Chapter II: The Founding of New Spain (1492-1543) (2)

Narvaez.--At the same time the conquest of Florida was attempted by Panfilo de Narvaez, the man who had been sent to Vera Cruz to arrest Cortes. In 1526 he secured a patent to the lands of Ponce de Leon and Garay. Raising a colony of six hundred persons in Spain, in 1528 he reached Florida, landing near Tampa Bay. Hearing of a rich province called Apalachen (Apalache), he sent his vessels along the coast and himself marched up the peninsula at the head of three hundred men to find the Promised Land. He found the place sought near modern Tallahassee, but it proved to be a squalid Indian village of forty huts. A few weeks having been spent in exploration and warfare, Narvaez went to the coast near St. Marks Bay, built a fleet of horse-hide boats, and set out for Panuco. After passing the mouth of the Mississippi a storm arose, and all were wrecked on the coast of Texas.

Cabeza de Vaca.--In a short time most of the survivors of Narvaez's party died of disease, starvation, and exposure, or at the hands of the savages. Having passed nearly six years of slavery among the Indians, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the colony of Florida, with three companions, escaped westward, crossed Texas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Sonora, and in 1536 reached Culiacan, the northern outpost of Sinaloa, after a most remarkable journey.

De Soto.--Vaca went to Spain (1537) to apply for the governorship of Florida, but it had already been conferred on Hernando de Soto, who had taken a prominent part in the conquest of both Central America and Peru. In 1539 De Soto reached Florida with a colony of six hundred persons. Landing at Tampa Bay, as Narvaez had done, he soon set out to look for a rich province called Cale. This was the beginning of an expedition lasting nearly four years, during which the Spaniards were led on by tales of gold and treasure from one district to another, hoping to repeat the exploits of Cortes and Pizarro. As he passed through the country De Soto imitated those captains by capturing the chiefs, holding them as hostages, and compelling them to provide food and men to carry the baggage. Going to Apalachen he wintered there, meanwhile discovering Pensacola Bay. From Apalachen he went to the Savannah River, thence northwest to the North Carolina Piedmont, south toward Mobile Bay, northwest to the Mississippi near modern Memphis, westward across Arkansas into Oklahoma, thence down the Arkansas River to its mouth, where he died, in May, 1542, being buried in the Mississippi.

Moscoso in Arkansas and Texas.--De Soto's followers, led by Luis de Moscoso, now set out for Panuco, crossing Arkansas to the Red River, then turning southwest through eastern Texas, perhaps reaching the Brazos River. Giving up the attempt by land, they returned to the Mississippi, built a fleet of boats, descended the river, and skirted the Texas coast, reaching Panuco in 1543. Thus ended the fourth attempt to colonize Florida.

_CIBOLA AND QUIVIRA_

Cortes on the South Sea and in California.--Another line of advance toward the northern interior had been made by way of the Pacific slope. The discovery of the South Sea was followed immediately by exploration along the western coast. Balboa himself had begun that work, before his death in 1519. Espinosa had reached Nicaragua in 1519, and three years later Nino had reached Guatemala. By this time Cortes had also begun operations on the South Sea by building a shipyard at Zacatula, hoping, to discover a strait, find rich islands and mainland, reach India by way of the coast, and open communication with the Moluccas. In 1527 he sent three vessels under Saavedra across the Pacific: The operations of a new fleet built by him were hindered by the Audiencia of Mexico, but in 1532 he sent an expedition north under Hurtado de Mendoza, which reached Rio Fuerte in northern Sinaloa. In the following year another expedition sent by Cortes, under Jimenez discovered Lower California, which was thought to be an island and where pearls were found. The discovery of an island with pearls confirmed the geographical ideas of Cortes, and in 1535 he himself led a colony to La Paz, but within a few months it was abandoned. This was the first of a long series of efforts to colonize California.

Friar Marcos discovers Cibola.--Interest in the north country, both in Spain and America, was greatly quickened by the arrival of Cabeza de Vaca in Mexico after his journey across the continent. He had seen no great wonders, but he had heard of large cities to the north of his path, and it was thought that they might be the famed Seven Cities. The viceroy took into his service the negro Stephen, one of Vaca's companions, and sent him with Friar Marcos, a Franciscan missionary, to reconnoitre. In March, 1539, they set out with guides from Culiacan. Going ahead, Stephen soon sent back reports of Seven Cities, called Cibola, farther on. Friar Marcos hastened after him, and reached the border of the Zuni pueblos in western New Mexico, where he learned that Stephen had been killed. Returning to the settlement, he reported that Cibola was larger and finer than Mexico. This story, of course, was the signal for another "rush," like that to Peru a few years before.

Ulloa rounds the peninsula of California.--Rivalry between Cortes and the viceroy regarding exploration was now keen, and about the time of the return of Fray Marcos, Cortes, hoping to forestall his competitor, sent three vessels north to explore under Francisco de Ulloa. One of the vessels was lost, but with two of them Ulloa succeeded in reaching the head of the Gulf of California, and learned that California was a peninsula. Descending the Gulf he proceeded up the outer coast of California to Cabo del Engano.

The contest for leadership.--While Ulloa's voyage was still in progress, Cortes hurried to Spain to present his claim of exclusive right to conquer the country discovered by Fray Marcos and Ulloa. He never returned to Mexico. Other contestants arose. The agents of De Soto, who at the time was in Florida, claimed Cibola as a part of the adelantado's grant. Guzman claimed it on the basis of explorations in Sinaloa. Pedro de Alvarado claimed it on the ground of a license to explore north and west, for which purpose he had prepared a fleet.

The Coronado expedition.--But the royal council decided that the exploration should be made on behalf of the crown, in whose name the viceroy had already sent out an expedition under Francisco Vasquez Coronado, governor of Nueva Galicia. To cooeperate with Coronado by water, Alarcon was sent up the coast from Acapulco with two vessels.

In February, 1540, Coronado left Compostela with some two hundred horsemen, seventy foot soldiers, and nearly one thousand Indian allies and servants. So eager were the volunteers that it was complained that the country would be depopulated. The expedition was equipped at royal expense with a thousand horses, fine trappings, pack-mules, several cannon, and with droves of cattle, sheep, goats, and swine for food. From Culiacan Coronado went ahead with about one hundred picked men and four friars. Following behind their leader, the main army moved up to Corazones, in the Yaqui River valley, where the town of San Geronimo was founded and left in charge of Melchor Diaz.

Zuni, Moqui, the Colorado, and the Rio Grande.--In July Coronado reached the Zuni pueblos, which he conquered with little difficulty. But the country was disappointing and the expedition resulted only in explorations. These, however, were of great importance. At Culiacan Alarcon procured a third vessel, then continued to the head of the Gulf, and ascended the Colorado (1540) eighty-five leagues, perhaps passing the Gila River. Shortly afterward Melchor Diaz went by land from San Geronimo to the Colorado to communicate with Alarcon, but failed and lost his life. During the journey, however, he crossed the Colorado and went some distance down the Peninsula of California.

Hearing of the Moqui pueblos, to the north of Zuni, in July Coronado sent Tobar to find them, which he succeeded in doing. Shortly afterward Cardenas went farther northwest and reached the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Moving to the Rio Grande, Coronado visited the pueblos in its valley and camped at Tiguex above Isleta. In the course of the winter the Indians revolted and were put down with great severity.

Gran Quivira.--Meanwhile Coronado heard of a rich country northeastward called Gran Quivira, and in April, 1541, he set out to find it. Crossing the mountains and descending the Pecos, he marched out into the limitless buffalo-covered plains, the "Llanos del Cibola," inhabited by roving Apaches. Near the upper Brazos he turned north, crossed the Texas Panhandle and Oklahoma, and reached Quivira in eastern Kansas. It was probably a settlement of Wichita Indians. Disappointed, and urged by his men, Coronado now returned to Mexico. Three fearless missionaries remained to preach the gospel, and soon achieved the crown of martyrdom. Coronado had made one of the epochal explorations of all history.

The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.--Coronado found large parts of New Mexico and adjacent regions inhabited by Indians who dwelt in substantial towns (pueblos) and possessed a civilization similar to that of the Aztecs. Their terraced dwellings, which were also fortifications, were built of stone or adobe, and were several stories high. The inhabitants lived a settled life, practiced agriculture by means of irrigation, and raised cotton for clothing. They were constantly beset by the more warlike tribes all about them, and were already declining under their incursions. At the time of the conquest there were some seventy inhabited pueblos, whose population may have been from 30,000 to 60,000. The principal pueblo regions were the upper Rio Grande, the upper Pecos, Acoma, and the Zuni and Moqui towns. Remains of prehistoric pueblos occupy a much wider range in the Southwest, and are now the scene of important archaeological research.

_CALIFORNIA AND THE PHILIPPINES_

Alvarado's fleet.--Shortly after Coronado left New Mexico, two important expeditions were despatched by Viceroy Mendoza to explore in the Pacific. Magellan's voyage had been a signal for a bitter conflict between Spain and Portugal in the East, in which Portugal long had the upper hand. After the failures of Loaisa (1525) and Saavedra (1527) Charles V sold Spain's claims on the Moluccas to Portugal, but continued to claim the Philippines. In spite of former disasters to eastern expeditions, both Cortes and Pedro de Alvarado planned discoveries in the South Sea. In 1532 Alvarado made a contract for the purpose, but was led off by the gold "rush" to Peru. In 1538 he obtained a new grant, authorizing him to explore "in the west toward China or the Spice Islands," or toward the north at the "turn of the land to New Spain." Early in 1539 he left Spain with equipment nor a fleet, which he transported across Honduras and Guatemala on the backs of natives. On hearing of the discoveries of Fray Marcos, he hastened north with his fleet, but stopped in Mexico, where he and Mendoza, who had already sent out Coronado, made an agreement, as mutual insurance, to divide the profits of their respective explorations. Before continuing his expedition Alvarado was killed in the Mixton War (1541). This left the fleet in Mendoza's hands, and with it he carried out Alvarado's plans by despatching two expeditions, one up the California coast, the other across the Pacific.

Cabrillo and Ferrelo.--The coast voyage was conducted by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, and was especially designed to look for a northern strait. Leaving Navidad in June, 1542, Cabrillo explored the outer coast of the Peninsula, discovered San Diego Bay, reached Northwest Cape (latitude 38 deg.31'), descended to Drake's Bay, and then returned to the Santa Barbara Channel, where he died. Sailing north again in 1543, his pilot, Ferrelo, reached the Oregon coast (42 1/2 deg.), returning thence to Navidad. Cabrillo and Ferrelo had explored the coast for more than twenty-three degrees, but had missed both San Francisco and Monterey bays.

Villalobos.--The other expedition was led by Lopez de Villalobos, who was instructed to explore the Philippines and to reach China, but not to touch at the Moluccas. Sailing in November, 1542, he took possession of the Philippines, but, being forced to leave on account of native hostility, he was captured by the Portuguese. Villalobos died in the Moluccas, where the enterprise went to pieces. The expeditions of Coronado, De Soto, Cabrillo, and Villalobos brought to an end a remarkable half century of Spanish expansion in North America and in the Pacific Ocean.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN

Cortes as administrator.--Cortes was not a mere conqueror. He appointed officers, and issued general ordinances affecting nearly all lines of activity. Encomenderos were required to equip themselves for defense and to promote agriculture. Cortes himself became a great planter, notably at Oaxaca. He introduced agricultural implements, opened a port at Vera Cruz, and established markets in Mexico City. In 1523 the king had forbidden encomiendas, but Cortes made so strong a protest on the grounds of policy and royal interest that the order was withdrawn.

Royal officials arrive.--In 1524 a corps of royal officials arrived to take the places of those appointed by Cortes. Estrada came as treasurer, Salazar as factor, Albornoz, as contador, and Chirinos as veedor. They came empowered to interfere in the government of Cortes, especially in matters of finance, a policy quite in keeping with the general Spanish practice of setting one officer to watch another.

The powers of Cortes curtailed.--The new officials were not slow to make trouble for Cortes. While he was in Honduras his enemies set about undermining him, both in Mexico and Spain. Salazar and Chirinos usurped authority, persecuted the conqueror's partisans, confiscated his property, and spread reports that he was dead. At last the friends of Cortes rebelled, overthrew the usurpers, Salazar and Chirinos, and sent for Cortes to return from Honduras. In May, 1526, he reached Vera Cruz. Two years of investigation and persecution by other crown officials followed.

In response to complaints in Spain, Luis Ponce de Leon was sent early in the same year as governor and to hold a _residencia_ of Cortes, while the latter's jurisdiction as captain-general was lessened by the appointment of Nuno de Guzman as governor of Panuco. Ponce de Leon died in July, leaving Aguilar as governor. Aguilar died early in 1527 and Estrada became governor. He interfered with Cortes's explorations in the South Sea, and banished him from Mexico City as dangerous, but the breach was soon healed when both were threatened by the usurpations of Guzman. It was at this time that Cortes, finding his position unbearable, went to Spain for redress and to answer charges.

The first Audiencia of New Spain.--In view of the disturbed conditions in New Spain, in 1528 Charles V created an Audiencia or supreme court for Mexico, and empowered it to investigate the disorders and hold the _residencia_ of Cortes. It was composed of four _oidores_ and a president. To the latter office was appointed Nuno de Guzman. He proved to be an extreme partisan against Cortes, and so avaricious that he soon won the hatred of almost everyone except a few favorites. The old friends of Cortes stood by him and he secured the support of Bishop Zumarraga.

Cortes made Marquis of the Valley.--The arrival of Cortes in Spain caused his detractors to slink from sight, and he was conducted to court with almost royal honors. In consideration of his brilliant services, in 1529 he was granted twenty-two towns, with twenty-three thousand vassals, with full civil and criminal jurisdiction and rentals for himself and his heirs. With these honors he was given the titles of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, captain-general of New Spain, and governor of such islands as he might still discover in the South Sea. In 1530 he returned to New Spain, where he was acclaimed by the people, though opposed by the Audiencia.

The second Audiencia.--The abuses of the first Audiencia led to its replacement in 1530 by a new corps of judges, of whom the president was Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal. The oidores appointed were Salmeron, Maldonado, Ceynos, and Quiroga. They were especially instructed to hold the _residencias_ of their predecessors, restore the estates of Cortes, and consider the abolition of encomiendas. To replace control by encomenderos, local magistrates called _corregidores_ were introduced. A few of these functionaries were appointed, but the colonists raised such a cry that little change was accomplished, and the Audiencia confined itself, in this particular, to checking abuses of the encomienda system. Quiroga later became bishop and civilizer of Michoacan, where he is still gratefully remembered.

The viceroyalty established.--The difficulties of government and the spread of conquests made closer centralization necessary, and New Spain was now made a viceroyalty. The first incumbent of the office of viceroy was Antonio de Mendoza, a nobleman of fine character and ability. He arrived in 1535. As viceroy he was president of the Audiencia, governor, and captain-general, personally representing the king in all branches of government.

The Audiencias of Panama and Guatemala.--Alvarado served as governor and captain-general of Guatemala through appointment by Cortes till 1528, when he was commissioned directly by the emperor. Though frequently absent, he continued in office till his death in 1541. In 1537 Panama and Veragua were erected into the Audiencia of Panama, which was later attached to the viceroyalty of Peru, because the commerce of Peru crossed the Isthmus. Six years later the Audiencia of the Confines of Panama and Nicaragua was established. After various changes, by 1570 Guatemala became the seat of an Audiencia embracing all of Central America except Panama, Veragua, and Yucatan.

The New Laws.--Las Casas and others continued to oppose the encomienda system. In 1539 the great missionary returned to Spain to conduct the fight. While there he wrote his celebrated works called _The Destruction of the Indies_ and the _Twenty Reasons_ why Indians should not be enslaved. His pleadings were not in vain, for in 1542 the Council issued a new Indian code called the _New Laws_, which provided that encomiendas should be abolished on the death of the present holders. But so great was the opposition that in 1545 the vital clauses of the ordinance were repealed. In Peru the attempt to enforce the laws even led to bloodshed.

Mendoza sent to Peru.--Viceroy Mendoza continued to rule for fifteen years. He proved to be a wise, able, and honest administrator, who tried to improve the condition of both the colonists and the helpless natives. He prohibited the use of the Indians as beasts of burden. In 1536 he established the printing press in Mexico, the first book published on the continent appearing in 1537. In that year he founded the college of Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco for the education of noble Indians. He opened roads from Mexico to Oaxaca, Tehuantepec, Acapulco, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, and other distant points. In 1550 he was sent to rule in troubled Peru, where the Spaniards were duplicating the brilliant exploits of Cortes and his followers.

READINGS

SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST

Armstrong, E., _The Emperor Charles V._; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, Ch. I; Chapman, Charles E., _A History of Spain_, 1-246, especially Chapters X-XXII; Cheyney, E.P., _European Background of American History_, Ch. V; Hume, M.A.S., _Spain, its Greatness and Decay_; Hume, M.A.S., _The Spanish People_; Lane-Poole, S., _The Moors in Spain_; Lowery, W., _Spanish Settlements within the present limits of the United States_, 1513-1565, pp. 79-101; Merriman, R.B., _The Rise of the Spanish Empire_; Prescott, W.H., _Ferdinand and Isabella_; Haring, C.H., _Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in the Time of the Hapsburgs_.

THE WEST INDIES, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND MAGELLAN

Altolaguirre y Davale, D. Angel de, _D. Pedro de Alvarado, Conquistador de Guatemala y Honduras_; _Vasco Nunez de Balboa_; Bancroft, H.H., _Central America_, I, 183-247, 321-412, 478-511; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 20-53; 115-132; Fiske, John, _The Discovery of America_, I, 465-512, II, 184-212; Fortier, A., and Ficklen, J.R., _Mexico and Central America_, 1-102; Guardia, R.F., _History of the Discovery and Conquest of Costa Rica_; Guillemand, F.H.H, _Life of Magellan_; Helps, Arthur, _The Spanish Conquest_, I, 89-142, 193-320; Lowery, Woodbury, _Spanish Settlements within the present Limits of the United States_, 102-122; Richman, L.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 64-91, 139-154; Wright, L.A., _The early History of Cuba_, 1492-1586.

CORTES AND HIS FOLLOWERS

Bancroft, H.H., _Central America_, I, 522-643; Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, _True History of the Conquest of New Spain_; Fortier and Ficklen, _Mexico and Central America_, 181-238; Helps, Arthur, _Life of Cortes_; _Life of Las Casas_; _The Spanish Conquest_, III, 23-67, 164-289; McNutt, F.A., _Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico_, 43-67; _The Letters of Cortes to Charles V._; Prescott, W.H., _The Conquest of Mexico_, Bks. II-IV; Bolton, H.E., The Spanish Borderlands; Means, P.A., _History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas_.

EXPLORATIONS TO THE NORTH AND IN THE PACIFIC

Bancroft, H.H., _History of California_, I, 64-81; Bandelier, A.D.F., _The Gilded Man; Journey of Cabeza de Vaca (Trail Makers' Series)_; Blair and Robertson, _The Philippine Islands_, I-II; Bolton, H.E., _Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706 (Original Narratives Series)_, 1-39; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 158-174; _Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto (Trail Makers' Series)_; Brittain, Alfred, _Discovery and Exploration_, 343-361; Hodge, F.W., and Lewis, T.H., _The Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543 (Original Narratives Series)_; Irving, Theodore, _The Conquest of Florida_; Lowery, Woodbury, _Spanish Settlements within the present Limits of the United States_, 130-350; Richman, L.B., _California under Spain and Mexico_, 3-11; Schafer, Joseph, _Pacific Coast and Alaska_, 3-23; Winship, G.P., _The Coronado Expedition_ (Bureau of American Ethnology, _14th Report_, Part I.); _The Journey of Coronado (Trail Makers' Series)_, Richman, I.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 91-139.