Chapter XI: Section II: ――on the Dispute of the People of Different Religions (2)

In like manner, the fire-worshippers, who had come from the town of Nóusarí, situated in the district of Gujerát, asserted the truth of the religion of Zoroaster, and the great reverence and worship due to fire. The emperor called them to his presence, and was pleased to take information about the way and lustre of their wise men. He also called from Persia a follower of Zardusht, named Ardeshir, to whom he sent money; he delivered the sacred fire with care to the wise Shaikh Abu ’l Faźil, and established that it should be preserved in the interior apartment by night and day, perpetual henceforth, according to the rule of the Mobeds, and to the manner which was always practised in the fire-temples of the Kings of Ajem, because the _Ití set_ was among the sentences of the Lord, and light from among the lights of the great Ized. He invited likewise the fire-worshippers from Kirman to his presence, and questioned them about the subtilties of Zardusht’s religion; and he wrote letters to Azer-Káivan, who was a chief of the Yezdáníán and Abádáníán, and invited him to India; Azer-Káivan begged to be excused from coming, but sent a book of his own composition in praise of the self-existing being, of reason, the soul, the heavens, the stars, and the elements; as well as a word of advice to the King; all this contained in fourteen sections: every first line of each was in Persian _pure derí_; when read invertedly, it was Arabic; when turned about, Turkish; and when this was read in reversed order, it became Hindí. The Nawab, the wise Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil placed a full confidence in Azer Káivan; he called the inhabitants of Ajem and Arabia “infestors of roads,” and the people of Islám “accursed.” The wise Shaikh Abu ’l Fazil said in Fatah púr to Abd ul Káder Bedávaní: “I have to complain of the authors of books for two reasons: the first is, that they have not explicitly enough written the account of ancient prophets, similar to that of their own prophet; the second is, that nothing remained of the industrious men whose name is not mentioned in the _Tazkeret-ul-awlía_, ‘the Story of the Saints,’[76] and the _Nafhát alúns_,[77] ‘the fragrant Gales of Mankind,’ and the like; and the family of the prophet, what was their guilt that their names were not admitted into them?” Abd ul Káder gave no satisfactory answer. Ghází Khán Baddakshi, who had not his equal in logical science, treated explicitly and laboriously in sections of the just Imám (Alí), and established by investigation his superior merit in other treatises; and other learned men exercised their sagacity upon this subject.

In the month Rajeb of the year of the Hejira 987 (A. D. 1579), the Emperor Akbar was ordered (by Heaven) to fix the sentence: “There is but one God, and Akbar is his Khalifah,” to be used. If the people really wished it, they might adopt this faith; and his Majesty declared, that this religion ought to be established by choice, and not by violence. In this manner, a number of men, who were more pious or wise than those of their times, chose this creed according to their conscience. The command came from God, that the attachment to the cause of the Lord God and to one’s master has four degrees, which are: sacrifice of property, life, reputation, and religion. The command of the _Ilahi_, “divine,” faith means that, in case of an indispensable conflict, if one does not sacrifice all he possesses, he must renounce these four degrees. Further, it is the divine command, that one may relinquish something of the four degrees, but never make an abandonment of his God.

The Emperor further said, that one thousand years have elapsed since the beginning of Muhammed’s mission, and that this was the extent of the duration of this religion, now arrived at its term.

Another of his ordinances abolished absolutely the obligation of bathing after pollution _by spermatic emission_. The sages said that the most exquisite and best part of a man is _maní_, “sperm,” and that the seed of creation is pure. What sense is there that, after the common natural secretions bathing be not required, whilst the release of a quantity of delicate matter is subject to an entire ablution? Yet it is suitable to bathe before indulging sexual propensity.

It is equally absurd to prepare food for the spirit of a corpse, which then belongs to minerals: what sense is there in it? Yet the birth-day of a person is justly made a great festival, and called “the banquet of life.” Moreover, when one’s soul has attained the full knowledge of the primitive cause, and has left its mortal garment, this day also is devoted to rejoicing, and named “the day of union.”

On account of the difference between the era of the Hindus and that of the Hejira used by the Arabs, the Emperor introduced a new one, beginning from the first year of the reign of Hamáyún, which is 963 of the Hejira (A. D. 1555-6); the names of the months were those used by the Kings of Ajem; and fourteen festivals in the year instituted, coinciding with those of Zardusht, were named “the years and days of _Ilahí_.” This arrangement was established by _Hakím Sháh Fattah ulla Shírází_. On account of hearing so many disputes of the learned in the midst of the multitude, the custom of reading the comments on the Koran and the science of religion and law, were laid aside, and in their place astronomy, physic, arithmetic, mysticism, poetry, and chronology became current. The people of Ajem used to repeat frequently these verses:

“By living upon milk of camels and upon lizards,
The Arabians raised their fortune;
So that they now covet Ajem:
Fie upon thee, O revolving world, fie!”

Khaja abd ul látíf,[78] who was one of the distinguished personages of Maverah ul naher, gifted with the talent of subtile distinctions, raised doubts upon the truth of the saying:

‘The neck of the lord Muhammed is similar to the neck of an
idol.’

If that prevailed, then idolatry would be laudable. In like manner, the tradition about the she-camel straying far off,[79] which is published in the _Sír_, “acts and deeds;” then the assault upon the caravan of the Koraish, in the beginning of the Hejira;[80] also demanding nine wives,[81] and the interdiction of women from husbands according to the pleasure of the prophet, and this taking place;[82] the companions giving up their body; which is to be known by reading the book _Sír_; further, the appointment of the three first khalifs;[83] the affair of Fadek;[84] the war of Safín;[85] the victory of the Shiâhs; and the defeat of the Sonnites: _all these topics are subject to reflection_.

At a convivial meeting on the new-year’s festival, a Kási and a Mufti were inclined to drink cups of wine. Shaik Abu ’l Fazil, as a counterpart to the explanation of the verse of the Koran, called “the throne,”[86] composed a sermon in two parts. He also translated the Mahábharat, which is the history of the wars of the ancient Hindu chiefs. Some learned men denied absolutely the affair of Muhammed’s marriage night with _Sidíkáh_,[87] and blamed the deed of David concerning Uriah’s wife.

When the Sultán Khajah, who was one of the Ilahian, was about to leave this world, he said to the emperor: “Let not your Majesty bury me as if I had been an adorer of Divs.” On that account he was placed in a tomb with lamps, like a person of distinction, and a lattice was left towards the great majestic luminary, the splendor of which purifies from of all sins. Further, orders were issued that, in imitation of the kings of Ajem, low people may be prevented from reading the books of the wise, and from the pursuit of sciences. By other ordinances, the affairs of the Hindus were to be decided by learned Brahmans, and those of Muselmans by their own Káśis. Likewise the followers of other religions and persuasions received orders, that the head of a corpse may be laid in a tomb towards the east, and its feet towards the west; and that persons, even in their sleep, may dispose themselves in that direction. It was further ordained, that the Ilahian may not apply to any other sciences of the Arabs but to astronomy, arithmetic, physic, and philosophy, and not spend their life-time in the pursuit of what is not reasonable. The interdiction of slaying cows was confirmed. It was also regulated, that a Hindu woman is not to be prevented from burning with her dead husband, but that the sacrifice ought to take place without violence used towards, or abhorrence shewn by, the widow. Another regulation was that, whoever eats with one whose profession is the slaughter of animals, should have his hand cut off; but only a finger, if he belong to the people of his house.

Again, a woman who is going about in narrow streets or in market-places, without having at that time her face veiled, ought not to be approached by her husband; and a woman of improper conduct, who quarrels with her husband, ought to be sent to the place of prostitutes, whose business it is to offer themselves for sale. In addition to this, in times of distressing famine, a father and a mother may happen to sell their children under age; when they find themselves in better circumstances, they must be allowed, by giving money, to rescue their offspring from the bonds of servitude. Moreover, a Hindu who, in his infancy, without his will, has been made a Muselman, if later he chooses to return to the faith of his fathers, is at liberty to do so, and is not to be prevented from it; also every person is permitted to profess whatever religion he chooses, and to pass, whenever he likes, from one religion to another. But if a Hindu woman, having fallen in love with a Muselman, wishes to adopt his religion, she can be taken by force and delivered up to her family. And likewise a Muselman woman, if she has fallen in love with an Hindu, and wishes to adopt his faith, is prevented from it, and not admitted in his caste. Finally, the erection of a temple of idols, of a church, of a fire-temple, and a sepulchral vault, ought not to be impeded, nor the building of a mosque for the Muselmans.

Sader Jehan adopted the Ilahi religion. Acbar called the harmless animals the beasts of peace, and showed abhorrence to their slaughter. He mixed the best and purest part of every religion for the formation of his own faith. Mulla Tersún Badakhshi, who was a Muselman of the Hanifa creed, informed me, in the Hejira 1058 (A. D. 1648-9), that one day he went on a pilgrimage to visit the sepulchre of Akbar, the inhabitant of heaven; there, one of his friends, having hurt his foot in climbing up the holy tomb, set about reviling the khalifah of God. The companions said: “If the blessed Emperor, now in heaven, have any power, that man will certainly come to some misfortune.” Soon after, indeed, he broke a toe of his foot by a stone which had fallen down from a crevice of the wall. In one of Akbar’s works we find, that it is indispensable to worship God, the all-just, and necessary to praise the beings near him; that none of mankind rise to the rank of stars, as men are not equal to the dignity of celestial luminaries. The Emperor inculcated on his followers, that a godly man ought to know no other object of his wishes but God, the Almighty; that is, whatever business the godly undertakes, his wish in that business ought to tend towards God.

[36] According to Muhammed’s sayings, no more than four
women obtained perfection, to wit: _Asia_, the wife of
Pharaoh; _Mary_, the daughter of Imran (the blessed Virgin);
_Khadijá_, the prophet’s wife, and _Fatima_, his daughter.

[37] _Fedak_, according to Abulfeda (I. 133. 273), is a
castle near the town of _Khaibar_; this is a place fertile
in palm-trees in the Arabian province of _Hejaz_, four days’
journey distant from Mecca. It was given to Muhammed by the
faithful, under the name of alms. After the prophet’s death,
Fátima claimed it as a patrimony: but Abubekr refused it to
her, setting forth the above mentioned saying of the
prophet. Abulfeda, whom I follow, gives it as follows:

نحن معاشر الانبیاء لانورث ماتر کناہ صدقة

The words لانورث are not in the quotation of the Dabistán,
edit. of Calcutta, nor in the manuscript of Oude. Thus was
Fedak taken from the race of Alí and fell into the hands of
Mervan, in whose family it remained until Omar declared it
again to belong to alms, and assigned the usufruct of it to
the Alides. But _Mamun_, the seventh khalif of the
Abbasides, who reigned from Hejira 198 to 218 (A. D.
813-833), gave it formally over to _Muhammed_, son of
_Yahia_, son of _Hassan_, son of _Zaid_, son of _Ali_, son
of _Hassan_, son of _Ali_, son of _Abu Taleb_.――(_Abulfeda_,
II. p. 167).

[38] Muhammed had scarcely expired, when a vehement contest
about the succession to his dignity arose between the
_Mohajirin_, “the emigrants from Mecca with the prophet,”
and the _Ansar_, “the protectors (see note, p. 27): both
claimed the right of nomination. Abubekr was proclaimed by
both. To crush the resistance of Alí, who was the legitimate
competitor, Omar, sent by Abu-bekr, burnt the gate, and was
about to set on fire the house of Alí――scarcely restrained
from the act by the reproach of Fátima, Muhammed’s daughter
and Ali’s wife, who from that moment till her death never
spoke to any of the enemies of her husband. The prophet,
according to authentic traditions, said: “Whoever gives
offence to Fatimah gives offence to me; and whoever offends
me, offends God.”

[39] Muhammed, son of Ismáil al Jisfi, called _Bochárí_,
from his native town in Mazinderan, lived from the year of
the Hejira 194 to 256 (A. D. 809-869). He is chiefly
celebrated by a work composed, as he says himself, at the
prophet’s tomb at Madína, from six hundred thousand
traditions, and called _Masnad es sahih_, the sincere
(just) Masnad. “Masnad” signifies a collection of
traditions, each of which is accompanied with the name of
the traditionist by whom it was handed down.

[40] This happened in the battle of Ohod (so is called a
mountain half an hour’s distance from Madína, on the route
of Mecca). Muhammed fought with seven hundred men against
more than three thousand Koreish from Mecca, in the third
year of the Hejira (A. D. 624). Otba, the son of Vaccasi,
and brother of Sâd, who fought on the prophet’s side, hit
him with a stone, so as to knock out four incisors of his
inferior jaw.

[41] The edition of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have
erroneously: “Hakim, the son of _Mervan_,” instead of _Aś_,
which I substituted for Mervan, according to Abulfeda, I. p.
271. Elmacin (_Hist. Sarac._, p. 38) reads “Hakim, son of
_Abúl-Aś_.”

[42] Abulfeda (I. p. 271) says 500,000 gold coins. Elmacin
(_loco cit._, p. 39) states five talents of Africa, said to
be worth 504,000 gold pieces.

[43] Abulfeda (I. p. 261) mentions _Abdalla_, son of _Sâd_,
son of _Abu Sarh_, Amerite, a foster-brother of Osman
(_ibid._, p. 154). Elmacin (_loco cit._, p. 39) calls him
_Abdalla_, son of _Sáid_, son of _Abu Jerh_, who had been a
writer of revelations, and who, because he had apostatised
from Islamism, would have been put to death by the prophet,
after the taking of Mecca, in the eighth year of the Hejira
(A. D. 629), if Osman had not interceded for him.

[44] This relates to an expedition which Muhammed undertook,
in the ninth year of the Hejira (A. D. 630), towards
_Tabúk_, a place situated about half-way between _Madína_
and _Damascus_, beyond the limits of Arabia; it was in the
midst of the summer heats, at a time of great drought and
scarcity; besides the fruits were then just ripe, and the
people had much rather have remained to gather them. But the
first cause of discontent was the exaction of a tribute for
covering the expense of the expedition. Abubekr, Omar,
Osman, Alí, Talha, Abder rahmen, contributed largely to it;
others declined their pecuniary and personal aid; three of
the _anśars_, friends above alluded to (see p. 27), were
permitted to remain. Alí staid at Madína as lieutenant of
the prophet, who moved with an army of thirty thousand men
to the frontiers of Syria, which were defended by an equal
force of Greeks. He encamped during twenty days near Tabúk,
and then thought it necessary to retreat.

[45] If I am not mistaken, allusion is here made to _Zeinah_
(Zenobia), the wife of Zaid. Muhammed, having gone one day
to the house of the latter, who was not at home, found
Zeinah in a dress which permitted him to remark her
beauties, with which he was so smitten, that he could not
refrain from an exclamation betraying his sensation. Zeinah
did not fail to apprise her husband. Zeid then thought he
could not do less than to place his wife by a divorce at the
disposition of his master and benefactor, whose slave he had
once been, and by whom he was not only affranchised, but
adopted as a son. On that very account, Muhammed was
prevented by law from marrying Zeinah; but he procured to
himself an authorization from heaven, in a verse of the
Koran (chap. XXXIII. v. 36), and after the term of Zeinah’s
divorce, took to wife the object of his desires, at the
latter end of the fifth year of the Hejira (A. D. 626).

[46] During the contest between Alí and Moaviah, the armies
of both chiefs were in the year of the Hejira 37 (A. D. 657)
encamped opposite to each other in a plain on the banks of
the Euphrates, called by the Greeks _Barbelissos_ or
_Barabrissos_, and by the Arabs _Safin_; and in ninety
engagements, which took place between them in a hundred and
ten days, on the side of Moaviah fell forty-five thousand,
and on that of Ali twenty-five thousand men. In the night
which preceded the decisive day of Safin, Ali is said to
have killed with his own hand four hundred
enemies.――(_Abulfeda_, vol. I. pp. 305-313.)

[47] See vol. I. pp. 103-104, note 1.

[48] Muhammed, according to his traditions, was born in the
twentieth year of Nushirvan’s reign, which, as this king
began to reign A. D. 531, would be in 551. This does not
agree with the date of the prophet’s death in 632, at the
age of sixty-three years, about which the best historians
are unanimous. For the same reason, the date of his birth,
as stated by Silvestre de Sacy, on the 20th April, 571,
cannot be true. According to Weisi, Muhammed was born in the
thirty-eighth year of Nushirvan’s reign, on the 1st of
April, 569, which was a Monday, and it was on a Monday he
was born and died (see _Gemäldesaal Mosl., Herrsher I^{ter}
Band, Seite 22_, note).

[49] متعه.

[50] کہ لنک او حشک نشدی “ut membrum ejus nunquam siccum
esset.”

[51] See vol. I. p. 377.

[52] ارادة _irádet_, “will” (upon this word see an
explanation hereafter); it is one of the names of the first
minister, or of the universal intelligence in the mystic
language of the Druzes (see _Chrestom. Ar._, tome II. p.
243). This sect belongs to the Ismâilahs, who appear to have
borrowed much from the Indian philosophy.

[53] Amrál Kais, son of Hajr, king of the Arabs of the tribe
of _Kendah_, according to Herbelot, of _Asad_, was,
according to Sale, one of the greatest poets before
Muhammedism, and one of the seven, whose compositions were
suspended upon silken stuff in golden letters in the temple
of Mecca, and therefore called _moallakat_, “suspended.” His
poems, translated by Sir W. Jones (vol. X. of his Works),
are amatory, and have nothing of religion which Muhammed
could borrow. Amrálkaís was one of the adversaries of the
prophet, and wrote satires and invectives against him, which
were answered by _Labíd_, another of the seven poets, but
who ranged himself on the side of Muhammed. The Arabian
prophet certainly took many tenets and customs from former
times and religions: thus he confirmed the holiness of the
temple of Mecca and its environs, which were held in
veneration long before him; thus he adopted from Judaism
several laws relating to marriages, divorces, etc., etc.

[54] As the Arabians descend from Ismail, the brother of
Isaak, they take to themselves the blessing which God, in
Genesis (XVII. 20), pronounced upon him and his posterity;
and in the twelve princes who, according to the same verse,
were to issue from him, they see their twelve Imáms, Alí and
the rest (see vol. II. p. 367). They believe also that the
prophet, who, as God announced to Moses in the Pentateuch
(Deuteronomy, XVIII. 18), would rise from the Ismailites,
was Muhammed. According to Abul Firaj (_Specimen Hist.
Arab._, 14.17), the Muhammedans find in a passage of the
Pentateuch (Deuter., XXXIII. 2) indicated the descent of the
law to Moses upon mount Sinai; that of the Gospel to Jesus
upon mount Sair; and that of the Koran to Muhammed upon
mount Pharan, near Mecca. Further, in Psalm L. v. 2. they
imagine that in the words: “Manifestavit Deus e Sione
coronam laudatam, _actilan mahmudan_,” by _actilan_,
“crown,” is to be understood “kingdom,” and by _mahmudan_,
“praised,” the very name of Muhammed. But this passage is
translated in our Bible: “Out of Sion hath God appeared in
perfect beauty.” They find also passages applicable to their
prophet in Isaiah XXII. 6. 7. 9: XLII. 1. 7. 16. 17.; and
the whole chapter LXIII. 1. 6. etc.: moreover in Habacuc,
III. 3. etc. Besides, the town of Medina, being inhabited by
a tribe of conquered Jews, who were expecting a promised
Messiah, Muhammed presented himself as one for all nations;
and the credulous easily confounded him who was expected by
the Jews with the upstart Arabian prophet.

[55] The Moslims have a Gospel in Arabic, attributed to
Saint Barnabas, in which, it is said, they have inserted the
very name of their prophet _Muhammed_, _Ahmed_, _Mahmud_, as
being the translation of the Greek word περικλυτος,
periclytos, “famous, illustrious,” which they have
substituted for παρακλητος, paraclètos, “comforter, called
upon, _advocatus_;” which is found in St. John’s Gospel,
XIV. 26; XV. 26; XVI. 7.; and by which is designated Jesus,
or the Holy Ghost (see Sale’s _Koran_, Prel. Disc., p. 98).
The interpretation of the word _periclytos_ might also have
found place in the Arabian translation of the Bible, made by
Werka, the cousin of Muhammed’s first wife. Whatever it be,
we read in chap. LXI. v. 6. of the Koran: “And when Jesus,
the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel, verily I am
the apostle of God, sent unto you, confirming the law which
was delivered before me, and bringing good tidings of an
apostle who shall come after me, and whose name shall be
_Ahmed_.’”

[56] This miracle has perhaps no other foundation but the
atmospheric phenomena of a double moon which was seen in
Mecca, four or five years before the Hejira. Some ascribed
it to Muhammed on the infidels demanding a sign of him; the
moon then appeared cloven in two; one part vanishing and the
other remaining: it was affirmed that the mount Hara was
seen interposing between the two sections. To this the
believers refer chapter LIV of the Koran, entitled _the
moon_, which begins by these words: “The hour approacheth,
and the moon hath been split asunder.’ The most intelligent
expounders understand in the first word the hour of
judgment; others think, that in the rest the preter tense is
used, in the prophetic style, for the future; and that the
passage should be thus rendered: “The moon shall be split
asunder:” for this, they say, is to happen at the
resurrection.――(See Sale’s _Koran_, vol. II. p. 405). In the
subsequent section, “upon the interpretation of the
prophet’s miracle,” this subject is particularly treated.

[57] According to Richardson’s Dict., edit. of F. Johnson:
“Kárún is supposed to be the same person called Korah
(Numbers, chap. XVI) whom the Muhammedans describe as the
cousin of Moses. He is frequently alluded to by the poets
and moralists, not only as being extremely handsome, but as
possessed of immense wealth, acquired by his skill in
chemistry, and the discovery of the philosopher’s stone;
whilst his avarice is represented as so remarkable, that his
name is proverbially applied to all misers. They add, that
it was on account of his refusal to pay Moses a tithe of his
possessions for the public use, that the earth opened and
swallowed him up.”

[58] See p. 59, note 1, relative to Zaid and Zeinah.

[59] Koran, chap. XVII. v. 92-95. The Dabistán gives the
Arabic text and the Persian translation, which last I have
followed. It agrees, except in a few words, with the English
version of Sale, and the French of M. Kasimirsky.

[60] The principal ceremonies performed by the pilgrims of
Mecca have been touched upon in vol. II. p. 409, note 3; the
throwing of stones takes place in the valley of Mina, where
the devotees throw seven stones at three marks or pillars,
in imitation of Abraham, who, meeting the devil in that
place, and being disturbed by him in his devotions and
tempted to disobedience, when he was going to sacrifice his
son, was commanded by God to drive him away by throwing
stones at him; though others pretend this rite to be as old
as Adam, who also put the devil to flight in the same place,
and by the same means.――(Sale’s _Koran_, Prel. Disc., p.
160.)

[61] Herbelot says that, according to the Muhammedans, their
prophet had twenty-one wives, six of whom he repudiated, and
five died before him; therefore ten remained.

[62] Chapter XXXIII. v. 47. has the following passage: “O
prophet, we have allowed thee thy wives unto whom thou hast
given their dower, and also the slaves which thy right hand
possesseth, of the booty which God hath granted thee, and
the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father’s side, who
have fled with thee from Mecca, and any other believing
woman, if she give herself unto the prophet, in case the
prophet desireth to take her to wife. This is a peculiar
privilege granted unto thee above the rest of the true
believers.”

[63] This reminds of Hakem, the moon-maker.――(See p. 3, note
1.)

[64] The name of a magician said to have been contemporary
with Moses. He is mentioned in the Koran, chap. XX. v. 87.
Sale observes (vol. II. pp. 145. 146. N. 9.) that he was
not, as the Muhammedans believe, one of the Samaritans, who
were not then formed into a people, nor bore that name till
many ages after. Selden is of opinion, that this person was
no other than Aaron himself, called _al Sameri_, from the
Hebrew word _shamar_, “to keep;” because he was the keeper,
or guardian, of the children of Israel during the absence of
his brother, Moses, on the mount.

[65] The Pentateuch, the Psalter, the Gospel, and the Koran.

[66] In the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay,
vol. II. pp. 242-270, is to be found: “A Notice respecting
the religion introduced by the Emperor Akbar, by Captain
Vans Kennedy, written in 1818,” with an elegant, but in
several places abridged, translation of the just-given
disputes, between the doctors of the different religions, in
form of a dialogue, accompanied with valuable remarks
respecting the author of the Dabistán, of which I availed
myself in several quotations in the Preliminary Discourse,
as well as in this place.

[67] This refers principally to papers, such as passports,
of the Portuguese, who, as I have been informed by Viscount
Santarem, used to represent St. Catherine upon them, this
saint being the patroness of Goa and of one of the principal
confraternities; and the above-mentioned images are besides
often used as ornaments of books and printed papers.

[68] Others translate: “two, and three, and four,”
consequently nine wives; as the conjunction _va_, in Arabic,
may mean _or_ as well as _and_.――(See _Transact. of the Lit.
Soc. of Bombay_, vol. II. p. 268.)

[69] The passage of the Koran favorable to temporary
marriage is in chap. IV. v. 28: “For the advantage which you
receive from them, give them their reward (assign them their
dower), according to what is ordained: but it shall not be
criminal to make any other agreement among yourselves, after
the ordinance shall be complied with.” In this passage the
word _matâh_ occurs. This sort of marriage is also admitted
in the _Hédaya fil forú_, “the Guide in the Branches of the
Law” (translated into English by Charles Hamilton, 1791).

Nevertheless it was a subject of great contest among the
Muhammedan doctors whether such a connection be legitimate
or not. The Imám Abu Hanifah and others declared it
abrogated, according to the universal concurrence of the
prophet’s companions, on the authority of Ebn Abbas
Abdallah, who died Hej. 68 (A. D. 687). This Imám adduced
the information received from Ali, who, on the day of the
combat of Chaibar (A. D. 630), heard the prophet declare
that such marriages are forbidden. Moreover, a strong
opposer to their legitimacy was _Yahia_, the son of Aktam,
son of Muhammed, son of Katan, a celebrated judge, who died
in the year of the Hejira 242 (A. D. 856). Living during the
reign of Mamun, he succeeded in persuading the Khalif to
prohibit by a decree temporary marriage, which he had before
permitted.――(See _Abulfeda_, vol. II. pp. 195-199).

[70] قبل و دبُر, antè vel retrorsum.

[71] This is a work of Mohi eddin Ibn Arabi, who died in the
year of the Hejira 638 (A. D. 1240), of whom hereafter.

[72] Abu ’l Fazil, the wise minister of Akbar, is generally
known by his work entitled _Ayín Akbarí_, “the Institutes of
the Emperor Akbar,” translated from the original Persian, by
Francis Gladwin, in two volumes. This work contains the best
statistical account hitherto given respecting India of those
times. Abu ’l Fazil was the first Muhammedan who bestowed
attention upon the history and religion of the Hindus, and
drew his information regarding them from their own books. It
was by him, or under his eyes, that the Mahabharat was
translated from Sanskrit into Persian. The tolerance and
liberality of the Emperor Akbar towards all religions, and
his attempt to establish a new creed, are generally ascribed
to the influence of his enlightened minister, who paid it
with his life: for Jehangir, Akbar’s fanatic son, hired
assassins who murdered the excellent man, near Orcha, in the
district of Narwar, on his return from the Dekan, during the
life of Akbar, who, except his utmost indignation, had no
punishment to inflict upon the heir-apparent of his empire.

[73] افتاب, _aftab_, signifies sun and soul.

[74] Majeddin Abu Thaher Muhammed ben Yakub is the compiler
of the celebrated Arabic Dictionary, called _Al kamus_,
already quoted, which from a work of sixty-five volumes was
reduced to two. He is the author of several works besides
the above-mentioned. He died in the year of the Hejira 817
(A. D. 1414).

[75] I am not acquainted with the subjects above alluded to,
nor does the text appear connected.

[76] Composed by Ferid eddin Attlar.

[77] This is a work of the celebrated _Abd-al rahmen Jámi_;
its whole title is: كتاب نفحات الانس من حضرات القدس
_Kitab-u-nafhát-i ’l uns-i, min hazarat-i ’l Kades_,
translated by Silvestre de Sacy, “_les Haleines de la
familiarité, provenant des personnages eminens en
sainteté_,” “the breathings of familiarity proceeding from
personages eminent in sanctity.” Baron von Hammer rendered
the title by: “_Die Hauche der Menshheit_,” “the Breathings
of Mankind;” _Nefhát_ being interpreted in the Dictionary,
by “a breath of wind, a fragrant gate, perfume,
(metaphorically for) good fame,” I prefered the version
given in the text.

[78] Abdul latif Khan, son of Abdalla, prince of the
Usbecks, died in the year of the Hejira 948 (A. D. 1541).

[79] This appears an allusion to the following occurrence:
_Ayeshá_, Muhammed’s favorite wife, accompanied the prophet
on an expedition against the tribe of the Mostalek, in the
sixth year of the Hejira (A. D. 627). During the
night-march, according to her own statement, she alighted
from her camel, in order to search for a valuable necklace
which she had dropped. On account of her light weight, her
absence was not perceived by the drivers, who went on and
left her alone on the road. There, having laid down and
fallen asleep, she was the next morning found by Safwan Ebn
al Moattel, and brought, at noon, on his own camel to
Muhammed’s next resting-place. This occurrence raised
suspicions respecting Ayesha’s virtue; Muhammed found
necessary to inveigh against slander in the Koran (chap.
XXIV), and to punish the free-speakers as slanderers: but he
could not silence the severe reflections of some respectable
men, among whom was Alí.――(_Hammer’s Gemäldesaal_, _I^{ter}
Band. Sexte_, 144-145.

[80] Muhammed made, in the beginning of the Hejira, several
unsuccessful attempts to intercept the caravans of the
Koreish, his enemies; at last, in the second year of the
Hejira (A. D. 623), took place the battle of _Bedr_, in the
valley of the same name, near the sea, between Mecca and
Medina. Muhammed, with 319 combattants, had marched to take
a caravan of the Koreish, which, richly laden, returned from
Syria; apprised of it, the inhabitants of Mecca sent 950 men
to succour the caravan: this force was attacked and routed
by Muhammed’s inferior number, _assisted by angels_, and a
rich booty fell into his hands.

[81] See vol. III. p. 79.

[82] See vol. III. p. 59.

[83] See vol. I. pp. 99-100.

[84] See vol. III. p. 51.

[85] See vol. III. pp. 59-60. note 2.

[86] This is the 256th verse of chapter II. It is justly
admired by the Muhammedans, who recite it in their prayer,
and some of them wear it about them, engraved on an agate or
other precious stone. Here it follows, as translated by
Sale, who remarks that his translation must not be supposed
to equal the dignity of the original (vol. I. p. 47): “God!
there is no God but he; the living, the self-subsisting;
neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him; to him belongeth
whatsoever is in heaven and on earth. Who is he that can
intercede with him, but through his good pleasure? He
knoweth that which is past, and that which is to come to
them, and they shall not comprehend any thing of his
knowledge, but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is extended
over heaven and earth, and the preservation of both is no
burthen unto him. He is the High, the Mighty.”

[87] _Sidíkáh_, “the true,” is a surname given by the
Muhammedans to the blessed Virgin, and to _Ayishá_, daughter
of Abu-bekr, and wife of Muhammed. At nine years of age, her
mother took her down from a swing suspended between two
palm-trees, where she childishly slept, and placed her upon
the lap of the prophet, a bridegroom of fifty-two years. She
was but eighteen when he died. She then became the head of a
party hostile to Ali. She never forgot the austere judgment
which he had passed upon the occurrence related in the
preceding note (p. 100 note 1); not satisfied with having
discarded him more than twenty-three years from the
khalifat, she led in person a strong army against him, to
wrest it from his hands; but was taken in battle, generously
treated, and sent to Medina, where she died in the year of
the Hejira 58 (A. D. 677), having attained the prophet’s age
of sixty-three years.