Chapter III: Part 3

The style of this period is fully represented in our cathedrals by the splendid crypt and choir of Glasgow, the beautiful nave of Dunblane, the fine, but now dilapidated, transept of Dryburgh, and the aisleless choir of Brechin. In Elgin Cathedral we have a noble example of the later design of the period, and the choir and western portal of Kirkwall form a worthy completion to that fine old Norman edifice. Dornoch once possessed the small and elegant cathedral of the North, erected by St. Gilbert, which has now, however, been almost completely rebuilt.

The conventual establishments of the thirteenth century, although chiefly of older foundation, still contain a large proportion of the work of this period. Arbroath Abbey comprises in its ruins some good transitional and early pointed work. Holyrood Abbey, besides a good deal of the transition style, had one of the finest west doorways of the period, and still retains a very striking north-west tower. The first pointed architecture is also well represented at the abbeys of Dundrennan, Pluscardine, and Inchmahome, besides smaller specimens in other monasteries. Kilwinning Abbey, now reduced to a portion of the south transept, shows some beautiful work. The Maison Dieu at Brechin is also very pure first pointed, and at Culross, Restennet, Inchcolm, and Coldingham are many interesting fragments of this date.

The thirteenth century parish churches are, for the most part, of small dimensions and simple design. They generally consist of a single oblong chamber, without choir or aisles, and are unprovided with towers. Of these simple buildings a considerable number are to be found in the Western Highlands and Islands. They are usually of the plainest description, the windows being simple lancets, with wide internal splay, though they have occasionally a double window with a mullion, and a single plain doorway. A large number of these chapels will be described, but, from the absence of any distinctive features connected with them, it will be found difficult to assign most of them to any definite period.

The chapel at Dunstaffnage Castle, and the Church of St. Columba[57] at Skipness, are somewhat exceptional, from the amount of dog-tooth ornament exhibited by the former, and the two-light traceried windows at the east end of the latter, which clearly indicate their thirteenth century origin; while at other churches on the West Coast the lancet windows and similar first pointed features lead to the conclusion that many of them belong to the same period. These island chapels are, doubtless, survivals of the first pointed structures which were erected in the thirteenth century throughout the country, but which have been subsequently removed to make way for larger churches.

As the most of the Scottish cathedrals and large monastic churches were planned during this or the preceding century, it may be well here to mention some particulars regarding their arrangements.

In most of the conventual edifices the choir, including the presbytery, is short as compared with the nave. Thus, at Arbroath, the arcades of the choir are as 3 to 9 in relation to those of the nave; at Jedburgh, as 2 to 9; at Melrose, as 2 to 8, in the present ruined condition of the church, but originally probably as 2 to 12; at Dryburgh, as 2 to 6. Kelso is a remarkable exception, the choir having been much longer than the nave, the latter being of a single bay. The cathedrals, however, show a proportion more in accordance with the usual practice in England. Elgin Cathedral has in the choir (including the presbytery) 6 bays, and the same number in the nave; St. Andrews had 5 in the choir to 12 in the nave, Glasgow has 5 to 8, Dunblane has 6 to 8, Dunkeld has 4 to 7.

Another peculiarity of the Scottish churches is that in several the choir is without aisles, as at Brechin, Dunkeld, and Sweetheart Abbey; and in others, as at Melrose, Iona, Elgin, St. Andrews, &c., the side aisles do not extend so as to include the presbytery, the object evidently being to admit of side lights in the latter, which thus becomes a kind of rectangular apse.

Transepts are frequently, if not entirely, absent, as at Glasgow, where the transept is very short, and at Dunblane and Dunkeld, where there are none. When a transept exists, as at Melrose, Pluscardine, &c., there is frequently a side aisle on the eastern side only, for the purpose of containing chapels with altars facing in that direction. This arrangement was common in Cistercian churches, but in Scotland it is not confined to that Order. In some churches where there is a transept, the shortness of the choir has made it necessary to carry the choir screen across the intersection and some distance down the nave. This is very apparent at Melrose, where the rood screen enclosing the choir crosses the nave about the centre, and is evidently part of the original design, as the rood screen has formed a portion of the structure of the nave piers.

Elgin Cathedral and Melrose Abbey have double aisles--the former on each side of the nave, and the latter on the south side only, where the outer aisle is divided into a series of chapels. In St. Giles’, Edinburgh, a series of chapels forming a large second south aisle extends beyond the usual south aisle. The above double aisles are, however, all of later than thirteenth century date.

The minor features of the first pointed style will be considered in detail in describing the various structures of the thirteenth century. Meanwhile, it may be mentioned that the doorways of this period, although not so rich in ornament as the Norman work, are still important objects in the design. The western portal of Kirkwall Cathedral is especially fine, being the only example of a design comprising triple western doorways in Scotland. The west doorway of Elgin Cathedral is very beautiful, and is, like that of Glasgow Cathedral, a double doorway with a central mullion. There are also examples of fine doorways in the smaller churches, such as Lanark, and interesting specimens in the minor doorways of the cathedral and monastic churches.

The lancet form of the windows has already been referred to. We may instance the east windows of Glasgow Cathedral and the beautiful windows of Elgin and Dunblane Cathedrals as splendid examples. In the latter cathedral the interior arcade of the clerestory shows the advancing progress of the style; and at New Abbey the double and triplet forms of window are seen passing into tracery. In the clerestory of this abbey the advanced ornament of the period is observable, the simple form of the early moulded capitals being replaced by the later foliaged design.

No towers of importance remain in the style of the thirteenth century, most of those attached to the churches of that style having been erected at a later date.

ARCHITECTURE OF FOURTEENTH, FIFTEENTH, AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES IN SCOTLAND.

The reigns of Alexander II. and III., extending from 1214 to 1286, comprised the first pointed work in Scotland. Those reigns were characterised by quietness and prosperity at home and peace abroad. The Norman invasion of the previous century seemed to have become complete, and the country had settled down and accepted the new conditions imported from the South, both as regards matters secular and ecclesiastic. The king’s writ extended all over the land, except in the Western and Northern Islands, and the Roman rule in ecclesiastical affairs was co-extensive with it. The country was prosperous, and is believed to have been more wealthy than at any time till after the Union with England. These conditions favoured architecture, and, coming as they did in the first pointed period, the consequence was that the edifices erected during the thirteenth century were the largest and contained the finest architecture which Scotland can boast of. But this fortunate state of matters was doomed to a sudden extinction. The disputed succession following the death of the third Alexander, in 1286, opened to Edward I. an opportunity for endeavouring to complete the Norman conquest of the country. This, as we have seen, had been already achieved so far as social relations were concerned, and Edward resolved that it should also be so politically.

The resistance of the country and Edward’s hostile attitude had the immediate effect of causing the withdrawal of the Norman settlers, who owed allegiance to Edward for their estates in England, along with their dependants. These carried with them much of the civilisation and culture which they had introduced. Moreover, the incessant state of war and disturbance which arose during the struggle for independence, and lasted over so many years, put a stop to all commerce and agriculture, and reduced the country to a condition of the utmost poverty and barbarism.

Even after King Robert’s death, in 1329, a part of the South of Scotland remained in the hands of the English for a considerable time, and suffered much from lying in the track of war.

Melrose Abbey had been partly rebuilt through the pious devotion of King Robert, but in 1385, this and other abbeys in the south-eastern district, together with the town of Edinburgh, including St. Giles’ Church, were again destroyed by Richard II.

In the midst of all these depressing influences it is obvious that the ecclesiastical architecture of the country must for a long time not only have suffered a total cessation from progress, but must also have endured severe injury.

It has been pointed out how deep was the poverty of the country during the fourteenth century, and with what difficulty the nobles, amongst whom Bruce had distributed the forfeited lands, were able to raise even a small pele tower for the defence of themselves and their retainers.[58] The Church, patriotic as it was, suffered in the general distress, and for a time funds were lacking for the completion of works in progress, or the execution of new undertakings.

In these circumstances, it is vain to look in Scotland for much architecture during the fourteenth century. This being the period during which Gothic art reached its highest expression, both in England and abroad, it is unfortunate for Scottish architecture that it should be so imperfectly represented by edifices worthy of that time.

The country may be said not to have recovered from the impoverishment of the war of independence till the fifteenth century was well advanced, and when that period arrived, the desire for the erection of cathedrals and establishment of monasteries had to a large extent ceased, and endowments were, after that time, principally devoted to the erection of smaller structures in the nature of Collegiate Institutions.

The connection with England having now been completely severed, and a political alliance having been formed with France, it is natural to find a departure in the architecture of Scotland from the close resemblance to that of England which had hitherto characterised it, and to detect the introduction of features from abroad. These elements play an important part in the architecture of the end of the fifteenth century and succeeding period, and produce a mixed style, not distinctly the same either as that of the perpendicular in England, or of the Flamboyant in France, but a style peculiar to Scotland, which includes elements derived from both these styles, and also retains some features of the earlier phases of Gothic architecture. This style has a distinct character of its own, and is in Scotland parallel to the third period of Gothic both in England and France.

The paucity of examples in Scotland during the fourteenth century, and the absence in the succeeding century of any distinctly marked features assimilating Scottish architecture especially either to the perpendicular or Flamboyant styles of the later pointed epochs of England and France, have led writers on the architecture of Scotland to the conclusion that this country was entirely devoid of any representatives of the decorated or middle pointed style, as distinguished from the late or third pointed period, and they have, therefore, included all Scottish architecture after the first or early pointed period under the title of second pointed.[59] We are satisfied that this is a mistake, and we trust to be able to show that Scotland, although somewhat scantily represented by its architecture during the decorated period in England, does possess a fair number of parallel buildings corresponding in style to the decorated work of other countries, although erected at a somewhat later date, and also that the third or late pointed period is fully represented.

The wars had rendered the country backward in every respect, and it is only natural to find it backward in architecture also.

As already mentioned, King Robert’s work at Melrose had been grievously damaged by Richard II.; but some of it remains, and in this, as well as other structures of the period, are exhibited beautiful examples of decorated work.

A considerable number of churches and monastic buildings executed about the end of the fourteenth and first half of the fifteenth centuries are fair representatives of the decorated period. Although not so pure in style, nor so important in point of size as the corresponding edifices in England, they yet exhibit, on a scale commensurate with the reduced state of the country, a worthy effort to sustain the character of its architecture and give expression to its devotional feelings. Some of these structures were erected in the fourteenth century and others in the first half of the fifteenth century, and although differing somewhat in detail from both English and foreign examples, they possess a sufficiently close relation to decorated work to ally them with that style and to distinguish them from the structures of the later or third pointed period. The buildings of the latter period, as above mentioned, have in some respects connection both with the English perpendicular and the French Flamboyant.

It is therefore proposed to divide the Church Architecture of Scotland during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries into two periods, under the titles of the Middle Pointed or Decorated Period and the Third or Late Pointed Period. The middle pointed or decorated style corresponds to the decorated period in England and the fully developed Gothic of France, and extends in Scotland from the middle of the fourteenth century till about the middle of the fifteenth century. The third or late pointed period extends from about the middle of the fifteenth century till the Reformation in 1560, and corresponds with the perpendicular or third pointed period in England and the Flamboyant in France. The second pointed period includes a few fine structures, such as the nave of Glasgow Cathedral, part of Melrose Abbey, Lincluden College, Linlithgow Church, Crosraguel Abbey, &c., which contain good decorated work, and are in every respect superior to the later structures of the succeeding period, with which it seems to us erroneous to class them.

MIDDLE POINTED OR DECORATED STYLE.

Towards the close of the thirteenth century a considerable change occurred in the features of Gothic architecture throughout Europe. The development of the pointed style had progressed steadily, and all the details had become lighter and more ornate. The tracery of the windows especially marks the decorated period. This feature, as we have seen, was invented in the previous epoch, but now became fully developed, especially in France. In the design of the tracery the eye, which at first had been fixed on the form of the aperture, gradually came to dwell on the outline of the bars of the tracery, which thereafter became the leading feature. (Fig. 23.) The early simple circular forms of the bar tracery by degrees assumed other geometric patterns, consisting of triangles, squares, and similar figures, skilfully combined and diversified with cusping or feathering. Towards the close of the period these figures assumed a more flowing character, but without entirely losing their distinctive geometric forms.

In England the vaulting grew lighter, and became distinguished by the introduction of subordinate ribs or liernes, which divided the plain surface into a greater number of panels, and ridge ribs were almost always introduced. The points of support were also lightened, and the buttresses were made thinner and with greater projection, and ornamented with numerous niches and crocheted canopies and pinnacles. The clerestory windows under the vaults were enlarged, as it was discovered that

the solid walls between the buttresses might be dispensed with, and their place completely filled with window tracery. The clerestory was thus enlarged, and the triforium reduced to a mere passage, or entirely dispensed with. From the same cause the windows of the east and west ends, and those of the façades of the transepts, were also enlarged to the fullest extent, so that nearly the whole space became occupied with tracery and stained glass.

The doorways in England, although still much smaller than those of France, are, notwithstanding, often very fine, as, for instance, those of York Minster (Fig. 24). The shafts of the jambs, which in the previous period were detached and set in nooks, are now converted by degrees into a series of mouldings wrought upon the jamb stones, and arranged in one plane. The caps, at first distinct, gradually pass into a series of foliaceous scrolls running along the top of the whole jamb.

The piers are similarly treated. The clustered shafts give place to mouldings, and the caps become carved with running ornament. The plan of the piers is frequently that of a lozenge. A four-centred arch, forming an ogee or reversed curve, is now introduced in water tables over doorways. The arch mouldings are still boldly cut, and are separated by well-marked and deep hollows, but grow shallower and broader as time advances. The carving and foliage become lighter and more naturalistic, the ordinary leaves and flowers of the fields being beautifully wrought in the capitals, corbels, and bosses. The detached ball flower is a striking feature of this period. Every wall opening is cusped and feathered, and the niches and arcades are richly decorated. The use of small decorative buttresses on the jambs of the doors, windows, and niches now becomes common.

In France the progression of the style is similar, but shows a livelier and bolder development. There a stone vault is always essential, whereas in England open wooden roofs are often adopted with fine result.

MIDDLE POINTED OR DECORATED STYLE IN SCOTLAND.

For the reasons above stated, the middle pointed work in Scotland is somewhat varied from that of England and the Continent, especially in details. It also extends over a longer space of time, and gradually merges into the succeeding or third pointed style.

Until Bruce was firmly established on the throne, church building was entirely at a standstill. But after 1314, architecture received some encouragement from the king and began to revive. Melrose Abbey was especially the recipient of the royal bounty, and during the fourteenth century was, doubtless, in great measure rebuilt. It still retains much of the decorated work of that period, and is amongst our finest examples

of the style. Dryburgh Abbey and Crosraguel Abbey were also encouraged in their works of restoration by King Robert, and still show partial specimens of middle pointed architecture. Glasgow Cathedral also still preserves, almost unimpaired, its fine nave of the fourteenth century. The nave and central tower were evidently completed before 1400, as in that year the latter was destroyed by lightning.

The list of churches containing specimens of middle pointed work could be easily extended, and will be fully gone into in the sequel. Meanwhile, the following may be mentioned as undoubtedly exhibiting genuine examples--viz., Sweetheart Abbey and Lincluden College, in Kirkcudbrightshire, which contain portions of early decorated work; Linlithgow Church, rebuilt after 1424, when it was greatly destroyed by fire; Fortrose Cathedral; St. Giles’ Church, Edinburgh; Brechin Cathedral; Elgin Chapterhouse.

The above buildings extend down to about 1450-60, which may be regarded as the limit of the decorated or middle pointed period in Scotland.

The transition to the third pointed style was gradual.

Trinity Collegiate Church, which existed till 1848, in Edinburgh, although not founded till 1462, preserved in the interior the character of good middle pointed work, and is classed by Rickman as a “decorated” structure, But the exterior shows signs of the later style, and this structure, like several others, may therefore be classed as transitional.

It must be kept in view that many of the above churches of the second pointed period were subjected to damage by fire, and having in consequence to undergo repairs at a later date, exhibit signs of a mixture of styles. Thus, Melrose, Dryburgh, and St. Giles’, Edinburgh, were destroyed by Richard II. during his expedition in 1385, and consequently show in the subsequent restorations some work of a rather late character, mingled with the earlier decorated features. This mingling of the work of different dates no doubt renders somewhat difficult the elimination of the features due to the various epochs, and has probably contributed to the erroneous view above referred to--viz., that all Scottish architecture after 1300 belongs to the same style, and should be classed as “second pointed.”

With regard to the whole of the later architecture of Scotland, however, whether we consider the middle pointed or the third pointed periods, we think there can be no doubt but that it is all the work of native architects. Had the design owed its origin to either English or French architects, it would have more closely resembled the design of the perpendicular in England or Flamboyant in France. But being entirely different from either of these styles, although partaking to some extent of the features of both, and being also much later in date than the corresponding styles of these countries, the only conclusion which can be drawn is, that the architecture of the middle pointed and third pointed periods in this country was wrought out by native hands. Old forms were long adhered to and new features were slowly adopted, and when adopted were not followed entirely or exactly in accordance with the original model, but with certain distinct modifications in details.

The mouldings are generally rather massive and heavy. The buttresses (as at Melrose) strongly resemble English middle pointed work. The pier and arch mouldings are not quite so light and well marked as in England, and the tracery of the windows, although geometric, is not always so elegant as in the South.

Good chapterhouses and sacristies of this period still exist at Glasgow, Crosraguel, Pluscardine, and elsewhere, which are square, and have a central pillar supporting groined vaulting. The very elegant chapterhouse of Elgin Cathedral is octagonal, and beautifully vaulted with a central pillar.

THIRD OR LATE POINTED STYLE.

In the latter half of the fourteenth century, Gothic art, both in France and England, again showed symptoms of a change of character. In France the architects seemed to have exhausted their powers of development as regards constructional elements, and were now occupied with the elaboration of details. The earlier geometric tracery now assumed a very flowing character, which, from the flame-like shapes of the bars of the stone work, was called “Flamboyant.” In England, on the other hand, the tracery assumed a rigid form, and from the mullions of the windows being carried up in straight lines from the sill to the arch, the style received the name of “perpendicular.” (Fig. 25.) In many respects, connected with ornament and decoration, the styles of the two countries resembled each other, but in one respect they differed widely. In France the simple intersecting pointed vault was never departed from, but in England the development of the vaulting into new forms made great progress at this period. It has been mentioned that in their “decorated” work the English had begun, in the thirteenth century, to introduce “liernes” or intermediate ribs into the vaults. This process still continued and advanced till the vaulting surface became covered with ribs. (Fig. 26.) The ribs were latterly used as ornamental features, spread over the surface of the vault, which again became the supporting arched surface, as it was before the introduction of Gothic bearing ribs in the twelfth century. A favourite form of this kind of vaulting is known from its appearance as fan vaulting. In working out this kind of vaulting, it was found desirable to bring all the ribs to the same level at the apex, and in order to accomplish this it was found convenient to use arches of double curvature, or four centred arches, a depressed form which is characteristic of perpendicular work.

From this peculiarity there followed many changes in style almost unknown abroad. The use of the depressed arch in the vault soon led to its adoption in the clerestory windows placed under the vault, and from these it spread to the other windows, and ultimately to all the arches of the building. From these features a perpendicular structure is at once recognisable. The panelling of the vaults led, in sympathy, to panelling in the wall surfaces, in the buttresses, and everywhere. A linear system of ornamentation was thus produced, which was developed to an extreme degree--the mouldings were thinned off till they became mere strings, with wide shallow hollows between, and all interruption to the stringy or liney effect thus produced was objected to. Thus the caps of shafts were almost abolished, and the thin arch mouldings carried down the piers without interruption from the arch to the base. The piers were divided up with large shallow hollows or splays, and the subordination of mouldings was lost. When caps were used they were generally small and octagonal in shape, and stood meaningless amidst a cluster of mouldings. Doorways were less deeply recessed than formerly, and the four-centred arch was usually enclosed in a square moulding, the spandrils between the square head and the arch being filled with tracery or sculpture, often of a heraldic nature.

In France the two-centred arch was adhered to, and traceried windows were frequently introduced over doorways. Some of the carving, both at home and in France, is executed with great delicacy and spirit, but much of the foliage is of a very conventional form peculiar to the period. In running ornaments the stems frequently become more important than the leaves, thus carrying out the thin linear character of the style.

The English architects always showed a fondness for wooden roofs, and at this the latest period of Gothic these open timber constructions became very common. In France, on the contrary, vaulted roofs were preferred till the revival of classic art.

THIRD OR LATE POINTED STYLE IN SCOTLAND.

During the latter part of the fifteenth and in the sixteenth centuries the erection of cathedrals and monasteries in Scotland was almost entirely superseded by collegiate churches. These structures are generally designed on a cruciform plan, with a central tower over the crossing. They have usually a porch at the south-west and a sacristy at the north-east angle, and occasionally one or more chantry chapels attached. Except in the larger examples of collegiate churches, such as St. Giles’ and Trinity College, Edinburgh, aisles are rarely introduced, and groined vaulting, although used in the above structures, is also uncommon. The churches are generally covered with pointed barrel vaults, for the most part plain, but sometimes ornamented with ribs applied to the barrel surface. The latter style of decoration is sometimes employed in the vaulting over the

presbytery, so as to distinguish it by its richness. This class of vaulting carries out in its simplest elements the principle adopted at this period in England of making the vaulting surface more important than the ribs, and using the latter as ornaments upon the surface of the vault.

The exterior of the churches is generally marked by rather heavy buttresses, crowned with small and debased-looking pinnacles. The buttresses have often a great many set-offs. In other examples buttresses are entirely omitted. The doorways vary considerably. The semi-circular arch, which is sometimes preserved in the earlier styles, is now of very frequent use, not only in doorways, but also in pier arcades and clerestories (as at Paisley and Dunkeld). Elliptic arches and three-sided door heads are also used.

At this period we find indications of English influence in a few perpendicular traceries, as at Melrose Abbey, and of French influence in some Flamboyant forms, and in the three or five sided apse which frequently forms the eastern termination of the churches. Western and central towers are usual features, generally rather squat in form, and sometimes surmounted with a short spire, having numerous small lucarnes and pinnacles. Four of these towers were once finished with spires of open work resembling a crown, but the number is now reduced to two--viz., St. Giles’, Edinburgh, and King’s College, Old Aberdeen.

The piers are often of a plain circular form, and the arches have frequently plain chamfers instead of mouldings. The caps of piers are peculiar and heavy, the abacus consisting of a deep series of mouldings. Grotesque ornaments and large flowers are common, and frequently of rather coarse design; but in some instances, as in the cloisters of Melrose, the ornaments are beautifully sculptured.

A revival of early enrichments, such as the dog-tooth or nail-head, is a curious characteristic of this period, as it was also in the case of the late domestic architecture. Other early features are also revived, such as detached shafts, with well-marked caps and bases of early form. This is specially observable at Iona and in Argyleshire and the Western Islands, where, as already mentioned, a peculiar style prevailed.

In course of time, as pointed out elsewhere,[60] the ecclesiastical elements were invaded by the features of domestic architecture, and a mixed, but picturesque, style was developed which had more of a Scottish than a Gothic aspect.

Many examples of Scottish structures of the third period will be illustrated. The buildings, though comparatively small, are numerous and interesting, as they illustrate a specially Scottish branch of Gothic architecture. They consist largely of collegiate edifices, and amongst them is the well-known collegiate church of Roslyn.

A number of churches showing the mixture of domestic and ecclesiastical features which prevailed in the latter half of the sixteenth and seventeenth century have already been illustrated, as above indicated.

That series of churches will be continued so as to exhaust the subject.

The contrast they present with the churches of the earlier centuries is very striking, and affords much food for reflection.

THE CELTIC MONASTIC AND ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES IN SCOTLAND,

CHIEFLY AS ILLUSTRATED AND DESCRIBED IN THE WORKS OF THE LATE T. S. MUIR.

It has been shown in the Introduction that Christianity was brought to Scotland in the sixth century by the Celtic missionaries from Ireland, and that, after it had endured for seven centuries, the monastic Church of the Columbans, was superseded by the Roman ecclesiastical system. Each of these phases of Christianity possessed its own form of architecture--the one derived from the features peculiar to the Celtic style of building, and the other from the development of the Romanesque architecture general throughout Europe. The latter began to take effect in Scotland about the beginning of the twelfth century, while the former, which had existed from a very early date, continued to prevail in certain parts of the country long after that period.

We shall first consider the structures of the oldest or Celtic style. The earliest examples of ecclesiastical architecture in Scotland are, doubtless, the rude structures built with uncemented stones, which still survive in some of the remote islands off the coast, chiefly in the Western seas.

These islands, as well as the mainland of Scotland, have been visited again and again by the late Mr. T. S. Muir, who has embodied the results of his peregrinations in his volume on the _Characteristics of Old Church Architecture in Scotland_ (1861), and in his _Ecclesiological Notes on some of the Islands of Scotland_ (1885)--the latter containing a _resumé_ of a number of charming little volumes produced by Mr. Muir at different times. Mr. Muir’s account of his repeated visits to the outlying islands is very quaint and entertaining, and shows that he has been inspired with an enthusiasm for ecclesiology very rarely equalled. He has certainly been the discoverer of many extremely interesting structures, which serve to show the connection between the early Christianity of Ireland and Scotland and the gradual development in this country of a style of ecclesiastical architecture similar to that of the parent isle.

The condition and features of the numerous cells and churches which Mr. Muir visited many years ago, when they were in a more perfect state than they now are, have been so fully described and illustrated by him that it would appear to be a work of supererogation to follow his footsteps and investigate them over again. We have, therefore, adopted his descriptions and illustrations, and have prepared an abstract of the numerous materials scattered throughout his works, arranged, as far as possible, in accordance with the historical sequence of the types of the buildings, and described in Mr. Muir’s own words.

Dr. Joseph Anderson has pointed out, in his _Scotland in Early Christian Times_, that the early churches of Scotland, like those of Ireland, consisted of a single oblong chamber, with one door and one window, and that these structures were frequently found associated with beehive huts and surrounded by a cashel or rampart.[61]

We have in Scotland several examples of similar churches associated with beehive huts, and sometimes surrounded by a wall. Examples also occur of groups of chapels resembling the well-known similar groups in Ireland.

The following are descriptions of these structures, chiefly extracted from Mr. Muir’s works.

I. SIMPLE OBLONG CHURCHES, ASSOCIATED WITH BEEHIVE CELLS AND CHURCHES IN GROUPS.

EILEAN NAOMH, ARGYLESHIRE.

An extremely interesting example of the remains of an early monastic establishment on the Irish model is that on Eilean Naomh, one of the

Eilean Naomh. Beehive Hut.]

Garvelloch Islands, which lie about three miles west of Lunga, off the coast of Argyleshire. About the middle of the island, and on the south-east side, stand the ruins of several structures. “One of the largest and most entire is obviously a church internally 21 feet 7 inches in length, constructed, like all the other buildings, of rude masonry, in which no lime or cement of any kind has been used. Excepting the gables, which are wanting, the walls are perfect, but present nothing in the way of detail more important than a square-headed doorway of slightly tapering form in the west end, and a small square-headed window splayed on both sides, but mostly on the interior, in the east end, flanked on its south by a projecting shelf of slate, which seems to have been an altar.”[62] The enclosures of what were probably the garden and the burying-ground are visible south of the church.

Twin Beehive Huts.]

Mr. Muir then describes “another building, an underground cell of irregular oval shape (Fig. 27), measuring 5 feet 4 inches by 4 feet 5 inches, with a depth of rather more than 4 feet. The roof is formed simply by a few heavy slabs laid across the walls on a level with the ground outside, and the entrance is by a slanting aperture (Fig. 28), just where the roof and the walls unite. Two other buildings (Fig. 29), forming a part of this curious group, remain to be described. These are dome-shaped and joined together; the larger one internally 14 feet in diameter, the other about a foot less. The two buildings communicate with each other by means of a square-shaped doorway through the point of contact, and the larger one with the outside by another doorway of the like kind facing the south-west; but with the exception of a square aperture at the ground, more like a gutter hole than a door, there is no external opening in the smaller building.”[63] The dome of the smaller structure is complete, but that of the larger is ruined. (Fig. 30.)

The island of Naomh was often visited by Columba, and the establishment of which the above fragments are the remains is believed to have been that originally founded by St. Brendan, and afterwards refounded by Columba. Near the shore St. Columba’s well still survives.

One cannot fail to recognise in the above description a striking resemblance to the early monastic establishments of Ireland. We here find the same dry-built quadrilateral church, with door having sloping jambs, and the same beehive huts with domed roofs.[64]

SKEABOST, SKYE.

“In an islet in the river Snizort at this place there is an open burying-ground

containing a group of five or six chapels, the shell of two pretty entire, the others reduced nearly to the ground. Of the former, the one least perfect (Fig. 31) is a featureless building, externally 82 feet in length; the other--probably that mentioned in the _Originales Parochiales_ as dedicated to St. Columba--is externally 21 feet in length, and has a flat-headed window (Fig. 32), 2 feet in height and 6 inches wide, in the east end, the west end blank. In

the larger building there is a basin of a baptismal font, square, with rounded corners.”[65]

“On making the shore one is immediately struck with the intensely ecclesiastical character of the spot. From end to end the islet is covered with the remains of chapels.”[66]

Here we find a group of chapels which were formerly surrounded by a marsh, while fragments of an enclosing wall or rampart can also be traced.

MUGSTOT, SKYE.

“Mugstot, properly Monkstead, stands on a slightly elevated spot surrounded by a swampy meadow, formerly the bed of a lake, some two or three miles from Uig, in the direction of Kilmuir Kirk. Like Skeabost, it exhibits a group of greatly ruinated buildings, three in number, standing in a line from north to south. The southernmost building, which is 22 feet long inside, and pointed east and west, is the least dilapidated, and evidently the Chapel of St. Columba mentioned by Martin. The intermediate ruins are little more than the foundations of an oblong building, 49 feet in length, and standing north and south.” Then follows a description of what has apparently been a circular cashel. “The other building is of oval form, measuring internally about 62 feet east and west, and 42 feet north and south, the walls composed of irregularly-shaped stones, mostly of large size, uncemented, but fitly put together. This building is very much broken down, but least dilapidated on the east, where it is still some 7 or 8 feet high. Within the area are observable the foundations of walls crossing each other at right angles, the spaces between having probably been vaulted cells.”[67]

HOWMORE, SOUTH UIST.

At Mr. Muir’s first visit there were here remains of a group of five chapels (Fig. 33) all close together, but on his second visit he found one removed. “The missing one was a very characteristic building, the smallest of the group, with a very narrow rectangular window and a short _sloping_ doorway in the east end. Externally it measured only 17½ feet in length.

Of those still remaining, the largest has been about 60 feet in length. Scarcely anything of it is standing more than the east wall, a long cruciform couplet [widely splayed inside and looking like first pointed],[88] in which shows that the building had been the finest and largest of the lot. The next largest is internally rather more than 54 feet in length. Of it, also, the only remains is the east wall [pierced with a narrow flat-headed window (Fig. 34), 2 feet long and 6 inches wide, extremely rude].[68] The two other chapels are each about 20 feet in length, not so much reduced, but with no features deserving notice. [In the east gable there is a flat-headed window of very small size, and on the south side there is one much of the same kind; on the north side are remains of a doorway--the west end blank.][69] In two of the chapels the altar is still extant, and there are also fine memorial slabs.”[70]

“Of the chapels, the largest is externally 20 feet in length,”[71] with small flat-headed windows--west end blank. Of the two other chapels, the largest is 19 feet 4 inches in length, with flat-topped window. The other (now removed), 17 feet 7 inches long externally, by 11 feet 6 inches wide; walls rudely built. The doorway, _with inclining jambs and flat head_, was in the east end; above, in gable, a flat-headed window, 14 inches long by 3 inches wide.

KILBAR, BARRA.

In a burying-ground, “three dilapidated chapels, resembling very much those at Howmore. The largest (Fig. 35) (supposed to be that of St. Barr), (1) is externally 42 feet in length; the end walls nearly away, the north and south walls nearly entire. The north side has a rude triangular-headed doorway (Fig. 36) enclosed in a semi-circular arch, and a triangular-headed window on its east. In the south wall there are three windows of the same form--two of them together near its east end, and one near the west end. Against the east end the altar remains almost entire. The next largest chapel (2) is externally 30 feet in length; it is divided by a dead wall into two unequal apartments, each having a flat-headed doorway on the south. The east end contains a flat-headed window 16 inches in length by 3½ inches wide, and there are windows of like kind in the side walls, the west one blank. Of the third and smallest chapel (4), externally 18 feet 3 inches in length, very little is left. At my first visit (July 1855) both ends were entire, the east one containing a small flat-topped window, the west one blank; now (July 1866) the only detail is a narrow window at the eastern extremity of the north wall, the head round, and formed of one stone.”[72]

Another chapel at a little distance has been removed.

II. HERMITS’ CELLS.

The above descriptions apply to groups of chapels similar to those in Ireland. We shall now consider Mr. Muir’s descriptions of the rude hermitages which he discovered on some of the remotest rocks round the coast.

THE CHAPEL OF ST. RONAN, NORTH RONA.

The small solitary island of Rona lies about thirty-eight miles north-eastwards from the Butt of Lewis, and about the same distance from Cape Wrath. It is about one mile long and the same in width. Such an island, so far from land, formed a meet spot for the dwelling of an early Anchorite, and here is still preserved the Chapel of St. Ronan. The island was twice visited by Mr. Muir, who thus describes the chapel:--

“Of this rude and diminutive building [the eastern chamber] not much can be said. On the outside it is in most part a rounded heap of loose stones, roofed over with turf. Within you find it a roughly-built cell (Fig. 37), 9 feet 3 inches in height, and at the floor 11 feet 6 inches long and 7 feet 6 inches wide. The end walls lean inwardly a little, the side ones so greatly that when they meet the flat slab-formed roof they are scarcely 2 feet apart. (Fig. 38.) Beyond the singularity of its shape, there is

nothing remarkable in the building, its only minute features being a square doorway in the west end, so low that you have to creep through it on your elbows and knees; a flat-headed window without splay on either side, 19 inches long and 8 inches wide, set over the doorway (see Fig. 38); another window of like form and length, but an inch or two wider, near the east end of the south wall; and the altar stone, 3 feet in length, lying close to the east end.

“Attached as a nave to the west end of the cell, and externally co-extensive with it in breadth, are the remains of another chapel, internally

14 feet 8 inches in length, and 8 feet 3 inches in width. Except the north one, which is considerably broken down, all the elevations are nearly entire, the west one retaining a part of the gable. A rude flat-headed doorway, 3 feet 5 inches in height and 2 feet 3 inches wide, in the south wall, and a small window of the same shape eastward of it, are the only details.

“At what time either of these buildings was put up it is impossible to say. Both are alike rude in their masonry, and between them there is scarcely a difference in the character of their few inartistic details; but be the age of the larger one what it may, the cell, which may be termed the chancel of the structure at large, is certainly by many hundred years the older erection, and in all probability the work of the eighth or ninth century.”[73]

We have here an example of an ancient oratory enlarged by the addition of a _nave_ into a church with nave and chancel.

TEAMPULL SULA SGEIR.

On a narrow and lofty rock, not more than one-third of a mile in

length, situated ten or twelve miles to the south-west of North Rona and about forty miles from the Butt of Lewis, there exists “a rude chapel, with a stone roof, called Tigh Beannaichte (blessed house), internally 14 feet in length.”

“In a comparatively level spot, closely surrounded by rocks, there is a low, rough, oval-shaped chapel (Fig. 39), internally measuring no more than 14 feet in length [8 feet wide at the middle, and 6 feet 4 inches at the ends],[74] the extreme antiquity of which there seems no reason to question. On the outside (Fig. 40) the roof of this primitive cell is of curved form, but inside the rude vaulting, which may be said to commence almost from the ground, finishes somewhat short of the summit in so many heavy slabs laid horizontally across. Externally the building is a little dilapidated at both ends, and so is the roof; but within it is quite perfect, and seemingly noways altered from its original state. Entrance to it is by a low and very narrow flat-topped doorway, with sloping jambs [3 feet 5 inches in

height, 16 inches wide at top and 22 inches at bottom][74] in the south wall. On its east is a small squared recess, and there is another recess of the same kind in the west wall. The only window is a small one, of squared form [2 feet 8 inches in length], in the east end, under which is an altar, flanked by slabs, set on edge, and raised on a slightly elevated dais, as is shown on the annexed plan.”[75]

FLANNAIN ISLES, OR SEVEN HUNTERS.

SEVERAL WILD UNAPPROACHABLE ISLANDS LYING TO THE WESTWARDS OF LEWIS.

Eilean Mòr, the largest of the group (about one-third of a mile in extent), has precipitous sides and a flat grassy plain on the top, which slopes to the south-west.

“The chapel of St. Flann, or Teampull Beannachadh (blessing) as it is commonly called ... stands nakedly about the middle of the slope, unenclosed and with no indications of having ever been surrounded by a burial-ground. (Figs. 41, 42.) It is a very primitive looking thing, composed of rough stones joggled compactly together without lime. The form is a squared oblong, but not strictly regular, the external lengths of the north and south walls being respectively 11 feet 11 inches and 12 feet 2 inches, the east and west walls, 10 feet 3 inches and 9 feet 2 inches respectively; [within the dimensions are--length 7 feet 3 inches; width, 4 feet 5 inches.][76] The walls vary in thickness from 2 feet 5 inches to 2 feet 11 inches, taper a little, and are covered with a stone roof internally flat, but following the obtusely pointed or cradle form of the gables on the outside. Externally,

the total height of the cell is only 8 feet 6 inches; internally, 5 feet 9 inches. A narrow squared aperture, scarcely 3 feet in height [1 foot 10 inches in width],[77] in the west end, is at once doorway and window, besides it there being no opening of any kind in the building.”[78]

III. CELTIC CHURCHES STANDING ALONE.

The number of single churches scattered over the islands and the adjoining mainland has at one time been very large. Many of these are now reduced to mere traces, but the ruins of a considerable number still exist in tolerable preservation.

We shall consider these in several sections, in accordance with their different characteristics. The simplest type is first described, but the age of the structures is not thereby indicated.

1. Churches built in the simple Celtic style of one oblong chamber. A few of these structures are evidently very ancient, the walls having been built without cement, or having doors with inclined jambs. These will be first described.

2. They will be followed by a long list of churches on the same general plan, but in which some modifications of the original arrangement of one door and one window are introduced. The number of windows is often increased; but they are not arranged on a uniform plan, being generally distributed so as to suit the locality. The windows were no doubt open and unglazed, and seem to have been placed so as to be well sheltered, and as little exposed to the prevailing wind as possible. In some cases there is no window even in the east gable, and the west and north walls are frequently blank. In most examples the windows and doors are narrow and flat-headed, but round-headed doors and windows are also occasionally used, showing the Norman influence. These structures all belong more or less to the primitive type of Celtic churches, but their primitive features cannot be relied on as fixing their date. Some may be very early, while others may be later even than the pointed buildings to be afterwards described. The primitive type and primitive features, such as narrow flat-headed windows and doors, undoubtedly continued in use long after more advanced forms had been introduced.

3. A more reliable mark of the order of succession of these early churches is the existence of an architecturally distinguished chancel. At what point in the development of the architecture this feature was introduced it is impossible to say; but from the extremely rude nature of the other elements in such examples as that at Lybster in Caithness (described below), it must clearly have been at an early period. We there find the plan of nave and chancel combined with such primitive features as a low west doorway, with inclining jambs and flat lintel, and the opening to the chancel from the nave shaped exactly like the west doorway.

4. Examples are also found of the addition of a chancel or nave to an older simple oblong church, thus showing that the chanceled church was a later form of plan than the primitive single-chambered church. The examples of these ancient churches with added chancel or nave will be first given, and then the churches built on the plan of nave and chancel.[79]

5. In many instances the use of the pointed arch and ornaments of Gothic character is quite distinct. These churches are evidently of a date between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. Although in other parts of the country first pointed work would be assigned to the thirteenth century, that rule does not apply in the Western Highlands and Islands, where first pointed features are often continued till much later times, and where the later styles of Gothic are scarcely represented.

(_A_) CHURCHES DRY-BUILT AND CHURCHES WITH SLOPING JAMBS.

TIGH BEANNACHADH, LEWIS.

Numerous ruins and fragments of chapels are found on the west coast of Lewis. Among these, near Gallowhead, the great west headland of the island, stands (Fig. 43) Tigh Beannachadh (blessing house), “a not

greatly dilapidated chapel [a simple oblong], internally 18 feet 2 inches in length [by 10 feet 4 inches], with a broken east window, having an altar beside it and a doorway, and a niche in each of the side walls; the south doorway entire and flat-headed, the masonry very rude and _without lime_.” “It would seem to be a very old building.”[80]

DUN OTHAIL, LEWIS.

On a narrow “shelf, in the face of a high precipice, under Dun Othail, about ten miles south of the Butt, is found the ground work of a chapel, internally 17 feet long and 11 feet 3 inches wide, with remains of the south doorway. The walls are 4 feet thick, and there is no _cement used_.”[81]

CARINISH, NORTH UIST.

At the south end of the island, Teampull-na-Trianaide (Trinity Church) consists of two not greatly dilapidated buildings of unequal size, the larger and more ruinated one internally 62 feet in length. The only detail,

a broken round-headed doorway near west end of north wall. Connected with it on that side by a low semi-circular vaulted passage (Fig. 44), lighted by a small flat-headed window on each side, is the other chapel, 23 feet in length. This building is probably of considerable age. Windows are rude, flat-headed, and 3 feet long.[82] See Note by Captain Thomas.[83]

(_B_) SIMPLE OBLONG CHURCHES WITH MODIFIED FEATURES.

1. CARA, OFF GIGHA, KINTYRE.

A chapel, 29 feet long externally; masonry rude, but with a good deal of character. East and west ends nearly entire. Doorway about

middle of north side. Window in north wall 3 feet 4 inches long and flat-headed. (Fig. 45.) No opening in east end.[84]

2. EILEAN MUNDE, LOCHLEVEN.

An island near the mouth of Glencoe, containing ruins of a church internally 50 feet long, with two flat-headed windows in south side and one in north side. East end blank.[85]

3. CHURCH OF HOLY CROSS, SOUTH GALSTON, LEWIS.