull of sight, hearing, and smell, and yet with these disadvantages is also unprovided with cunning or ferocity. Its habits have been compared with those of a Kinkajou.

FOSSIL PROCYONIDAE.--In addition to several of the existing genera, the remains are known of various extinct forms of Procyonidae. _Leptarctus_, with one species, _L. primaevus_, is of Pliocene age, but is known only by one ramus of the lower jaw. It appears to "offer a number of transitional characters between the more typical Procyonidae and the aberrant _Cercoleptes_."[301]

FAM. 7. MUSTELIDAE.--Contrary to what has been stated with regard to the habits of the Procyonidae, the Mustelidae are for the most part "bloodthirsty robbers," and are spread over the {432} whole surface of the world, with the exception of Australia and Madagascar. The molar teeth are generally reduced to one in the upper jaw, and sometimes to one in the lower jaw, which thus gives "a sort of _prima facie_ resemblance to the feline dentition." There is no alisphenoid canal; postglenoid and condyloid foramina are found.

SUB-FAM. 1. MELINAE.--Of this sub-family there are representatives both in the Old and New Worlds.

FIG. 218.--Badger. _Meles taxus._ x 1/6.

_Meles_, the Badger, is exclusively Palaearctic in range.[302] Dr. Mivart says that _Meles_ has a relatively longer dorsal region than any other Carnivore, and that it is most nearly approached by its allies _Ictonyx_ and _Conepatus_. The molar formula is, as in _Arctonyx_, _Mydaus_, and _Helictis_, Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The molars differ from those of any other Carnivore in the much greater size of the first molars than of the last premolars. The nose is not grooved; the soles of the feet are naked. The claws of the fore-feet are much longer than those of the hind-feet.

The genus _Arctonyx_ is a "pig-like badger" from Hindostan, Assam, and North China. The epithet "pig-like" is derived from the long and mobile snout, which is truncated and has terminal nostrils. It is remarkable for having a part of the palate formed by the pterygoids, as in Whales and certain Edentata (e.g. _Myrmecophaga_). There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae. _A. collaris_ lives in {433} fissures of rocks, or in holes dug by itself. It is a purely nocturnal beast.

The singular genus _Mydaus_, containing the species _M. meliceps_, the Teledu or Javanese Skunk, is an inhabitant of Java and Sumatra. It frequents the mountains of these islands, into the soil of which it burrows in search of worms and larvae. There is but one species, which is "like a miniature badger, of rather eccentric colours." It is blackish brown, with a yellowish-white top to its head, and a stripe of the same colour down the back. It may be distinguished by its elongated snout, obliquely truncated, and with inferiorly-placed nostrils. As to osteological characters, it has a more oblique symphysis of the mandible than in any other Carnivore. The secretion of the anal glands is said to rival that of the Skunk in offensiveness and in the distance to which it can be propelled.

SUB-FAM. 2. MUSTELINAE.--Representatives occur in both the Old and New Worlds; but the genera and even the species are in one or two cases common to both.

FIG. 219.--Tayra. _Galictis barbara._ x 1/7.

_Galictis barbara_,[303] the Tayra, is a brown, elongated, and Weasel-like animal from Mexico and South America. As is the case with the Weasel, it is sometimes gregarious, a herd of twenty having been observed. The soles of the feet are naked, and the molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. In these characters the Grison (_G. vittata_) agrees with _G. barbara_; but it has been referred to a different genus, _Grisonia_.

The Grison, "this savage and diabolical-looking weasel," as {434} Mr. Aplin terms it,[304] is known also as the "Huron." It almost rivals the Skunk in the power of the odour which it can emit when enraged. A trapped specimen was placed in a cage 50 yards or so from the house, and even at this distance it was disagreeably easy to tell when any one visited the animal--at least when the wind set in the right direction. It is greyish yellow above and blackish beneath, presenting, as has been remarked, a curious similarity to the Ratel. The nose of this animal is destitute of a median groove, which is present in the Tayra; the soles of the feet, however, are naked as in that animal, and it is nearly plantigrade in walk. It differs also from _Galictis_ in having sixteen[305] instead of fourteen dorsal vertebrae. Eleven of the ribs reach the sternum. Considering the differences that exist between some other genera of Arctoids, it may be fairly allowed that a genus _Grisonia_ is tenable.

FIG. 220.--Grison. _Grisonia vittata._ x 1/7.

_G. allamandi_ is darker coloured than the Grison, with a white band from the forehead to the neck. Mr. T. Bell described a tame individual as eating eggs, frogs, and even a young alligator.

A third genus of this group has recently been founded by Mr. Oldfield Thomas[306] for a small African animal, which is Grison-like in its coloration. The name given to the genus, _Galeriscus_, is intended to suggest its likeness to the Grison (_Galera_ or _Grisonia_). The chief distinctive feature of this genus, whose skeleton is not yet known, is the presence of only four digits on each limb; the pollex and the hallux being entirely absent. The ears of this Grison are short. {435}

The genus _Mustela_ includes the Martens and Sables, which are distinguished from the following genus by the molar formula, which is Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The same character separates them from _Galictis_, and also the generally hairy under surface of the feet. In more southern latitudes, however, the palms are sometimes naked. The nose is grooved, and the ears are short and broad. The genus is widely distributed, being common to the Old and New Worlds. In the Old World it extends from Europe to Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. The largest species of the genus is the American Pekan, an animal which may be 46 inches in length, including the tail. There are two species of Sable, one European (_M. zibellina_), the other American.

The only British species of the genus is the Pine Marten, _M. martes_. It is dark brown, with a brownish-yellow throat, and reaches a length of some 17 inches, with an eight-inch tail. It is getting rare, but is still fairly common in the Lake country. The animal is largely arboreal in habit, whence the vernacular name. It is also called Marten Cat. The allied _M. foina_, the Beech Marten, has been stated to be, but apparently is not, an inhabitant of these islands. The colour of the animal is a rich brown. It has small eyes and ears and a short tail. The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are hairy; the muzzle is naked, and has a groove as in _Cercoleptes_, etc.

The Glutton, _Gulo_, is a well-marked genus, containing but one species, which is circumpolar in range. The dentition is Pm 4/4 M 1/2. The ferocity but not the voracity of this animal appears to have been exaggerated. It mainly feeds on carcases, and is not really a successful hunter. As to the carcases, Olaus Magnus tells in straightforward language the way in which the animal dilates in size during a meal, and presently, after following the practice of the ancient Romans, returns to the banquet: "Creditur a natura creatum ad ruborem hominum qui vorando bibendoque vomunt redeuntque ad mensam"!

This is one of the few land animals which ranges completely round the pole. There is no difference to be noted between the Old-World and the New-World specimens. It is now an entirely northern form, but in Pleistocene times it reached as far south as this country. The fossil species seems to be _Gulo luscus_, and to be quite indistinguishable from the living forms.

_Putorius_, the genus which embraces the Weasel tribe, contains {436} many species known popularly as Weasels, Ermines, Stoats, Ferrets, Polecats, Minks, and Vison. Not only is the genus common to both Old and New Worlds, but in a few cases the species (e.g. _P. erminea_) range from Asia to America. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. The form of the body is an exaggerated one, the length of the trunk to the limbs being very great. The feet are more or less hairy beneath, and the animals are digitigrade. The nose is grooved. The dorsal vertebrae vary from thirteen to sixteen.

FIG. 221.--Polecat. _Mustela putorius._ x 1/6.

There are four British representatives of this genus:--

The Polecat, _P. foetidus_, is a dark brown-coloured animal. Its total length is about 2 feet, of which the tail occupies some 7 inches. It is a species banned by the gamekeeper, and hence is approaching extinction in this country. It is excessively bloodthirsty, as are apparently all the members of this genus, and kills out of mere wantonness. The Ferret is simply a domesticated variety of the Polecat.

The Stoat or Ermine, _P. erminea_, is reddish brown above, white beneath. In winter, in certain localities, it becomes white with the exception of the black tip of the tail. This colour-change bears some relation to the degree of latitude. It is universal in the north of Scotland, rare in the south of England. As is the case with some other animals that generally change {437} their colour in the winter, there are individuals which seem to have lost the power of change, and others which change in an apparently capricious manner, not influenced by season or cold. Like so many other animals, the Stoat appears at times to migrate, which it does in large parties. Such parties are said to be dangerous, and will attack a man who crosses their path.

The Weasel, _P. vulgaris_, has much the same colour as the Stoat, but is a smaller animal; it differs also by undergoing no seasonal change. It is equally agile and ferocious, and ought to be encouraged, as it vents its ferocity largely upon Voles and Moles, which it can pursue underground. Like other species of _Putorius_, it seems to kill its prey by biting through the brain-case.

The fourth British species is the recently-described Irish Stoat, _P. hibernicus_. It is somewhat intermediate between the last two.

_Poecilogale_ is a genus recently instituted by Mr. Thomas for a small South African Weasel, _P. albinucha_, coloured like the Zorilla, _i.e._ with whitish stripes upon black, but differing in its reduced molar formula, which is Pm 2/2 M 1/1 or 1/2.

_Lyncodon_[307] is thought to be more doubtful; it is South American (Patagonian), with the same molar formula as the most reduced forms of the last genus, _i.e._ Pm 2/2 M 1/1. The ears are short and almost invisible; the claws of the anterior limbs are long, those of the hind limbs short. It is not quite certain that it is not "an aberrant southern form of _Putorius brasiliensis_." That its distinction is justifiable appears to be shown by the discovery in the same region of a fossil species, _L. luganensis_. Matschie places it near _Galictis_.

The Ratel, _Mellivora_, is common to India and West and South Africa. It is a black animal with a grey back and grey on the top of the head, the contrast of colour suggesting a dorsal carapace. It runs with a swift trot. The animal lives much on the ground, but can climb trees. It is exclusively nocturnal in its habits. It has the reputation in India of feeding upon dead bodies, a view which has probably no foundation in fact save that it can burrow. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/1. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae. The African and Indian species are {438} hardly to be distinguished from each other. The ears are very minute. The tail is short. The muzzle is rather pointed, and the soles and palms are naked.

FIG. 222.--Ratel. _Mellivora capensis._ x 1/8.

The structure of _Helictis_ has been described by the late Professor Garrod,[308] as well as by Sir W. Flower in his general account of the Carnivorous skeleton. The animal, which is a native of East Asia, is sometimes gaily coloured. _H. subaurantiaca_, the species dissected and figured by Garrod, is a varied black and orange. The genus is arboreal, and the tail may be moderately long and bushy. The ears are small; the nose is grooved; the palms are naked, but the soles of the feet are hairy. There are fourteen dorsal vertebrae. The molar formula is Pm 4/4 M 1/2.

The Zorilla, _Ictonyx_, is the last of the Old-World genera of Melinae. It is African, ranging from the tropical parts of the continent to the Cape. "In colour and markings," remarks Dr. Mivart, "as well as in the odour of the secretion of its anal glands, the one or two species which form this genus resemble the skunks; so much so that did they inhabit the same region, and were they devoid of an offensive secretion, they would certainly be said to mimic the skunks." The molar formula of the genus is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. There are fifteen dorsal vertebrae. The nose is grooved and the soles partly hairy.

The American Badger, _Taxidea_, is a burrower of omnivorous tastes, and correlated with the former habit are the immense {439} claws of the fore-paws. It is North American, but gets into Mexico. The molar formula is as in the American genera _Mephitis_ and _Conepatus_, and as in the Old-World _Ictonyx_, and it thus differs from that of _Meles_. Besides the great size of the claws upon the hand, which are larger relatively than those of any other Carnivore, the genus _Taxidea_ is to be distinguished from all Arctoids (indeed, from all Carnivora) except _Mydaus_, by the fact that the pelvic limb is of the same length as the pectoral. The muzzle is furry except at the very extremity; this is grooved. The animal is carnivorous, subsisting upon the following very varied kinds of food--"Spermophiles, Arvicolas, birds' eggs, and snails, also honey-comb, wax, and bees."

The Skunk, _Mephitis_, is an American animal with several species, which range from North to Central America. The black-and-white colour distinguishes the genus, which is furthermore marked by the fact that the third digit of the hand is relatively longer than in any other Carnivore except _Taxidea_. The soles are partly hairy. It is a terrestrial fossorial animal with well-known powers of protecting itself from aggression. But nevertheless the Skunk has its enemies, and is not quite so unmolested as is sometimes popularly supposed. The Puma, Harpy Eagle, and the Great Horned Owl will at least occasionally attack and devour it. The molar formula is Pm 3/3 M 1/2. There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae.

_Conepatus_ is a more southern form of Skunk, extending down into South America. Its dentition is like that of _Mephitis_ save for the loss of an upper premolar. This genus, which has been further subdivided, differs from _Mephitis_ in the fact that the soles of the feet are wholly naked, whereas in Mephitis those of the hind-limbs are partially hairy. It has no groove on the nose. Its tail is shorter than that of _Mephitis_. This Skunk has the same habits as the last. In certain parts of South America the animals are so abundant and their odour so powerful that in the evening there is generally a recognisable smell about. This is said to be good for the headache!

SUB-FAM. 3. LUTRINAE.--Of this sub-family there are at least two genera. _Enhydris_ (_Latax_),[309] the Sea-Otter, is confined to the shores of the North Pacific. It is more purely aquatic than are {440} other Otters. Specimens have been seen swimming fifteen miles from land. The gait of the creature when on land is suggestive of a marine animal; the webbed hind-feet are doubled back upon the knuckles during progression upon land, and locomotion is effected by a series of short springs from these feet; the Otter does not walk "in ordinary acceptance of the term." The tail is flattened, being twice as broad as it is thick, and ends in a bluntish point. _Enhydris_ feeds mainly upon crabs and sea-urchins, but also upon fish. Its dental formula is peculiar by reason chiefly of the reduction of the lower incisors. The formula runs as follows: I 3/2 C 1/1 Pm 3/3 M 1/2.

The molar teeth of this creature, in accordance with its diet, have lost the sharp points of the Mustelidae in general; the crowns are flattened, and the tubercles very blunt. In this it contrasts with _Lutra_, and presents some resemblance to the Crab-eating Raccoon, _Procyon cancrivorus_; but the teeth are still further blunted. _Enhydris_ feeds largely upon sea-urchins and shell-fish, and needs blunt teeth for the crushing of the hard shells of its prey. It is interesting to notice that the habits of this animal have been altered by the interference of man. The creature has been hotly pursued for a long time on account of its valuable fur. Instead of feeding and breeding upon the shore in places readily accessible to its pursuers, the Sea-Otter has now taken to the open sea in a greater degree. It utilises masses of floating seaweed for those purposes, and hunts for its food in the deeper water at a greater distance from the shore. In conjunction with the increasing rarity of the Sea-Otter the price of its skin has enormously increased: whereas in 1888 the average price per skin was L21:10s., the value of a fine skin now is at least L100, and as much as L200 and even L250 has been given. The animal is captured by netting and by clubbing and spearing.[310] From the Miocene Siwalik beds remains of an allied form, _Enhydridon_, have been obtained, whose teeth are somewhat intermediate in their crowns between _Lutra_ and _Enhydris_.

_Lutra_, including the Otters, is widely distributed. Both manus and pes are webbed. The ears are small and hairy. The nose is not grooved, and the naked part is very circumscribed; {441} the claws upon the hind-feet are flattened and somewhat nail-like. There are about ten species, but of course, as is so universally the case, a great many more names have been given. The molar formula is like that of _Enhydris_ save that there is an extra premolar in the upper jaw. There are fourteen pairs of ribs, of which eleven pairs reach the ten-jointed sternum. The caudals are twenty-three. The Cape Otter, the "clawless" Otter, has been separated as a genus _Aonyx_. So too has the South American _Pteronura brasiliensis_. But in neither case is the separation allowed by Mr. Thomas in a recent revision of the genus.[311] The latter species has the reputation of being very fierce, and is known in Uruguay by the name of "Lobo de pecho blanco." The British species, _L. vulgaris_, reaches a length of 2 feet or so, with a tail of 16 inches; it ranges over the whole of Europe and a large portion of Asia. This Otter often burrows in the banks of the streams which it frequents; and in the burrow in March or April the female brings forth her young, three to five in number. It will also frequent the sea-coast.

FIG. 223.--Otter. _Lutra vulgaris._ x 1/6.

FOSSIL MUSTELIDAE.--Besides a number of the existing genera there are fossil members of this family which cannot be referred to existing genera. These latter extend back into time as far as the Eocene. _Stenoplesictis_, one of these Eocene forms referable to the sub-family Mustelinae, is to be distinguished {442} from living Mustelines by its comparatively long legs. In this genus as in several others there are two upper molars.

FAM. 8. URSIDAE.--This family is nearly universal in distribution, and consists of but three genera, _Ursus_, _Melursus_, and _Aeluropus_.

_Ursus_ has the palms and soles naked except in the Polar Bear, which needs a furry sole to walk with ease upon ice surfaces. The ears are fairly large, and the nose may or may not be traversed by a median groove.[312] The molar formula[313] is Pm 4/4 M 2/3. The brain is naturally (because of the size of the animals of this genus) richly convoluted. The lobate kidneys have already been mentioned in defining this family (see p. 426).

FIG. 224.--Himalayan Bear. _Ursus tibetanus._ x 1/15.

A very large number of species of Bears have been described. But it is the opinion of Mr. Lydekker[314] and of others that many of these are really to be referred to the European Brown Bear; in this event the Grizzly of North America, the Isabelline Bear, the Syrian Bear, a Bear from Algeria, the Kamschatkan and Japanese Bears, besides the extinct _Ursus fossilis_ of Pleistocene caves, are to be regarded as slight modifications of _Ursus arctos_. On the other hand, the great Cave Bear, _U. spelaeus_, {443} and the Thibetan Blue Bear (_U. pruinosus_) are distinct species, not to be confounded with _U. arctos_. Neither, of course, are the Peruvian _U. ornatus_ and the Sun Bear, _U. malayanus_.

FIG. 225.--Malayan Bear. _Ursus malayanus._ x 1/12.

The Polar Bear has even been placed in a separate genus, _Thalassarctos_, a proceeding which is quite unnecessary. The white colour of this Bear tends to become browner with age. It is one of the few mammals which extend right round the pole; the Polar Bear is of course a purely Arctic animal. The chief food of the Polar Bear is Seal. Out of thirty Bears examined, Mr. Koettlitz found that only fifteen had animal remains in their stomachs, and these remains were invariably Seal. The animal apparently hunts by scent rather than by sight or hearing, both of which senses seem to be somewhat dull. The males and females wander separately, except of course during the breeding season. The Bears dig holes in which they may remain for some time, but there is no hibernation. In Pleistocene times, the Polar Bear extended as far south as Hamburg. The female has four mammae, pectoral in position.

_Melursus_ includes only _M. labiatus_, the Sloth Bear of India. This animal has an upturned snout, which is described as closely resembling that of _Mydaus_, the Teledu. The snout has no groove. {444} All Bears are largely vegetarian and insect feeders; but this Bear is especially so. It delights in the nests of Termites, and its energy in destroying these hills for the sake of their inhabitants is so great that the name of "sloth" appeared to Sir Samuel Baker to be an entire misnomer.

_Aeluropus_, a rare Carnivore with but one species, _A. melanoleucus_, is not inferior in size to the Brown Bear, and is distinguished by its largely white coloration. It was discovered in the mountains of East Thibet by Pere David, and described by Milne-Edwards[315] as a distinct and new genus, the discoverer himself having named it as a species of _Ursus_. It is a vegetable-feeding creature and bulky in form, with a rudimentary tail and a short broad head; in fact, more like a Bear than a Procyonid (with which group it is placed by some). The width of the head, however, is greater than in any other Carnivore; it is most closely approached in this by _Aelurus_ and by _Hyaena_. The molar formula is Pm 4/3 M 2/3. The soles are hairy. There is no alisphenoid canal. The molars are especially large and multicuspid.

FIG. 226.--_Aeluropus melanoleucus._ x 1/12.