Chapter XXVIII: Appendix: S (1)

PROFESSOR LLOYD'S "HISTORY OF WALES"

I regret that this valuable work did not appear until too late for me to make use of it in my chapter on Welsh Castles. It is worth while to note the following points in which Professor Lloyd's conclusions differ from or confirm those which I have been led to adopt.

Aberystwyth and Aberrheiddiol.--"After the destruction of the last Aberystwyth Castle of the older situation in 1143, the chief stronghold of the district was moved to the mouth of the Rheiddiol, a position which it ever afterwards retained, though people still insisted on calling it Aberystwyth" (514). "The original castle of Aberystwyth crowned the slight eminence at the back of the farm of Tan y Castell, which lies in the Ystwyth valley 1-1/2 miles S. of the town. There is the further evidence of the name, and the earthworks still visible on the summit" (426, _note_).

Carreghova.--I ought perhaps to have included this castle in my list, though on the actual map its site is within the English border; but as there are absolutely no remains of it [D. H. M.] it does not affect the question I am discussing.

Cardigan and Cilgerran.--"Dingeraint cannot be Cilgerran, because Cilgerran is derived from _Cerran_, with the feminine inflection, not from _Geraint_; nor is Cilgerran 'close to the fall of the Teifi into the sea,' as the chronicler says Dingeraint was. The castle built by Earl Roger was probably Cardigan" (401). Professor Lloyd afterwards identifies Cilgerran with the castle of Emlyn (661). This seems to me questionable, as the "New Castle of Emlyn," first mentioned in Edward I.'s reign, presupposes an older castle, and as I have stated, a mound answering to the older castle still exists not far from the stone castle.

Carmarthen.--Professor Lloyd thinks this castle stood at the present farm of Rhyd y Gors, about a mile below the town; but I see no reason to alter the conclusion to which I was led by Mr Floyd's paper, that the Rhyd y Gors of the castle was a ford at Carmarthen itself. The fact that Henry I. founded a cell to Battle Abbey at Carmarthen (431) seems to me an additional piece of evidence that the castle was there; castle and abbey nearly always went together.

Dinweiler.--Professor Lloyd assumes Dinweiler to be the same as the castle in Mabudryd built by Earl Gilbert, and to be situated at or near Pencader (501). It should be noted, however, that Dinweiler reads Dinefor in MS. B. of the _Brut_, in 1158. I am in error in supposing St Clair to be the castle of Mabudryd (following a writer in _Archæologia Cambrensis_), as St Clair is not in that commote. Professor Lloyd's map of the _cantrefs_ and _commotes_ differs widely from that of previous writers.

Llangadoc.--"Luchewein" should not be identified with this castle; Professor Lloyd thinks it may refer to a castle at Llwch Owain, a lake in the parish of Llanarthney, where there is an entrenchment known as Castell y Garreg.

Maud's Castle.--Camden identified "Matildis castrum" with Colewent or Colwyn, but Professor Lloyd is of opinion that "a careful collation of the English and Welsh authorities for the events of the years 1198 and 1231 will make it clear that Payne's Castle and Maud's Castle are the same." This of course does not affect what is said about Colwyn Castle in the text.

Montgomery.--Professor Lloyd deems that the emphasis laid (especially in the _Charter Rolls_, i., 101) on the fact that the building of Henry III.'s reign was New Montgomery, leaves no doubt that the former town and castle stood elsewhere, probably at Hên Domen. This, if true, would greatly strengthen my case, as Hên Domen is an admirable motte and bailey.

SCHEDULE OF ENGLISH CASTLES KNOWN TO DATE FROM THE ELEVENTH CENTURY[1207]

IN TOWNS

Name of Whole Area of Enceinte
No. Castle. Type.[1208] or Bailey. Value.

1. Arundel M. and B., O. Whole area 4-1/2 acres Risen. 2. Bamborough K. and B. Whole area 4-3/4 acres ... 3. Barnstaple M. and B. Bailey 1-1/3 acres Not given T. R. E. 4. Bristol M. and B., O. Whole area nearly 4 acres Not given T. R. E. 5. Buckingham M. and B. ? Risen. 6. Caerleon M. and B., O. Bailey 4-3/4 acres Risen. 7. Cambridge M. and B. Bailey 4-1/4 acres Not given T. R. W. 8. Canterbury M. and B., O. Whole area 3 acres Risen. (Dungeon Hill) 9. Carlisle K. and B., O. Whole area 4 acres ... 10. Chester M. and B., O. First ward 3/4 acre Risen. 11. Colchester K. and B. {Inner ward and keep} Risen. {about 2 acres } 12. Dover K. and B. {Inner castle } Risen. {about 6 acres} 13. Durham M. and B., O. Bailey 1 acre ... 14. Ely M. and B., O. Bailey 2-1/2 acres Fallen, but rising. 15. Exeter B. only now 2 acres ... 16. Gloucester M. and B., O. ? Risen. 17. Hastings M. and B., O. ? Fallen, but rising. 18. Hereford M. and B. Bailey 5-1/2 acres Risen. 19. Huntingdon M. and B., O. Inner bailey 2-1/2 acres Stationary. 20. Lewes M. and B. Bailey 3 acres Risen. 21. Lincoln M. and B. Bailey 5-3/4 acres Risen. 22. Monmouth K. and B. Bailey 1-3/4 acres Not given T. R. E. 23. Newcastle M. and B., O. Whole area 3 acres 1 rood ... 24. Norwich M. and B., O. Inner bailey 3-1/4 acres Risen. 25. Nottingham M. and B., O. Bailey 1-2/3 acres Risen. 26. Oxford M. and B., O. Bailey 3 acres Risen. 27. Pevensey K. and B. Bailey 1 acre Risen. 28. Quatford {M. and B., } {probably O.} Bailey 1 acre ... 29. Rochester M. and B., O. Whole area about 3 acres Risen. (Boley Hill) 30. Old Sarum. M. and B. Inner ward 1-3/4 acres Risen. 31. Shrewsbury M. and B., O. Bailey 4/5 of an acre Risen. 32. Stafford M. and B., O. Bailey 1-3/5 acres Risen. 33. Stamford M. and B. Bailey 1-3/4 acres Risen. 34. Tamworth {M. and B., } Bailey 1 acre Not given. {probably O.} 35. Totnes M. and B., O. Bailey 3/4 of an acre Risen. 36. Tower of K. and B. Originally? Not given. London 37. Wallingford M. and B. Bailey 4-1/2 acres Risen. 38. Warwick M. and B., O. Bailey 2-1/2 acres Risen. 39. Winchester M. and B., O. Whole area 4-1/2 acres Not given. 40. Worcester M. and B., O. Whole area between 3 and 4 acres Risen. 41. York M. and B., O. Whole area formerly about 3 acres Risen. 42. The Baile M. and B., O. Whole area 2-3/4 acres ... Hill, York

IN MANORS

Head of Whole Area
No. Name of District of Enceinte
Castle. Type. T. R. E. or Bailey. Value.

43. Abergavenny M. and B. ? Bailey 1 acre. ... 44. Belvoir M. and B.? No ? Risen. 45. Berkeley M. and B Yes " 1-1/2 acres Risen. or Ness 46. Berkhampstead M. and B Yes " 3 acres Fallen. 47. Bishop's M. and B No " 2-1/2 acres Fallen. Stortford 48. Bourn M. and B. Yes " 3 acres Risen. 49. Bramber M. and B. No " 3 acres Risen. 50. Carisbrooke M. and B. No " 2-3/4 acres Risen. 51. Castle Acre M. and B. No " 2 acres Risen. 52. Chepstow K. and B. No Whole area 1-2/3 acres Risen. 53. Clifford M. and B. No Bailey 2-1/3 acres Risen. 54. Clitheroe M. and B. No " 1 acre Fallen. 55. Corfe M. and B. No " 1-1/2 acres Risen. 56. Dudley M. and B. No " 1-3/4 acres Fallen. 57. Dunster M. and B. No " 1-3/4 acres Risen. 58. Ewias M. and B. ? " 2-1/3 acres Not given T. R. E. 59. Eye M. and B. No " 2 acres Risen. 60. Launceston M. and B. No " 3 acres Fallen. 61. Montacute M. and B. No ? Not given T. R. E. 62. Morpeth M. and B. ? ? ... 63. Norham M. and B. ? Bailey 2 acres ... 64. Okehampton M. and B. No " 1/2 an acre Risen. 65. Oswestry M. and B. No ? Risen. 66. Peak Castle K. and B. No " 1 acre Risen. 67. Penwortham M. and B. No ? Risen. 68. Peterborough Motte only ? ? ... now 69. Pontefract M. and B. Probably " 2-1/3 acres Fallen. 70. Preston Capes M. and B. No ... Risen. 71. Rayleigh M. and B. Yes Bailey 3/4 acre Risen. 72. Richard's M. and B. No " 2/3 acre Stationary. Castle 73. Richmond K. and B. No " 2-1/2 acres ... 74. Rockingham M. and B. No First bailey 3 acres Risen. 75. Skipsea M. and B. No Bailey 8-1/4 acres Fallen. 76. Stanton M. and B. No ? Risen. Holgate 77. Tickhill M. and B. No " 2 acres Risen. 78. Tonbridge M. and B. No " 1-1/2 acres Stationary. 79. Trematon M. and B. No " 1 acre Fallen. 80. Tutbury M. and B. No " 2-1/2 acres Not given T. R. E. 81. Tynemouth ? ? ? ... 82. Wigmore M. and B. No " 1 acre Risen. 83. Windsor M. and B. No Upper bailey Fallen, 6-1/2 acres but rising. 84. Wisbeach M. and B. No Whole area 4 acres Fallen.

It has been thought best to tabulate the _chief_ defensible area of each castle. The total area, including ditches and scarps, is liable to great variation owing to the nature of the ground.

INDEX

Aber, 261

Aberavon, 296

Abercorn, 308

Aberdovey, 300

Abereinon, 301

Abergavenny, 97

Aberlleinog, 261

Aberystwyth, 281, 393

Aggeres, 77, 111

Aldreth, 150

Alfred, King, 13, 14, 15

Amwell, 52

Annan, 309

Anstruther family, 308

Antrim, 331

Appledore, 50

Aq'i, 331

Aquila, castle of, 77

Ardfinnan, 331

Ardmayle, 331

Ardnurcher, 331

Ardree, 331

Ardres, 75, =89=

Area of Norman castles, 97

Arques, 361

Arundel, 98

Arx, 211, 384

Ashlar masonry, 356

Askeaton, 332

Askelon, 332

Athelney, 14

Athlone, 333

Auchterless, 309

Avenel family, 308

Baginbun, 333

Bailey, ballium, 4, 5, 92, 207

Bakewell, 47

Balimore Eustace, 333

Balliol family, 308

Ballyknockan, 341

Ballynaclogh, 346

Bamborough, 11, 100, 355, 357

Banff, 319

Barclay, 309

Barnstaple, 102

Barnwell, 376

Baronies, 307

Basements of keeps, 359, 362

Basingwerk, 267

Bastille, the, 376

Bayeux Tapestry, 87, 158, 393

Bayford Court, 49

Bedford, 40

Beith, 317

Belesme, Roger, 100, 191;
castle, 77

Belvoir, 102

Benfleet, 50

Bensington, 28

Berkeley, 103, 367

Berkhampstead, 105

Bernard de Neufmarché, 273, 276

Bervie River, 316

Biggar, 313

Bishop's Stortford, 107

Blaenporth, 282

Bleddfa, 293

Blois, 75

Blythe, 219

Boley Hill, 49, 196, 199, 200

Bordlands, 307

Borgue, 317

Boroughs, 21, 258, 382

Boulogne, 376 _n._ 1

Bourn, 107

Bowes, 366

Bramber, 109

Braose, De, 109, 276, 292

Brecknock, 276, 290

Bremesbyrig, 32

Bretasche, 91, 386

Bridgenorth, 33, 52

Bristol, 23, 110

Bromborough, 32

Bruce family, 309

Brut y Tywysogion, 254

Buckingham, 25, 40

Burghal Hidage, 28, 98, 160, =385=

Burgh Castle, 44 _n._ 1.

Burgus, 85

Burh, 17-19, 123;
Clark's theory of, 20-29

Buttington, 51

Cadwalader, 266

Cadzow, 314

Caen keep, 361

Caereinion, 300

Caerleon, 113

Caerphilly, 376 _n._ 1

Caerwedros, 283

Caherconlish, 333

Cambridge, 55, 57, =115=

Camps, of refuge, 29;
prehistoric, 6;
of Danes, 61

Canterbury, 116

Carbury, 333

Cardiff, 294

Cardigan, 274, 275;
Castle, =280=

Carisbrook, 121

Carlingford, 334

Carlisle, 25, =128=, 365

Carlovingian Empire, 66

Carmarthen, =275=, 394

Carnarvon, =261=, 375

Carnwath, 318

Carreghova, 271, 394

Carrick, 334

Carrickfergus, 334

Carrickittle, 339

Carrigogunell, 332

Castel, the word, 24, 98

Castellum, castrum, 25, 67, 169, 383

Castles, private, Ch. V.;
product of feudalism, 66;
in Normandy, 76, 77;
wooden, 78;
stone, Ch. XII.;
sites given to church, 259 _n._ 2.

Castle Acre, =124=

Castledermot, 347

Castle guard, 175

Castleknock, 341

Castlemore, 338

Castle Rough, 49

Castle Rushen, 377 _n._ 1

Castletown Delvin, 334

Cathcart family, 310

Catter, 315

Ceredigion, 274, 275

Chapels in castles, 355

Chartres keep, 74

Chastell Gwalter, 282

Chateaudun keep, 75

Chateau Gaillard, 372, 376, 391

Chepstow, 125

Chester, 31, =126=, 367

Chevron moulding, 100

Cheyne family, 310

Chilham, 368

Chimneys, 357

Chinon, 75

Chippenham, 55

Chirk, 269

Christison, Dr, 8, 31, 304, 306

Cilgerran, =281=, 394

Citadels, 6, 54, 56

Clare, house of, 275, 281

Clark, G. T., 2, 8, 19, 26, 48

Clears, St, =288=, 394

Cledemuthan, 43

Clifford, 128

Clitheroe, 129

Clonard, 334

Clonmacnoise, 335

Colchester, 41, =132=, 223, 354, 355

Collacht, 335

Colville family, 310

Comyn family, 310

Concentric castles, 375

Cooking in castles, 359

Corfe, =135=, 363

Coucy, 65, 372

Courcy, John de, 336

Court hills, 310, 391

Covington, 313

Crail, 319

Crimond, 311

Crogen, battle of, 266

Cromarty, 316

Crometh, 335

Cromwell, 220, 336

Croom, 335

Crossbow, the 370

Cunningham family, 311

Cupar, 320

Cymmer, 299

Cynewulf, murder of, 13

Cynfael, 300

Cyricbyrig, 37

Dalswinton, 311

Dane John, 116, 118, 121

Danes in Ireland, 60

Dangio, 75

Danish raths, 48;
camps, 61;
colonies, 59, 60

Darnhall, 317

David I. of Scotland, 123, 163, =303=

Deganwy, 259, 270

Dernio, 267

Derver, 341

Dinan, 87

Dinerth, 282

Dinevor, =287=, 394

Dinweiler, 394

Dirleton, 319

Domfront keep, 361

Donjons, 358, 390

Douglas family, 312

Dover, =138=;
church, 144;
Pharos, 143

Downpatrick, 335

Drogheda, 336

Drumore, 315

Drumsagard, 317

Duchal, 315

Dudley, 144

Dudo of St Quentin, 76

Duffus, 317

Duleek, 337

Dumfries, 320

Dun, the word, 326

Dunamase, 337

Dungarvan, 337

Dunio, 75

Dunmullie, 311

Dunoon, 313

Dunskeath, 320

Dunster, 145

Durand, 312

Durham, 146

Durward, 312

Dyfed, 274

Earthworks, Committee, 2

Eddisbury, 35

Edward, 14-16, 45, 65, 127

Edward the Martyr, 135

Edwardian castles, 328, 345

Egloe, Eulo, 271

Elgin, 320

Ellon, 311

Ely, 149

Entrances to keeps, 355, 361, 373

Errol, 314

Escluen, 332

Étampes Castle, 373

Ethelfleda, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 45, 232, 342

Eu, 56

Eustace of Boulogne, 139

Ewias, 150

Exeter, 151;
siege of, 154

Eye, 155

Falaise, 361-363

Favorie, 338

Ferns, 338

Feudalism, 63, 66, 378, 379;
in Normandy, 76;
in Wales, 299, 378;
in Scotland, 303

Fireplaces, 357

Fitz Alans, 179, 313

Fitzhardinge, Robert, 104

FitzOsbern, William, 103, 126, 128, 150, 273

Five Boroughs, the 44, 59

Flambard, Ranulf, 172

Fleming family, 313

Flint, 375

Folk-moots, 381

Fore, 338

Forebuildings, 355, 361

Forfar, 320

Forres, 321

Fortifications, Anglo-Saxon, 29, 64;
Danish, 55, 61;
wooden, 78

Fotheret Onolan, 338

French earthworks, 7

Fulham, 55

Fulk Nerra, 73, 74, 352

Gaimar, Geoffrey, 171

Gallo-Roman villas, 67

Galtrim, 338

Gatehouse keeps, 359

Gatehouse palace, 375

Geashill, 338

Gemaron, 292

Gephthine, 332

Gilling, 193, 194

Gisors, 364

Glamorgan, 276

Gloucester, 156

Godwin, Earl, 22, 24, 103

Gomme, G. L., 8

Gould, I. C, 2

Gower, 277, 297

Graham family, 314

Granard, 338

Greenwell, Canon, 2

Guildford, 393

Guisnes, 75, 76

Gundulf, Bishop, 197, 198, 222

Guy of Amiens, 139

Gwyddgrug, 260

Gwynedd, 256-262

Hæsten the Dane, 49, 50

Hall, the Anglo-Saxon, 17, 24, 168

Hallaton Castle Hill, 88

Hamilton family, 314

Harold, Earl and King, 138, 161, 257

Hastings, 87, =158=

Haughead Kipp, 317

Haverfordwest, 280

Hawarden, 377

Hawick, 315

Hay, 291

Hay family, 314

Hên Domen, 395

Henry I., castles of, 360-364, 392

Henry II., castles of, 365-369

Henry the Fowler, 64

Hericio, 388

Hermitage Castle, 318

Herring-bone work, 136, 168, 218

Hincheleder, 339

Hithes, 57

Hodesley, Hoseley, 268

Holywell, 267, 270

Hubert de Burgh, 140

Hugh of Avranches, 256, 257

Humphrey's Castle, 283

Huntingdon, 42, =162=

Hurdicia, 91, 372, =387=

Ida, King, 11

Inchelefyre, 339

Innermessan, 321

Inverness, 321

Inverugie, 310

Inverwick, 313

Irish chiefs, 325, 342

Jedburgh, 321

John, Bishop of Terouenne, 88

John, King, 137, 270, 370 _n._ 1

Jomsborg, 59

Karakitel, 339

Keepless castles, 328, 374

Keep and bailey, 357

Keeps, arrangements in, 359, 391;
polygonal, 368;
prows to, 373;
residences, 392;
round, 368, 373

Keeps of Henry I., 360, 363, 392

Keeps of Henry II., 366

Keeps of William I., 351, 354

Kelts of Scotland, 304

Kenardington, 50

Kenfig, 295

Kenmure, 308

Kidwelly, 288

Kilbixie, 339

Kilbride, 318

Kilfeakle, 340

Kilfinnane, 329

Kilkea, 347

Killamlun, 339

Killare, 339

Kilmaurs, 311

Kilmehal, 340

Kilmore, 340

Kilsantan, 340

Kiltinan, 340

Kincleven, 321

Kirkcudbright, 321

Kirkintilloch, 311

Kirkpatrick Durham, 312

Kitchens in castles, 90

Knighton, 293

Knock, 341

Knockgraffan, 341

Lacy, Ilbert de, 187, 188;
Hugh de, 337

Lag Castle, 312

Lagelachon, 341

Lagmen, 62

Lambert of Ardres, 75, 89

Lanark, 321

Langeais keep, 72, 353

Laon, 72

Largs, 317

Laugharne, 288

Launceston, 164

Laurence of Durham, 147

Law about castles, 377

Lawhaden, 279

Lea Castle, 341

Lea River, 15, 52

Lead roofs, 369

Leighlin, 341

Lennox, 315

Leuchars, 318

Lewes, 165

Lincoln, 167

Linton Roderick, 310

Lismore, 342

Llanarmon, 272

Llandeilo Talybont, 298

Llandovery, 286

Llanegwad, 289

Llangadog, 289, 394

Llanrhystyd, 300

Llanstephan, 286

Lloyd, Professor, 253, 393

Lochmaben, 309

Lochorworth, 314

Lockhart family, 315

Logan family, 315

London fortified, 14

Loopholes, 362, 370, 371;
cross loopholes, 371

Lords-marchers, 255

Loske, 343

Loughor, 298

Louth, 342

Louvre, the, 373

Lovel family, 315

Loxhindy, 343

Ludgarsburh, 170

Lumphanan, 312

Lyle or Lisle family, 315

Lympne, 15

Mabudryd, 394

Machicolations, 372

Magh Adair, 327

Maitland, Professor, 27

Maldon, 41

Manchester, 46

Manors, Saxon, and mottes, 96

Mans, Le, keep of, 361

Masonry, 356, 362, 367

Mathraval, 271

Maud's Castle, 293, 394

Maxton, 316

Maxwell family, 316

Melton, Archbishop, 248

Melville family, 315

Mercenaries, 7, 74 _n._ 1

Merchem Castle, 88

Mersey Island, 54

Military service, 64

Milton, 49

Missile engines, 369

Mitford, 373

Moffat, 309

Mold, 260

Monmouth, 168

Montacute, 169

Montalt, 316

Montgomeri, Roger de, 53, 98, =130=, 191, 263;
Hugh de, 274;
Arnolf, 274, 278;
castle, =264=, 395

Montgomerie family, Scotland, 316

Moot-hills, 8, 9, 381

Moray, colonisation of, 304

Morpeth, 171

Mortain, Count of, 106, 138, 164, 169, 186

Mortimers, 276

Morville family, 316

Mottes, described, 4, 5;
the word, 9 _n._ 1;
distribution, 80-82;
situation, 83-96;
in France, 85;
in Wales, 301;
in Scotland, 322;
in Ireland, 348;
history, 72, 74

Mowbray, Earl Robert, 101

Mowbray family, 317

Müller, Dr Sophus, 6

Mural towers, 358

Murray family, 317

Naas, 343

Nantes Castle, 71

Nant yr Arian, 284

Narberth, 280

Navan, 344

Neath, 296

Neckham, "De Utensilibus," 86

Neilson, Mr George, 8, =306=

Neu Leiningen, 376 _n._ 1

Newcastle, 171

Newcastle Bridgend, 295

Newcastle Emlyn, 289

New Grange, 10

Newport, 279

Nicetus, his castrum, 67

Nicholas, St, 110, 213

Nobber, 344

Normandy, 22, 76, 77

Norman favourites, 23

Norman walls, 356

Normans, 7

Norrei Castle, 77

Northmen, camps of, 61, 383

Norton, 293

Norwich, =173=, 363

Nottingham, 44, 49, 57, =176=

O'Donovan, 329

Offa's Dyke, 52

Okehampton, 178

Oldcastle, 347

Old Sarum, 202

Oliphant family, 317

Orford, 246 _n._

Oswestry, 179

Overton (Denbigh), 267;
(Hereford), 192

Owen Gwynedd, 260, 270

Oxford, 180

Oxnam, 310

Oystermouth, 298

Pantolf, William, 213

Parliamentary fortifications, 202

Payn's Castle, =293=, 395

Peak, 182

Pembroke, 278

Pentecost's Castle, 24, 150

Penwortham, 183

Peterborough, 185

Pevensey, 99, 186

Pistes, Capitulary of, 68, 72

Pitt-Rivers, General, 2

Plinths, 355

Polnoon, 316

Pontefract, 187;
siege of, 189

Pont y Stuffan, 283

Powys, 263-266

Prestatyn, 270

Preston Capes, 190

Pretorium, 72

Prisons in castles, 359

Private castles, 21, 68

Pudsey, Bishop, 173

Quatbridge, 58

Quatford, 191

Quincy, De, family, 318

Radnor, 292

Rainald the Sheriff, 263

Rapes of Sussex, 299

Rathceltchair, 336

Raths in Ireland, 325, 327

Rathwire, 344

Ratouth, 344

Rayleigh, 191

Reading, 54

Redcastle, Lunan Bay, 309

Reginald's Tower, 347, 348

Remni, 297

Renfrew, 313

Retford, 55

Rhaidr Gwy, 301

Rhé Island, motte on, 350

Rhuddlan, 257, 259

Rhyd y Gors, 275, 284

Rhys ap Griffith, 275, 287

Riccarton, 319

Richard Sans Peur, 76

Richard I., 370-372

Richard's Castle, 192

Richmond, 193

Robert Curthose, 110

Robert de Monte, 360

Robert, Earl of Gloucester, 110, 295

Robert Fitz Hamon, 277

Robert of Rhuddlan, 257

Roberton, 314

Rochester, 25, 49, 195

Rockingham, 201

Roger the Poitevin, 129, 183, 184

Rokerel, 345

Rollo, 76

Roscrea, 345

Rosemarkie, 322

Ross, 318

Rouen, 77

Runcorn, 38

Ruthin, 269

Ruthven, 311

Sanquhar, 318

Sarn Helen, 283

Saumur Castle, 75

Saxon fortifications, Chapters II., III., 29

Saxon royal seats, 151 _n._ 2, 235

Scergeat, 33

Sepulchral hillocks, 9;
in Ireland, 327

Shaftesbury, 15

Shell keep, 99

Sheppey Isle, 54

Shoebury, 51

Shrewsbury, 207

Siege castles, 85

Siegfried the Dane, 75

Siward, Earl, 22

Skipsea, 209

Skreen, 345

Slane, 345

Somerville family, 318

Somner, antiquary, 117

Soulis family, 318

Stafford, 34, =211=

Stamford, 44, =216=

Stanton, 217

Stevenston, 315

Stewarton, 318

Swansea, 297

Symington, 315

Table of Boroughs, 26

Talgarth, 292

Tamworth, 34, =218=

Tarbolton, 314

Tateshall, 187

Tempsford, 53

Tenby, 280

Terraces to mottes, 102

Thanet, 54

Thelwall, 46, 385

Thetford, 55, 56

Thibault-le-Tricheur, 74

Thingwall, 381

Thorne, 368 _n._ 3

Thurles, 346

Tibraghny, 346

Tickhill, 219

Tiles, use of, 255

Timahoe, 346

Tom-a-mhoid, 313

Tomen y Mur, 262

Tomen y Rhoddwy, 271, 272, 388

Tonbridge, 220

Toot Hill, 259

Topcliffe, 5 _n._

Torkesey, 55, 56

Totnes, 221

Towcester, 41

Tower of London, 221, 354, 355

Towers to castles, 71

Towns, fortification of, 65

Trade, 30

Trébuchet, 369

Trematon, 226

Tribalism, 64

Trim, 346, 377

Tristerdermot, 347

Tullow, 335, 389

Tutbury, 227

Tynboeth, 293

Tynemouth, 228

Tynwald Hill, 381

Typermesan, 347

Valoignes family, 318

Value of manors and towns, 96

Vaulting, 362, 365, 367, 374

Vaux family, 319

Viking crews, 90

Viollet le Duc, 368 _n._ 1

Vire, keep, 361

Voussoirs, 362

Wales, Chapters VIII., IX.;
Wales and Saxons, 253;
Wales and Normans, 254

Wallace family, 319

Wallingford, 28, =228=

Walwern, 301

Wareham, 25, 28

Warenne, Wm., 124, 165

Wark, 366, 367, 368 _n._ 2, 388

Warkworth, 377

Warwick, 36, =230=

Wasta, 114

Waterford, 347

Water-supply, 362-363

Watling Street, 16, 32, 382

Waytemore Castle, 107

Weardbyrig, 36

Welsh halls, 251

Welshpool, 265

Wessex, 13

Wexford, 348

Wicklow, 348

Wigingamere, 41

Wigmore, 232

William I., 22, 77

William the Lion, 163, 305

Willington, 57

Winchester, 233

Winding walks on mottes, 102, 121

Windsor, 236;
borough, 238

Wisbeach, 239

Wiston, 279

Witham, 39

Wolvesey Castle, 235 _n._ 4

Wooden fortifications, 78, 208, 228, 250, 306, 358, 359

Worcester, 115, 23, 31, =240=;
charter, 21

Wrexham Castle, 268

Yale Castle, 271, 300

Year 1000, 78

York, 13, =242=

York, Baile Hill, 248

Ystrad Cyngen, 288

Ystrad Meurig, 283

Ystrad Peithyll, 282

PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH FOOTNOTES:

[1] Mr W. H. St John Hope arrived independently at similar conclusions.

[2] In the paper on Earthworks in the second volume of the _Victoria County History of Yorkshire_, this subdivision of the promiscuous class X., is used.

[3] Since the above was written, Mr Hadrian Allcroft's work on _Earthwork of England_ has furnished an admirable text-book of this subject.

[4] See Frontispiece.

[5] See Fig. 1.

[6] For instance, at Berkeley, Ewias Harold, Yelden, and Tomen y Roddwy.

[7] As at Rayleigh and Downpatrick.

[8] In some of these castles there is no gap in the bailey banks for an entrance. They must have been entered by a movable wooden stair, such as horses can be taught to climb. See the plan of Topcliffe Castle, Yorks (Fig. 1).

[9] _Vor Oldtid_, p. 629.

[10] _Entwickelung des Kriegswesens_, iii., 379.

[11] See Chapter VII.

[12] _Primitive Folkmoots._ See Appendix A.

[13] _Early Fortifications in Scotland_, p. 13. He adds an instance showing that Moot Hill is sometimes a mistake for Moot Hall.

[14] _Scottish Review_, vol. xxxii.

[15] Some writers give the name of moot-hill to places in Yorkshire and elsewhere where the older ordnance maps give moat-hill. _Moat_ in this connection is the same as _motte_, the Scotch and Irish _mote_, i.e., the hillock of a castle, derived from the Norman-French word _motte_. As this word is by far the most convenient name to give to these hillocks, being the only specific name which they have ever had, we shall henceforth use it in these pages. We prefer it to _mote_, which is the Anglicised form of the word, because of its confusion with _moat_, a ditch. Some writers advocate the word _mount_, but this appears to us too vague. As the word _motte_ is French in origin, it appropriately describes a thing which was very un-English when first introduced here.

[16] At York, a prehistoric crouching skeleton was found by Messrs Benson and Platnauer when excavating the castle hill in 1903, 4 feet 6 inches below the level of the ground. The motte at York appears to have been raised after the destruction of the first castle, but whether the first hillock belonged to the ancient burial is not decided by the account, "Notes on Clifford's Tower," by the above authors. _Trans. York. Philosoph. Soc._, 1902. Another instance is recorded in the _Revue Archæologique_, to which we have unfortunately lost the reference.

[17] From the report of a competent witness, Mr Basil Stallybrass.

[18] Earle, _Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel_, Introd., xxiii.

[19] Nennius says that Ida "_unxit_ (read cinxit) Dynguayrdi Guerth-Berneich"=a strength or fort of Bernicia. _Mon. Hist. Brit._, 75. Elsewhere he calls Bamborough Dinguo Aroy. It is quite possible that there might have been a Keltic _din_ in a place so well fitted for one as Bamborough.

[20] Bede, H. E., iii., 16.

[21] See Bede, as above, and Symeon, ii., 45 (R.S.).

[22] We infer this from the strong defences of what is now the middle ward.

[23] The fact, however, that the _Trinoda Necessitas_, the duty of landholders to contribute to the repair of boroughs and bridges, and to serve in the fyrd, is occasionally mentioned in charters earlier than the Danish wars, shows that there were town walls to be kept up even at that date. See Baldwin Brown, _The Arts in Early England_, i., 82.

[24] See Wright, _History of Domestic Manners_, p. 13.

[25] The Danish fortress of Nottingham is mentioned by the _Chronicle_ in 868, but we are speaking now of purely Anglo-Saxon fortresses.

[26] Asser, ch. 91, Stevenson's edition.

[27] "That same year King Alfred repaired London; and all the English submitted to him, except those who were under the bondage of the Danish men; and then he committed the city (_burh_) to the keeping of Ethelred the ealdorman." _A.-S. C._, 886. The word used for London is _Londonburh_. Asser says: "Londoniam civitatem honorifice restauravit et habitabilem fecit," p. 489.

[28] Birch's _Cartularium_, ii., 220, 221.

[29] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 878, 893, 896. According to Henry of Huntingdon, the work on the Lea was the splitting of that river into two channels; but I am informed that no trace of such a division remains.

[30] _Gesta Pontificum_, 186. See Appendix C.

[31] Birch's _Cartularium_, ii., 222; Kemble's _Codex Diplomaticus_, v., 142.

[32] He signs a charter in 889 as "subregulus et patricius Merciorum," Kemble's _Codex Diplomaticus_. See Freeman, _N. C._, i., 564; and Plummer, _A.-S. C._, i., 118.

[33] The dates in this chapter are taken from Florence of Worcester, who is generally believed to have used a more correct copy of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ than those which have come down to us.

[34] See Appendix B.

[35] _A.-S. C._, 910, 911.

[36] _New English Dictionary_, Borough.

[37] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 942. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has three words for fortifications, _burh_, _faesten_, and _geweorc_. Burh is always used for those of Edward and Ethelfleda, faesten (fastness) or geweorc (work) for those of the Danes.

[38] See the illustrations in Wright, _History of Domestic Manners_.

[39] _Bury_ is formed from _byrig_, the dative of _burh_.

[40] Professor Maitland observed: "To say nothing of hamlets, we have full 250 parishes whose names end in burgh, bury, or borough, and in many cases we see no sign in them of an ancient camp or of an exceptionally dense population." _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 184.

[41] Schmid, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_, pp. 176, 214, 372. It is not absolutely certain that the _burh_ in these three cases does not mean a town.

[42] Schmid, 138. Professor Maitland says: "In Athelstan's day it seems to be supposed by the legislator that a _moot_ will usually be held in a _burh_. If a man neglect three summonses to a moot, the oldest men of the _burh_ are to ride to his place and seize his goods." _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 185. "All my reeves," are mentioned in the Preface to _Athelstan's Laws_, Schmid, 126.

[43] Schmid, 138. "Butan porte" is the Saxon expression, _port_ being another word for town; see Schmid, 643.

[44] Schmid, Edgar III., 5; Ethelred II., 6.

[45] Edgar IV., 2.

[46] The writer was first led to doubt the correctness of the late Mr G. T. Clark's theory of burhs by examining the A.-S. illustrated MSS. in the British Museum. On p. 29 of the MS. of _Prudentius_ (Cleopatra, c. viii.), there is an excellent drawing of a four-sided enclosure, with towers at the angles, and battlemented walls of masonry. The title of the picture is "Virtutes urbem ingrediuntur," and _urbem_ is rendered in the A.-S. gloss as _burh_. See Fig. 2.

[47] Florence translates _burh_ as _urbs_ nineteen times, as _arx_ four times, as _murum_ once, as _munitio_ once, as _civitas_ once.

[48] Published in 1884, but comprising a number of papers read to various archæological societies through many previous years, during which Mr Clark's reputation as an archæologist appears to have been made.

[49] "Eallum thæm folc to gebeorge." Birch's _Cartularium_, ii., 222.

[50] Professor Maitland has claimed that the origin of the boroughs was largely military, the duty of maintaining the walls of the county borough being incumbent on the magnates of the shire. _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 189. See Appendix C.

[51] Parker's _Domestic Architecture in England from Richard II. to Henry VIII._, part ii., 256.

[52] _A.-S. C._, 1048.

[53] _William of Jumièges_, vii.-xvii.

[54] _A.-S. C._ (Peterborough), 1048.

[55] _A.-S. C._, 1052 (Worcester). This castle is generally supposed to be Richard's Castle, Herefordshire, built by Richard Scrob; but I see no reason why it should not be Hereford, as the Norman Ralph, King Edward's nephew, was Earl of Hereford. We shall return to these castles later.

[56] Mr Freeman says: "In the eleventh century, the word _castel_ was introduced into our language to mark something which was evidently quite distinct from the familiar _burh_ of ancient times.... Ordericus speaks of the thing and its name as something distinctly French: "munitiones quas Galli castella nuncupant." The castles which were now introduced into England seem to have been new inventions in Normandy itself. William of Jumièges distinctly makes the building of castles to have been one of the main signs and causes of the general disorder of the days of William's minority, and he seems to speak of the practice as something new." _N. C._, ii., 606. It is surprising that after so clear a statement as this, Mr Freeman should have fallen under the influence of Mr Clark's _burh_ theory, and should completely have confused castles and boroughs.

[57] _Codex Diplomaticus_, i., 138.

[58] _History of Rochester_, 1772, p. 21.

[59] Stevenson's edition of _Asser_, 331. See Appendix D.

[60] _Asser_, c. xlix.

[61] Worcester, Chester, Tamworth, Stafford, Warwick, Hertford, Buckingham, Bedford, Maldon, Huntingdon, Colchester, Stamford, and Nottingham.

[62] _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 216.

[63] Buckingham is the only place which is included in both lists. See Appendix E.

[64] _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 188. See Appendix E. Southwark, one of the names, which is not called a borough in Domesday, retains its name of _The Borough_ to the present day.

[65] No Roman remains have been found in either place.

[66] _Beauties of England and Wales_, Oxfordshire.

[67] See Skeat's _Dictionary_, "Timber."

[68] Excavation has recently shown that many of the great hill-forts were permanently inhabited, and it is now considered improbable that they were originally built as camps of refuge. It seems more likely that this use, of which there are undoubted instances in historic times (see Cæsar, _Bello Gallico_, vi., 10, and v., 21), belonged to a more advanced stage of development, when population had moved down into the lower and cultivatable lands, but still used their old forts in cases of emergency.

[69] _Ante_, p. 21.

[70] Haverfield, in V. C. H. Worcester, _Romano-British Worcester_, i.

[71] _Early Fortifications in Scotland_, p. 105.

[72] Gairdner and Mullinger, _Introduction to the Study of English History_, 268.

[73] The tower called Cæsar's Tower is really a mural tower of the 13th century. E. W. Cox, "Chester Castle," in _Chester Hist. and Archæol. Soc._, v., 239.

[74] Cox, as above. See also Shrubsole, "The Age of the City Walls of Chester," _Arch. Journ._, xliv., 1887. The present wall, which includes the castle, is an extension probably not earlier than James I.'s reign.

[75] The charter is given in Ormerod's _History of Cheshire_, ii., 405.

[76] _Journ. of Brit. Arch. Ass._, 1875, p. 153.

[77] _Itin._, ii., 2.

[78] "Arcem quam in occidentali Sabrinæ fluminis plaga, in loco qui Bricge dicitur lingua Saxonica, Ægelfleda Merciorum domina quondam construxerat, fratre suo Edwardo seniore regnante, Comes Rodbertus contra regem Henricum, muro lato et alto, summoque restaurare coepit." 1101.

[79] A good deal has been made of the name Oldbury, as pointing to the _old burh_; but Oldbury is the name of the manor, not of the hillock, which bears the singular name of Pampudding Hill. Tradition says that the Parliamentary forces used it for their guns in 1646. Eyton's _Shropshire_, i., 132.

[80] "Bricge cum exercitu pene totius Angliæ obsedit, machinas quoque ibi construere et castellum firmare præcepit." _Florence_, 1102.

[81] Florence in fact says _urbem restauravit_.

[82] D. B., i., 246.

[83] These buildings formed part of a hunting lodge built in the reign of Edward III., called The Chamber in the Forest. See Ormerod's _Cheshire_, ii., 3. When visiting Eddisbury several years ago, the writer noticed several Perpendicular buttresses in these ruins.

[84] D. B., i., 238a, 1.

[85] "Abbas de Couentreu habet 36 masuras, et 4 sunt wastæ propter situm castelli.... Hae masurae pertinent ad terras quas ipsi barones tenent extra burgum, et ibi appreciatae sunt." D. B., i., 238.

[86] _Domesday Book and Beyond_, p. 189. See Appendix D.

[87] Dugdale's _Warwickshire_, 1st edition, pp. 50 and 75. The derivation of Kirby from Cyricbyrig is not according to etymological rules, but there can be no doubt about it as a fact; for in Domesday it is stated that _Chircheberie_ was held by Geoffrey de Wirche, and that the monks of St Nicholas [at Angers] had two carucates in the manor. In the charter in which Geoffrey de Wirche makes this gift Chircheberie is called Kirkeberia [_M. A._, vi., 996], but in the subsequent charter of Roger de Mowbray, confirming the gift, it is called Kirkeby.

[88] _Britannia_, ii., 375.

[89] _Numismatic Chronicle_, 3rd S., xiii., 220.

[90] Fowler's _History of Runcorn_ gives a plan of this fort, and there is another in Hanshall's _History of Cheshire_, p. 418 (1817). A very different one is given in Beaumont's _History of Halton_.

[91] Beaumont's _Records of the Honour of Halton_. In 1368, John Hank received the surrender of a house near to the castle in Runcorn.

[92] _Mediæval Military Architecture_, ii., 120.

[93] _Essex Naturalist_, January 1887.

[94] Danbury Camp, which has also been surveyed by Mr Spurrell (_Essex Naturalist_, 1890), is precisely similar in plan to Witham, but nothing is known of its history.

[95] See _Victoria History of Bedfordshire_, i., 281.

[96] Morant's _History of Essex_, i. Three sides of the rampart were visible in his time.

[97] D. B., ii., 5.

[98] _Itin._, i., 12.

[99] Baker's _History of Northampton_, ii., 321.

[100] D. B., i., 219b.

[101] _A.-S. C._, 921. "Wrohte tha burg æt Tofeceastre mid stan wealle." Florence says 918.

[102] Baker, _History of Northants_, ii., 318. See also Haverfield, _V. C. H._, Northants, i., 184.

[103] Atkinson's _Cambridge Described_, p. 1.

[104] There is, however, this difficulty, that Cambridge was still occupied by a Danish force when Wigingamere was built. It submitted to Edward in 918.

[105] See Mr Plummer's discussion of these variations in his edition of the _Chronicle_, ii., 116.

[106] Lewis, _Topographical Dictionary of England_. Mr Rye remarks:--"The silting up of the harbour has ruined a port which once promised to be of as great importance as Norwich." _History of Norfolk_, p. 228.

[107] It is really wonderful that the identification of Cledemuthan with the mouth of the Cleddy in Pembrokeshire could ever have been accepted by any sober historian. That Edward, whose whole time was fully occupied with his conquests from the Danish settlers, could have suddenly transported his forces into one of the remotest corners of Wales, would have been a feat worthy of the coming days of air-ships. William of Worcester has preserved a tradition that Edward repaired Burgh, "quae olim Saxonice dicebatur Burgh-chester," but he confuses it with Norwich. _Itinerarium_, 337. Is it possible that we ought to look for Cledemuthan at Burgh Castle, at the mouth of the Waveney? It would be quite in accordance with Edward's actions elsewhere to restore an old Roman _castrum_.

[108] Leland says: "There were 7 principall Towers or Wards in the waulles of Staunford, to eche of which were certeyne freeholders in the Towne allottid to wache and ward in tyme of neadde." _Itinerarium_, vii., 11.

[109] _A.-S. C._, 868.

[110] Shipman's _Old Town Wall of Nottingham_, pp. 73-75. The evidence for a Roman origin of the borough is altogether too slight, as, except some doubtful earthenware bottles, no Roman remains have been found at Nottingham.

[111] _A.-S. C._, 921. _Florence of Worcester_, 919.

[112] I am indebted for much of the information given here to the local antiquarian knowledge of Mr Harold Sands, F.S.A. He states that the old borough was 1400 yards from the Trent at its nearest point, and that the highest ground on the south side of the Trent is marked by the Trent Bridge cricket ground, the last spot to become flooded. Here, therefore, was the probable site of Edward's second borough.

[113] See Appendix F.

[114] Whitaker's _History of Manchester_, i., 43.

[115] _Trans. of Lanc. and Chesh. Hist. and Ant. Soc._, v., 246.

[116] "Castle" in combination with some other word is often given to works of Roman or British origin, because its original meaning was a fortified enclosure; but the name Castle Hill is extremely common for mottes.

[117] We may remark here that it is not surprising that there should be a number of motte castles which are never mentioned in history, especially as it is certain that all the "adulterine" castles, which were raised without royal permission in the rebellions of Stephen's and other reigns, were very short-lived.

[118] _Mediæval Military Architecture_, i., 18. See Mr Round's remarks on Mr Clark's vagueness in his "Castles of the Conquest," _Archæologia_, 1902.

[119] The _A.-S. C._ speaks of this Danish host as "a great heathen army." 866.

[120] "Worhton other fæsten ymb hie selfe." The same language is frequently used in the continental accounts of the Danish fortresses: "Munientes se per gyrum avulsæ terræ aggere," _Dudo_, 155 (Duchesne): "Se ex illis (sepibus et parietibus) _circumdando_ munierant." _It._, p. 81.

[121] The earthworks at Bayford Court must belong to the mediæval castle which existed there. See _Beauties of England and Wales, Kent_, p. 698. Castle Rough is less than an acre in area.

[122] Mr Harold Sands, _Some Kentish Castles_, p. 10.

[123] See the plan in _Victoria History of Kent_, paper on Earthworks by the late Mr I. C. Gould. Hasted states that there was a small circular mount there as well as an embankment, and that there are other remains in the marsh below, which seem to have been connected with the former by a narrow ridge or causeway, _Kent_, iii., 117. The causeway led to a similar mount in the marsh below, but Mr Gould inclined to think the mounts and causeway later, and possibly part of a dam for "inning" the marsh. _V. C. H._, p. 397.

[124] "Hæsten's Camps at Shoebury and Benfleet," _Essex Naturalist_, iv., 153.

[125] The _Chronicle_ says that the ships of Hæsten were either broken to pieces, or burnt, or taken to London or Rochester. 894.

[126] _Essex Naturalist_, as above, p. 151. These berms certainly suggest Roman influence.

[127] _A.-S. C._, 894.

[128] _Montgomery Collections_, xxxi., 337; Dymond, _On the Site of Buttington_. See also Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, ii., 80.

[129] _Beauties of England and Wales_, vii., 246. There is nothing left either at Great or Little Amwell now but fragments of what are supposed to be homestead moats. _Royal Commission on Historical Monuments_, pp. 95, 142, Herts. vol.

[130] Florence's date.

[131] _Victoria History of Bedfordshire_, i., 282, from which this description is taken.

[132] The _Chronicle_ speaks of _Tempsford_ as a _burh_, so it must have been a large enclosure.

[133] Mr Clark actually speaks of a subsequent Norman castle at Tempsford (_M. M. A._, i., 78), but we have been unable to find any confirmation of this. Faint traces of larger works in the fields below were formerly visible. _V. C. H. Bedfordshire_.

[134] Stephenson's _Asser_, p. 27.

[135] There are no remains of earthworks in Thanet or Sheppey, except a place called Cheeseman's Camp, near Minster in Thanet, which the late Mr Gould regarded as of the "homestead-moat type." _V. C. H. Kent_, i., 433. Nor are there any earthworks on Mersey Island mentioned by Mr Gould in his paper on Essex earthworks in the _V. C. H._

[136] Stukeley, who saw this earthwork when it was in a much more perfect state, says that it contained 30 acres. See Mr Hope's paper in _Camb. Antiq. Soc._, vol. xi.

[137] Blomefield's _Norfolk_, ii., pp. 7, 8, 27. His description is very confused.

[138] See Erlingssen's _Ruins of the Saga Time, Viking Club_, p. 337.

[139] Richerii, _Historiarum Libri Quatuor_, edition Guadet, p. 67.

[140] "In modo castri, munientes se per girum avulsæ terræ aggere." _Dudo_, 155 (edition Duchesne).

[141] "The castle end of Cambridge was called the Borough within the memory of persons now living." Atkinson's _Cambridge Described_ (1897), p. 9.

[142] Steenstrup says that the Northmen built themselves shipyards all round Europe, especially on the islands where they had their winter settlements. _Normannerne_, i., 354.

[143] A.-S., _hyth_, a shore, a landing-place.

[144] _Victoria County History of Beds._, i., 282.

[145] Steenstrup's _Normannerne_, vol. iv.; _Danelag_, p. 40.

[146] _A.-S. C._, 914-921.

[147] Steenstrup, _Danelag_, p. 41.

[148] _Ibid._, pp. 22, 23.

[149] Such quartering must have been confined to the unmarried Danes, but there must have been plenty of unmarried men in the piratical host, even at the period when it became customary to bring wives and children with the army.

[150] _Normannerne_, i., 282.

[151] _Dudo_, 76 (Duchesne).

[152] Herr Steenstrup shows that so far from the settlement of the Danes in Normandy being on feudal lines, they only reluctantly accepted the feudal yoke, and not till the next century. _Normannerne_, i., 305, 310. It is not till the 11th century that feudal castles become general in Normandy.

[153] The Danes in Normandy soon made Rouen a great centre of trade. _Normannerne_, i., 190.

[154] Cunningham's _Growth of English Industry_, i., 92.

[155] See Vinogradoff, _English Society in the 11th Century_, pp. 5, 11, 478.

[156] See Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, i., 251; Maitland's _Domesday Book and Beyond_, p. 157; Round's _Feudal England_, p. 261; Vinogradoff's _English Society in the 11th Century_, p. 41.

[157] Professor Maitland wrote: "The definitely feudal idea that military service is the tenant's return for the gift of land did not exist [before the Norman Conquest], though a state of things had been evolved which for many practical purposes was indistinguishable from the system of knight's fees." _Domesday Book and Beyond_, p. 157. Dr Round holds that "the military service of the Anglo-Norman tenant-in-chief was in no way derived or developed from that of the Anglo-Saxons, but was arbitrarily fixed by the king, from whom he received his fief." _Feudal England_, p. 261. Similarly, Professor Vinogradoff states that "the law of military fees is in substance French law brought over to England by the [Norman] conquerors." _English Society in the 11th Century_, p. 41.

[158] Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der Kaiserzeit_, i., 224. The word _Burg_, which Giesebrecht uses for these strongholds, means a castle in modern German; but its ancient meaning was a town (see Hilprecht's _German Dictionary_), and it corresponded exactly to the Anglo-Saxon _burh_. It was used in this sense at least as late as the end of the 12th century; see, _e.g._, Lamprecht's _Alexanderlied_, passim. It is clear by the context that Giesebrecht employs it in its ancient sense.

[159] _Ibid._, 222. Henry's son Otto married a daughter of Edward the Elder. Henry received the nickname of Townfounder (Städtegründer).

[160] "Carolus civitates Transsequanas ab incolis firmari rogavit, Cinomannis scilicet et Turonis, ut præsidio contra Nortmannos _populis_ esse possent." _Annales Bertinianorum_, Migne, Pat., 125, 53.

[161] Flodoard, _Hist. Ecc. Remensis_, iv., viii.

[162] Modern historians generally say that he built the _castle_ of Coucy; but from Flodoard's account it seems very doubtful whether anything but the town is meant. _Annales_, iv., xiii. His words are: "Munitionem quoque apud Codiciacum tuto loco constituit atque firmavit." _Munitio_ properly means a bulwark or wall.

[163] _Gesta Episcop. Cameracensium_, Pertz, vii., 424.

[164] _Chron. Camarense et Atrebatorum_, Bouquet, x., 196.

[165] Sismondi, _Histoire des Français_, ii., 172.

[166] Guizot, _Histoire de la Civilisation en France_, iii., 311.

[167] Enlart, _Manuel d'Archæologie Française_, ii., 494.

[168] See Dr Haverfield's articles in the _Victoria County Histories_, passim. The late J. H. Burton justly wrote: "We have nothing from the Romans answering to the feudal stronghold or castle, no vestige of a place where a great man lived apart with his family and his servants, ruling over dependants and fortifying himself against enemies." _History of Scotland_, i., 385.

[169] _Annals of Fulda_, 394, Pertz, i.

[170] _Cap. Regum Francor._, ii., 360.

[171] Thus De Caumont unfortunately spoke of the fortress built by Nicetus, Bishop of Treves, in the 6th century, as a _château_ (_Abécédaire_, ii., 382); but Venantius Fortunatus, in his descriptive poem, tells us that it was a vast enclosure with no less than thirty towers, built by the good pastor for the protection of his flock. It even contained fields and vineyards, and altogether was as different from a private castle as anything can well be. Similarly the _castrum_ of Merliac, spoken of by Enlart (_Architecture Militaire_, p. 492) as a "veritable château," is described as containing cultivated lands and sheets of water! (Cited from Gregory of Tours, _Hist. Francorum_, liii., 13.) De Caumont himself says: "Les grandes exploitations rurales que possédaient les rois de France et les principaux du royaume du V^ième au X^ième siècle ne furent pas des forteresses et ne doivent point être confondues avec les chateaux." _Abécédaire_, ii., 62.

[172] See Appendix D.

[173] "Volumus et expresse mandamus, ut quicunque istis temporibus castella et firmitates et haias sine nostro verbo fecerint, Kalendis Augusti omnes tales firmitates disfactas habeant; quia vicini et circummanentes exinde multas depredationes et impedimenta sustinent." _Capitularia Regum Francorum_, Boretius, ii., 328.

[174] These instances are as follows:--868, A certain Acfrid shut himself up in a _casa firmissima_ in the _villa_ of Bellus Pauliacus on the Loire, and it was burnt over his head (_Annales Bertinianorum_, pp. Migne, 125, 1237); 878, The sons of Goisfrid attack the _castellum_ and lands of the son of Odo (_ibid._, p. 1286); 879, Louis the Germanic besieges some men of Hugh, son of Lothaire, _in quodam castello juxta Viridunum_: he takes and destroys the castellum (_Annals of Fulda_, Pertz, i., 393); 906, Gerard and Matfrid fortify themselves in a certain _castrum_, in a private war (_Regino_, Pertz, i., 611). Sismondi states that the great nobles wrested from Louis-le-Bégue (877-879) the right of building private castles. So far, we have been unable to find any original authority for this statement.

[175] See Guizot, _Histoire de la Civilisation_, iii., 309. "On voit les _villæ_ s'entourer peu à peu de fossés, de remparts de terre, de quelques apparences de fortifications."

[176] We hear of monasteries being fortified in this way; in 869 Charles the Bald drew a bank of wood and stone round the monastery of St Denis; "castellum in gyro ipsius monasterii ex ligno et lapide conficere coepit." _Ann. Bertinian_, Migne, pp. 125, 1244. In 889 the Bishop of Nantes made a _castrum_ of his church by enclosing it with a wall, and this wall appears to have had a tower. _Chron. Namnetense_, p. 45, in _Lobineau's Bretagne_, vol. ii. In 924 Archbishop Hervey made a _castellum_ of the monastery of St Remi by enclosing it with a wall. _Flodoard_, p. 294 (Migne). But the fortification of monasteries was a very different thing from the fortification of private castles.

[177] In 951 Duke Conrad, being angry with certain men of Lorraine, threw down the _towers_ of some of them; these may have been the keeps of private castles. Flodoard, _Annales_, p. 477.

[178] _Presidium_ is one of those vague words which chroniclers love to use; it means a defence of any kind, and may be a town, a castle, or a garrison. The town in which this turris stood appears by the context to have been Chateau Thierry. _Cf._ Flodoard, _Annales_, pp. 924, with 933.

[179] "Castrum muro factum circa eam [ecclesiam]." _Chron. Namnetense_, p. 45. "Precepit [Alanus] eis terrarium magnum in circuitu Ecclesiæ facere, sicut murus prioris castri steterat, quo facto turrem principalem _reficiens_, in ea domum suam constitit." _Ibid._

[180] Flodoard, _Annales_, pp. 931 and 949. This tower was heightened by Charles, the last of the Carlovingians, and furnished with a ditch and bank, in 988.

[181] It is often supposed that these towers were derived from the _Pretoria_, or general's quarters in the Roman _castra_. It is far more probable that they were derived from mural towers. The Pretorium was not originally fortified, and it was placed in the centre of the Roman camp. But one great object of the feudal keep was to have communication with the open country. The keep of Laon was certainly on the line of the walls, as Bishop Ascelin escaped from it down a rope in 989, and got away on a horse which was waiting for him. Palgrave, _England and Normandy_, ii., 880.

[182] The word _motte_ or _mota_ does not occur in any contemporary chronicle, as far as is known to the writer, before the 12th century; nor is the word _dangio_ to be found in any writer earlier than Ordericus. But the _thing_ certainly existed earlier.

[183] [Fulk and his son Geoffrey] "in occidentali parte montis castellum determinaverunt.... Aggerem quoque in prospectu monasterii cum turre lignea erexerunt." _Chron. St Florentii_, in Lobineau's _Bretagne_, ii., 87. Some remains of this motte are still visible. De Salies, _Foulques Nerra_, p. 263.

[184] "Elegantissimus in rebus bellicis" is the quaint language of the Angevin chronicler, 176.

[185] See De Salies, _Histoire de Foulques Nerra_, which indirectly throws considerable light on the archæological question.

[186] Salies, _Histoire de Foulques Nerra_, p. 170. M. Enlart, in his _Manuel d'Archæologie Française_, ii., 495, has been misled about this castle by the _Chronicon Andegavense_, which says: "Odo.... Fulconem expugnare speravit, et totis nisibus adorsus est. Annoque presenti (1025) Montis Budelli castellum, quod circiter annos decem retro abhinc contra civitatem Turonicam firmaverat Fulco, obsedit, et turrim ligneam miræ altitudinis super domgionem ipsius castri erexit." Bouquet, x., 176. M. Enlart takes this to be the first recorded instance of a motte. But the passage is evidently corrupt, as the other accounts of this affair show that Count Odo's wooden tower was a siege engine, employed to attack Fulk's castle, and afterwards burnt by the besieged. See the _Gesta Ambasiens. Dom._, _ibid._, p. 257, and the _Chron. St Florentii_. Probably we should read _contra_ domgionem instead of _super_. The _Chronicon Andegavense_ was written in the reign of Henry II.

[187] When Fulk invaded Bretagne in or about 992, he collected an army "tam de suis quam conductitiis." _Richerius_, edition Guadet. The editor remarks that this is perhaps the first example of the use of mercenaries since the time of the Romans (ii., 266). Spannagel, citing Peter Damian, says that mercenaries were already common at the end of the 10th century. _Zur Geschichte des Deutschen Heerwesens_, pp. 72, 73.

[188] This was always the custom in mediæval castles. See Cohausen, _Befestigungen der Vorzeit_, p. 282.

[189] "Qui vivens turres altas construxit et ædes, Unam Carnotum, sed apud Dunense reatum." _Chron. St Florentii._

[190] _Chron. Namnetense_, Lobineau, ii., 47.

[191] _Gesta Ambasiensium Dominorum_, in _Spicilegium_, p. 273.

[192] _Guide Joanne_, p. 234.

[193] The furthest point of the headland on which the castle is placed is a small circular court, with a fosse on all sides but the precipices. From personal visitation.

[194] _Dunio_ is subsequently explained by Lambert as _motte_: "Motam altissimam sive dunionem eminentem in munitionis signum firmavit." _Lamberti Ardensis_, p. 613. It is the same word as the Saxon _dun_, a hill (preserved in our South Downs), and has no connection with the Irish and Gaelic _dun_, which is cognate with the German _zaun_, a hedge, A.-S. _tun_, and means a hedged or fortified place. The form _dange_ appears in Northern France, and this seems to be the origin of the word _domgio_ or _dangio_ which we find in the chroniclers, the modern form of which is _donjon_. If we accept this etymology, we must believe that the word _dunio_ or _domgio_ was originally applied to the hill, and not to the tower on the hill, to which it was afterwards transferred. It is against this view that Ordericus, writing some fifty years before Lambert, uses the form _dangio_ in the sense of a tower. Professor Skeat and the _New English Dictionary_ derive the word _donjon_ or _dungeon_ from Low Lat. _domnionem_, acc. of _domnio_, thus connecting it with _dominus_, as the seignorial residence.