Chapter VI: Part 6

The doors are chiefly in the west ends. Both square and round heads occur. Several have no rebates. (See Birsay.) St. Ola, Deerness, and perhaps Uya have no chancels, but all the rest have decided chancels. There is no instance of a chancel door. Orphir, Egilsey, The Ness, Culbinsbrough, Norwick, Kirkaby, and Colvidale have or had chancel arches equal in width to the chancels. In England this fashion rarely occurs; where it does it is late. It is constructively weak.

Enhallow has a chancel arch with projecting jambs of about the English proportion.

Birsay, Wyre, Linton, perhaps Uya, and probably Noss have or had very narrow chancel arches.

In our early churches the chancels were small in comparison with the naves, and in cathedrals the ritual choir was under the cross or west of it.

They elongated the choirs in the thirteenth century, and soon placed the ritual choir east of the cross.

Orphir and Egilsey had windows with circular heads. Birsay, Wyre, Enhallow, and Culbinsbrough had at least some windows with flat heads. The Ness has all flat. No instance remains of a double light, or of a transom, or of a triangular head, which is not unfrequent in Ireland.

At Egilsey, Enhallow, and the Ness are no grooves for glass or rebates, or external chamfers. At Orphir and Birsay are grooves and chamfers. (See account of Egilsey.) Of the six churches which retain the east ends--St. Ola, Orphir, Deerness, Wyre, Egilsey, and the Ness--four have no east window, except that in the latter there is a small opening high up in the east gable. In the early Irish churches it is very unusual not to have an east window. Probably no apse was without an east window.

As far as can be made out at present, there was no step to the chancel and no platform for the altar, except the inserted step and altar at Birsay. In some the chancel windows are singularly low, as at Wyre and Egilsey. No piscina remains, and only one sedile, but several ambries.

There are only four cases where we can judge of the pitch of the roofs. The Ness had a roof including about 85 degrees, Egilsey about 88 degrees, Enhallow the same, and Wyre about 95 degrees. Probably all had rude stepped coping on the gables.

MONUMENTS.

The grave stones found in connection with these churches are of four kinds.

1. Keel-shaped slabs placed horizontally on graves, as at Sandwick in Unst, sketched by Mr. Irvine.

2. Upright stones nearly rectangular, with crosses engraved on them, as at Sandwick, etched by Mr. Irvine, and at Norwick and some other places. This class includes the elaborate monument from Culbinsbrough.

3. The same shaped stones, without any ornamentation, found at many of the old burial-grounds.

4. Upright stones cut into the form of crosses, as at Uya.

Mr. Irvine has sent the following information:--“I believe from the earliest times in Scotland the foot-stone of the grave was the chief stone, and not as now the head-stone, and that the east face of the foot-stone was the principal face to be attended to, from the idea that the dead rose at the resurrection to an upright position facing east. Compare the stone with the ancient incised markings from St. Peter’s Church, Orkney, now in the Edinburgh Museum, with the one I have etched from Sandwick, Unst, and I believe it will be seen that the keel stone existed to both. Therefore, I believe that the interment belonging to many of the standing stones will be found on the west side and not on the east.” The coffins were often formed of six or more slabs of stone.

PROPORTIONS.

The designs for churches in the ages of architecture were not made at random. Doubtless there existed certain rules of proportion; but doubtless they varied with times, places, and persons.

Various attempts have been made in modern times to discover these rules, and in some instances with apparent success. It unfortunately happens that we have not often an intact ground plan, and if the original plan was simple, the additions render it complex. In many cases these additions were made without any regard to the proportion of the original. It appears probable that these proportions were geometric rather than arithmetical--that is to say, made by simple operations of the compasses and rulers, rather than by any proportions of numbers. The small churches of the North are valuable from not having been altered by additions.

Though in the foregoing notes the proportions on which the churches were built may not have been ascertained in all cases, yet in some the coincidences are too remarkable to be chance. Although, no doubt, a system of proportions was extended to the elevations and certain details, yet as to most of these in the churches here enumerated we are in ignorance, because most of the superstructure is gone. It appears that there were, in fact, only two figures on which the proportions were founded--a circle, a square, and an equilateral triangle. For most purposes of proportion the circle and square are identical. The vesica piscis is two equilateral triangles on opposite sides of a common base, and hence equal in proportion to the half of one such triangle.

There is, however, one proportion in which a square is not equivalent to a circle--the diagonal of the square the proportion of which to the side is nearly as 10 to 7. The height or length of an equilateral triangle is to half its base nearly as 7 to 4.

All these proportions are somewhat flexible, inasmuch as they may include the side walls and exclude the end walls, or the reverse; or they may include both, or they may exclude both; or they may be applied in one way to the nave, and in another to the chancel, and in another to the tower. But the proportion must not be deemed as ascertained unless the figure really fits within 2 or 3 inches.

DATES.

As to the dates of these buildings we have but little to guide us. Only fragments of the buildings are left, and those of the plainest description.

Scotch architecture has some mystifying peculiarities. Dates have been suggested from architectural and historical evidence for Orphir, Birsay, and Egilsey. Orphir, 1090-1160; Birsay, 1100; Egilsey, 1000. Wyre has been assigned to the twelfth or thirteenth, the Ness to the fourteenth, and St. Ola to the sixteenth century.

It may be fairly observed that there must have been churches erected in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Where are the remains of them? Possibly some of the ruins described are of those centuries.

It does not appear impossible that from evidence yet to be collected, a nearer approximation to the dates of these buildings may be got.

* * * * *

As a supplement to the foregoing drawings and descriptions of the ruined churches of Orkney and Shetland by Sir Henry Dryden, we add an account, also kindly supplied by Sir Henry, of the chapel at Lybster, in Caithness, which has a strong affinity to the churches of the Orkneys, and drawings and description of the chapel on the island of Inch Kenneth, lying on the south-west of Mull.

CHAPEL AT LYBSTER, PARISH OF REAY, CAITHNESS.

This is not the Lybster on the east coast.

This chapel (Fig. 129) was stated, in 1726, to be dedicated to St. Peter. It is described and illustrated by Muir in his _Ecclesiastical Sketch of Caithness and Orkney_, 1861. He states that it was dedicated to St. Mary.[135]

It consists of nave and chancel, both unroofed. (Fig. 130.) Muir, in his plan, places the chancel to the north of the nave, but it is in the usual position.

The nave is 17 feet 10 inches east and west, by 10 feet 11 inches north and south inside. The north wall of the nave is 3 degrees south of true west and north of true east, supposing the variation to be 24 degrees west of north. The walls of the west end and the east end of the nave are 4 feet 2 inches thick; the north and south walls of the nave are 3 feet 11 inches thick. The walls are of the whinstone of the district, in irregular courses, from 3 to 10 inches deep, and “spawled”--that is, made into courses by smaller stones. The north wall of the nave is 8 feet high above the present ground level, and is apparently about its original height. The south wall is partly broken. The west wall is 11 feet 8

inches, and the east wall 15 feet 2 inches above the present ground. The latter gable was about 1 foot 6 inches higher than at present, and the west gable, of course, level with it. I did not ascertain the original level of the floor, but it must have been at least a foot below the present ground, so that the total height of the gables was about 16 feet 2 inches.

In the west end (Fig. 131) is an entrance 2 feet 3 inches wide at bottom and 1 foot 9 inches at top. The head is horizontal; the jambs are parallel, and there is no sign of hinges for a door. The jambs are now 3 feet 11 inches high. The soffit of the head is flush between the outside and the inside. Another entrance has been made in the south wall near the west end, but the wall is broken here, and the form of the head is uncertain. There is now no trace of a window, but one may have existed in the place of this doorway.

The entrance to the chancel is 2 feet 9 inches wide at the bottom and 2 feet 1 inch at the head, which is flat, like the west entrance. The chancel is 11 feet 3 inches east and west, by 10 feet 9 inches north and south inside. The walls are 2 feet 4½ inches on the north and south and 2 feet 7 inches on the east. The walls are about 1 foot lower than the north wall of the nave. This chancel has been rebuilt, probably on the old foundation, and is used as a family burying-place.

There is no trace of an entrance or a window, but I think the wall has been rebuilt since the disuse of the chapel, so that the original chancel may have had a window. There is no stoup or ambry.

Planned 1871.

CHAPEL, EFFIGY, AND CROSS ON INCH KENNETH, MULL, ARGYLESHIRE.

Inch Kenneth is about half a mile across at the mouth of Loch na Keal, on the west side of Mull.

The chapel (Fig. 132) adjoins the burial-ground, which is on the south-east part of the island, and at 50 or 60 feet above the water.

The ground falls sharply from the north-east to the south-west. The burial-ground is on the west of the chapel, and on higher ground. There is an enclosed burial-place adjoining the south side of the chapel for the Macleans of Brolas.

The chapel (Fig. 133) is a plain parallelogram, 40 feet 9 inches east and west by 19 feet 8 inches north and south inside. It is deflected 10

degrees 30 minutes to the north of true east, assuming the magnetic meridian to be 21 degrees west of true north.

It is of a light-coloured hard sandstone. It has long been unroofed, and is mutilated in other parts.

The doorway (Fig. 134) is in the north wall, near the west end, on the side sheltered by the hill; but all the freestone has been taken out, except two stones of the inner order of the east jamb.

The jambs (Fig. 135) and arch were of two orders. Judging by the remains of wall it had no hood and no cap. I did not make out whether it had been a pointed or a half-circular arch, as there is only a small portion of the masonry fitting the back of the outer order above the west impost remaining to judge by. Probably pointed.

The sill of the doorway is covered by rubbish, and the whole of the interior is covered to about 2 feet depth. I had not opportunity for excavation.

The east end (Fig. 136) remains to 15 feet high, a little above the eaves. The side walls (Fig. 137) are about 12 feet high, and the west wall remains to a little way up the gable.

The facing of the south wall and the south-west angle have disappeared. The weakness of foundation and the position of the east end on a steep slope caused, at some period, the east end to lean outwards

considerably; and to obviate further decay, large clasping buttresses (see Fig. 132) were made at north-east and south-east angles, at some period much after the building of the chapel, but long ago.

In the east end are two plain lancets (Fig. 138), 4 feet 8 inches high and 8¾ inches wide, with wide splays to the inside.

There is no groove for glass, and so it probably was fixed in a wooden frame.

On the north is, near the east end, a square-headed light (Figs. 139, 140), 4 feet 8 inches by 1 foot. It has no glass groove. The internal head is not now arched, but probably was so at first.

On the south, and nearly opposite the last, is a light, 4 feet 8 inches by 9 inches, with a square head and internal arch. (See Fig. 140.)

Between this and the east wall is a projecting stone with hollow in it, but no drain. (See Fig. 139.) It is difficult to assign a date to this, but I think, probably, it is of fourteenth or fifteenth century.

In the centre of the chapel is a flat tombstone, with floriated decoration. In the burial-ground is a cross of slate, now prostrate. It appears of very late date, but has traditional form and ornaments.

In the burial-place on the south side of chapel is a floriated tombstone (Fig. 141), also an effigy in relief (Fig. 142). This is 6 feet 7½ inches long from the top of the cap to the heels. The figure is in relief of about 4 inches average, flattened on the upper surface, like many others in that

district, and is in the same stone as the slab, as usual. The slab is 7 feet 2¼ inches by 2 feet 8 inches, of hard freestone. He has no metal armour except his skull-cap or morion, which has a raised longitudinal rib and a narrow brim. The head rests on a simple pillow of 3 inches relief. He wears a quilted dress reaching to the knees, and over that, apparently a

surcoat. The face has no protection; the hair is long and curly, falling over the shoulders; he has no beard and no moustache. Below the chin falls the broad end of a tie (?) of some kind. The right arm, in a quilted sleeve, is extended by the side, and in the hand is a cannon (?) ball. Lying over the waist is a circular target, 1 foot in diameter and 2 inches thick, and on this is a shield (presumably to receive the arms either in sculpture or paint) of 10½ inches width and 1¼ inch thickness.

The legs are in close-fitting hose, or perhaps bare, and the junction of the boots is not shown. The feet rest against a lion or dog. He has a waist-belt, from which depends a long, broad, straight sword, of equal width to the end. The upper part of the scabbard and the guard are

concealed by the target. The left arm holds the target, and is therefore partly concealed by it. Dependent from the belt at the right hip is the dirk. On each side of the head is a figure 10¼ inches high, much worn, in a loose cloak, and in the attitude of prayer. These may represent children or professional mourners.

It is possible that the shield which is in relief on the target is to represent a metal or a wooden plate fastened to the target.

It is likely that the cannon ball is a memorial of some incident.

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Sir Henry Dryden, in reading over the foregoing description of the Orkney and Shetland churches after they were arranged in type, has requested the following note to be inserted:--

_Note by Sir Henry Dryden._

All the plans and sections are much reduced from the originals; therefore, the _statements_ of the scales are not true, but the scales given are correct, having been reduced with the plans.

Of the original drawings, some general plans are to the scale of ½ an inch to 40 feet, and ½ an inch to 10 feet. All the chapels are to the scale of ⅜ of an inch to 2 feet, doors and windows ⅜ to 6 inches, and mouldings ⅜ to 3 inches.

The elevations in the originals are tinted with sepia, and have no masonry indicated. The artist who has prepared these reductions has indicated the masonry, but has made it much too regular, both in courses and size of stones.

The drawing here shown is a more accurate representation of the general style of the masonry.

The degrees and minutes prefixed to arrows are the readings of a prismatic compass, with 360 degrees at south, 90 degrees at west, and so on. All were taken west to east and east to west.

TRANSITION FROM CELTIC TO NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

Having in the preceding chapters dealt with the churches in Scotland which may be regarded as of Celtic descent, we now turn to those in which the Roman or Norman influence begins to make itself apparent.

A few structures exist in Scotland in which both the Celtic and Norman influences can be traced, and which are interesting as examples of the transition from the one style to the other. We have noted in the foregoing descriptions the gradual introduction in the later Celtic churches of features characteristic of Norman work, such as round arched openings and upright jambs, not to mention the pointed and more advanced details of later examples. But the gradual approach of Norman architecture, and its encroachment on the Celtic forms, is more particularly noticeable in some of the early towers in the East of Scotland. In that part of the country of which the Frith of Tay forms the centre, and which was then the central region of Pictavia, there exists a series of early ecclesiastical towers, eight in number. Six of these towers are situated south of the Tay--three of them being on the south side of the Ochil Hills, and three on the north side. Those on the south side are the tower of St. Regulus at St. Andrews and the towers at Markinch and Dunblane; while the towers on the north side of the Ochils are at Abernethy, Muthill, and Dunning. The towers on the north side of the Tay are those at Brechin and Restennet. These places are all known to have been the sites of Culdee establishments, which were ultimately absorbed into the Roman system.

The towers of Abernethy and Brechin are round towers, similar in design to the round towers of Ireland.[136] These two towers contain many features which indicate their Irish derivation, while one of them--that at Abernethy--shows the impress of the Norman influence in its details.

The other towers above mentioned (which are described under their respective heads) are all square in plan; but that of Restennet shows considerable affinity with Celtic modes of construction. The Church of St. Regulus probably marks the next step in the Norman advance, while the remaining towers, although simple in details, are quite distinctly Norman in their features.

The Round Tower of Brechin is the one which approaches most nearly to the Celtic or Irish forms. Its masonry is built with large stones, but they are not laid in regular courses. The doorway is some feet above the ground, and is ornamented with details quite Irish in character. This tower will be more fully described under the head of Brechin Cathedral.

ABERNETHY ROUND TOWER, PERTHSHIRE.

This remarkable edifice stands on the south-west side of the Churchyard of Abernethy, a small town situated at some distance from the south side of the Tay, and about three miles west from Newburgh. There can be no doubt that this peculiar form of round tower owes its existence to the presence of the Irish clergy, who returned to Scotland in the ninth century.[137] Abernethy was distinguished as an ecclesiastical site at a very early date, a church having been founded here in the sixth century by King Gastnaid[138] in honour of St. Bridget. Abernethy was then, and for a long period thereafter, the chief seat of the Government of Pictland. In the ninth century, Constantin, the son of Kenneth M‘Alpine, removed the see of the Scottish Bishopric from Dunkeld to Abernethy, where it remained till transferred by Kenneth III., 966-970, to St. Andrews.

The monastery at Abernethy was in the hands of a Culdee establishment in the eleventh century, but about 1200 the church was granted by William the Lion to his favourite Abbey of Arbroath, and the Abbey was secularised. In 1272, the monastery was revived as a Priory of Canons regular of St. Augustine.

The once important place of Abernethy has now dwindled into a small quiet country town, of which the ancient Round Tower is the only important feature.

The tower stands partly within the churchyard and partly without it, on the east side of the adjoining roadway, and the level of the ground on the side next the latter is two or three feet deeper than that of the churchyard. The doorway (Fig. 143) is situated on the north side of the tower and within the burial-ground. It stands (Fig. 144) about 2 feet 6 inches above the ground, and has had in recent times a few steps built in front of it. The doorway has a plain fillet, 6 inches broad and projecting 2 inches, wrought on the jambs and round the circular arched head. It is 7 feet 8 inches from the sill to the crown of the arch. The jambs incline inwards, the opening being 2 feet 8 inches at the base, and 2 feet 4 inches at the spring of the arch. The round head is hollowed out of a single stone, and the thickness of the wall behind it is arched with several voussoirs. The jambs are each in two stones, which extend through the thickness of the wall. The wall is 3 feet 6 inches thick at the doorway, and the internal diameter of the tower at that level is 8 feet 2 inches.

The structure is over 72 feet in height, and is divided in the interior into six stories in the height by projecting string courses, 10 inches by 8 inches, bevelled on the lower side, which carried the joists. There was no staircase, access from floor to floor being by means of ladders. The second, third, and fourth stories are lighted by means of small round-headed and angle-headed windows, with inclined jambs.

The top story has four large windows facing the cardinal points. These windows are the most remarkable features of the edifice.

The openings have inclined jambs, being 1 foot 8 inches at base and 1 foot 5 inches at top, and the height from the sill to the springing is 4 feet 9 inches. Each window has two orders on the exterior--a plain inner order and an outer order, containing a shaft wrought on the jamb angle. The inner order has plain square-edged jambs and round arch. The outer order has also a square-edged round arch, springing from the caps of the shafts. This arch, however, is not concentric with the inner arch, but is carried considerably above it, leaving a flat space or shield between the arches. The caps and bases of the shafts are now much decayed, but they have a distinctly Norman character.

Above the highest string course the wall rises about two feet, so as to form a parapet. The diameter within this wall is 8 feet 8 inches, and the wall is about 2 feet 6 inches thick. The top of the wall is covered with broad stones, each the full width, which have an ogee moulding wrought on the outer edge.

The masonry of the tower is constructed in regular courses of ashlar work, carefully wrought to the circle. The lower twelve courses are of a hard grey freestone, and the portion above consists of a yellowish freestone of similar workmanship, which is softer, and has decayed considerably both on the exterior and interior. This difference in the materials of the lower and upper portions has led to the belief that the upper part has been rebuilt at a later date than the lower part.

The tower is slightly less in diameter at the top than at the bottom, but it tapers so little that the difference is scarcely observable.

In this tower we find features which belong both to the Celtic and Norman styles of building. The circular form of the tower and the disposition of its parts, the door raised some feet above the ground, the small windows in the lower stories, the four large windows in the top story, and the inclining jambs of door and windows, all point to the Irish origin of the design; while the distinctly Norman character of the details of the four upper windows, and the regular coursing and dressing of the masonry, show the influence of the Continental style of the twelfth century.

RESTENNET PRIORY, FORFARSHIRE.

The remaining towers of the group above enumerated are all square on plan, and certain of them are connected with churches, and form a part of them. In these respects, therefore, they differ considerably from the towers of Abernethy and Brechin. They were all probably built during the twelfth century. Possibly Restennet is an exception. It is the only one of the square towers which has very marked features of a pre-Norman character. The outside dimensions of the Tower of Restennet (Fig. 145) are 15 feet 11 inches from north to south by 15 feet 6 inches from east to west, and the walls are 2 feet 8 inches in thickness.

There is, on the ground level of the tower, a narrow doorway in the south side, and a wide archway into the church through the east wall. There is also a wide archway in the west wall, opening into what has been a nave, added at a later date; but this opening appears to have been cut through at a late period.

The south doorway (Fig. 146) is 2 feet 4 inches wide by about 8 feet high. The soffit of the arch is cut out of single stones. The style of masonry used in the construction of the doorway is peculiar. The thickness of the wall is made up of three courses, the two outer ones being large slabs set on edge, and the interior course being built with smaller stones from a different quarry. The latter are of red and the former of grey sandstone. The outer and inner stones forming the lintel are hollowed out with a semi-circular arch opening. Round the exterior of the doorway there is a raised margin, about eight inches in breadth, with small projection, similar to the margin of the door at Abernethy. Except this ancient feature, there is no other attempt at decoration.

The arch in the east wall (Fig. 147) is 8 feet 4 inches wide, and is stated by Mr. Galloway[139] to have been 15 feet 8 inches high from the original floor level to the soffit. The space comprised within the tower

was by this archway included in the original church, which opened into it exactly like the archway of the tower at Dunning Church (_q.v._), compared with which, however, this opening has a very archaic appearance.

There are no floors in the tower, and no stair or means of access to the upper story, and the tower stands open from the ground to the apex of the spire.

Above the arches just described, the tower contains two stories (Fig. 148). In the first story there is a small opening on the east side, about 1 foot 8 inches wide and 4 feet 8 inches high, contained within the space of the choir roof; and on the south side there is another opening, about half this size. A small round opening, a few inches wide, in the west wall (Fig. 149) completes the lights on this story. The highest story, which is separated from the one below by a string course, contains an opening with a straight-sided arch on each face, and each of these openings has an external back-set fillet or margin.

How the tower was originally finished it is now impossible to say; but the string course above the second story is the present termination of the original work. The tower has a decided taper of about two feet in the height.

The building above the second story is probably a work of the fifteenth century, but there appears to be no written account of the erection of the spire. With the exception of the tower, no part of the original Church of Restennet remains, but a fragment of a return wall at the base of the south-east angle of the tower shows that it was connected with some building.

The existing ruin (see Fig. 145) consists of a choir to the east of the tower. The south wall of this choir probably occupies the original position of the south wall of the ancient church. Assuming that the tower was in the centre of the west wall of the choir, the original church would be about 14 feet wide, and possibly entered through the tower by the narrow doorway in the south side.

The present choir is a first-pointed structure. It is roofless, but otherwise fairly entire, and measures about 67 feet long by 21 feet 6 inches wide internally. A part of the centre of the north wall appears to have been taken down and rebuilt at a late period. In a plan of the priory, made by Dr. Jamieson of Forfar, and preserved in the Hutton Collection (Advocates’ Library), the church is shown as being ruinous in 1796. The restoration which has since then taken place probably accounts for the absence of the buttresses and of the hood mouldings of two of the rebuilt lancet windows on the north side (see Figs. 148 and 149). On the south side the buttresses have all been pulled down, but otherwise the wall remains intact, with first-pointed corbels along the top of the wall. In the east wall, the apex of which is gone (Fig. 150), there were

FIG. 147.--Restennet Priory. Archway in East Wall of Tower.]

three lancet windows, which had banded nook shafts in the interior, and a simple splay externally. At the east end, on the south side, there is a piscina (Fig. 151), a sedilia recess, a locker, and a tomb of late work. On the north side there has been a similar recessed tomb, now built up. The font shown in Fig. 152 is lying inside the choir, but its base is gone. It measures 2 feet 4 inches in external width by 1 foot 9 inches inside, and 18 inches high, with a square hole in the centre. It appears to be of late date.

The east wall has angle pilaster buttresses, with scarcely any projection to the east, but having a few inches projection to the north and

south respectively. The south wall of the church appears, from a return and tuskings at the east end, to have continued further eastwards. In the south wall, adjoining the tower, there is a plain, round, arched doorway. As will be seen from the plan, the present choir is not in the line of the centre of the tower. Probably the existence of earlier monastic buildings on the south side may have prevented extension in that direction; and so, in order to get the width required for the new choir, it was necessary to extend the building northwards. From the presence of the sloping skew recess on the west face of the tower, it is obvious that the nave, which now no longer exists, and is only indicated by this roof mark, was built nearly in continuation of the walls of the choir. In Dr. Jamieson’s time, when the foundations of the nave existed, it was so, and is shown in his drawings running westwards to the west wall of the cloister, a distance of about 59 feet. The plan shows that the west enclosing wall is broken off just at the point where the west wall of the nave joined it.

On the south side of the tower and choir there are raglets, indicating where the monastic buildings have abutted against them. Of these buildings all that exist are the boundary walls, shown on plan. These contain a doorway to the south, and another to the west. They are quite plain, with segmental arched heads. In front of the west door lies a flat tombstone, probably

the one referred to by Dr. Jamieson as being dated 1553. Dr. Jamieson further mentions that the courtyard was paved, and that the present trees and shrubs, which encumber and confuse the place, are recent. In describing the situation of the priory, he says that it stands on ground which “juts out into a lake, or loch, of the same name. This, although now drained in part, has nearly surrounded it. There is a small neck on the west, where it is said there was a deep ditch and a drawbridge.”

The date of the foundation of the priory is not known, but it is recorded that David I. granted to the Prior and Canons 20s. yearly from the rents of the burgh of Monros, as well as the teinds of these rents.[141] The monastery was dedicated to St. Peter, and was of the Order of St. Augustine. Between 1159 and 1163 it was attached to Jedburgh by Malcolm IV.

After the Reformation, it continued to be the parish church of Forfar, where, says Dr. Jamieson, there was only a private chapel, “an aisle of the old church, till it was pulled down a few weeks ago, as they are about to build a new church.”

Further particulars of the history of Restennet, and of its early Celtic importance, with a very minute and illustrated description, will be found in the _Archæologia Scotica_, Vol. V., Part 2. There can be no doubt of the great antiquity of the tower; and, as pointed out by Mr. Galloway in the above paper, its features associate it with Irish architecture. It may, therefore, be classed along with the towers of Abernethy and Brechin; but it is of a ruder, and possibly earlier, type than they are.

ST. REGULUS’, OR ST. RULE’S, ST. ANDREWS, FIFESHIRE.

This remarkable edifice stands in the ancient churchyard at a distance of fully 100 feet south-east from the Cathedral of St. Andrews (_q.v._) St. Regulus’ was, doubtless, the Cathedral Church of St. Andrews before the edifice, afterwards constructed as the Cathedral, and now ruinous, existed.

The early occupation of the site of St. Andrews for religious purposes is referred to in the Introduction.[142] Cellach was the first Bishop of St. Andrews, about the beginning of the tenth century. He was succeeded by ten Culdee Bishops, the last of whom was Fodath, who performed the ceremony of the marriage of Malcolm Canmore and Queen Margaret. The settlement of the Culdees became broken up and partly secularised, and under Bishop Robert (1121-59) Canons regular were introduced in 1144, who gradually absorbed the Culdees into their community.

Dr. Joseph Robertson[143] states it as his opinion that “no one acquainted with the progress of architecture, who diligently peruses the _Historia B. Reguli et Fundationis Ecclesiæ S. Andreæ_, will have much difficulty in identifying the building [of St. Regulus] with the small ‘basilica’ reared by Bishop Robert, an English Canon regular of the Order of St. Augustine, between the years 1127 and 1144.” Robert, Prior of Scone, was elected Bishop in the reign of Alexander I., but was not consecrated till the reign of David I., in 1138. The passage, referred to by Dr. Robertson is as follows:--

“But before the newly-elected Bishop (Robert, Prior of Scone) was consecrated, King Alexander, who was now in his last illness, left his sole surviving brother, King David (who now is), heir both of the kingdom and of his devotion to the Church and his care of the poor. The undertakings of his late brother he endeavours to carry to completion. He has founded many monasteries for monks, canons, and nuns, and on these he has bestowed many benefactions; while to the servants and handmaids of Christ themselves he has done many acts of kindness, on which we cannot here enlarge. He obtained that the Bishop of St. Andrews, Robert, already mentioned, was consecrated by Thurstan, Archbishop of York. This being done, Robert returned to his see, and

]

proceeded to put in practice what he had in his view--viz., the enlargement of his church, and its dedication to divine service. On this work he expended the seventh part of the altar dues which fell to him, reserving them for his own use. But inasmuch as the outlay was small, the building made correspondingly small progress, until, by the Divine favour and the influence of the King, offerings flowed in, and the work went on apace. The basilica was thus founded, and in great part constructed.”--_Chronicles of the Picts and Scots_, p. 191.

There can be little doubt that the building still surviving is the basilica of Bishop Robert. Its architectural features correspond with his date, and there is no other structure to which the above notice would apply. The similarity of St. Regulus’ in many points to the early churches of Northumbria has already been adverted to.[145]

The edifice (Fig. 153) consists of a chamber 26 feet long and 19 feet 10 inches wide internally, with walls about 34 feet high. The great height of the building, as compared with its width and length, is one of the points which connect it with the pre-Norman structures of Northumbria. There appears to have been an eastern apse, of which only portions of the foundations next the main structure now remain. A lofty square tower (Fig. 154) at the west end of the oblong chamber is the most striking feature of the building. It is about 110 feet high, and measures about 21 feet 4 inches square over the walls.

At the east end of the main building a lofty archway (Fig. 155) opens towards what was probably the apse. The opening is 9 feet wide by

25 feet 6 inches high. Each jamb has three attached shafts (Fig. 156), with somewhat rude caps and bases, and bold mouldings in the arch. The existence of this archway clearly indicates that there was a building towards the east of it, and we have no doubt that it was an apse; while the main building was the chancel, and the nave stood (as will be shown) to the west of the tower.

The tower is pierced with an archway in each of its east and west walls. The lower part of the west wall of the tower projects about 2 feet 2 inches on each side beyond the side walls, with a breadth of about 2 feet 5 inches, and finishes upwards in a roughly-tapering form at the level of the top of the western arch. (See Fig. 154.) These projecting portions of wall have somewhat the appearance of side buttresses to the tower, but they are more like the remains of the east wall of a nave, which now no longer exists. They have not the character of originally-built early buttresses, but have rather that of the remains of projecting walls, dressed up at a later period. Besides, it is a characteristic of the structure that it has no buttresses flanking the other arches. There is observable on the west face of the tower the mark of a roof. This mark, if produced on each side to about the level of the top of the chancel walls, would indicate the roof of a nave about ten or twelve feet wider than the tower. There seems to be no other way of explaining the mark of the roof and the projecting portions of the side walls except by supposing that there was at one time a nave to the west of the tower. This would also give a reason for the existence of the

east and west arches in the tower, which otherwise are somewhat unintelligible.

The arch opening from the chancel to the tower is 9 feet 10 inches wide by 27 feet high, and is of a plainer description than the apse archway.

The jambs have a square recess or nook on each face of the wall with a shaft in each recess; and the arch above is quite plain, with square edges. The western arch, from the tower into the supposed nave, is shown in Fig. 154. It is 10 feet 4 inches wide by 28 feet high. Both of the archways in the tower are now built up. The moulding of the west arch, as far as visible, is shown in Fig. 157. The capitals of all the shafts are rather shapeless and clumsy, but the necking and arch mouldings are of good design. The arches are all slightly of the horse-shoe form.

The three-arched openings above described are all of about the same dimensions, and as the two eastern ones cannot be called doorways, so neither can the western one be considered as merely the entrance doorway to the church, but would rather appear to be the arched opening from the nave into the tower and chancel. When we consider that this church was once a cathedral, as well as the church of a monastery, and also, perhaps, served the purpose of a parish church, it seems probable that it must have been a larger building than the simple oblong chamber to the east of the tower which now survives. Considerable discussion has taken place with reference to the probable arrangement of the plan. Some have supposed that the church consisted of the simple oblong chamber which still exists, with an eastern apse and western tower; while others maintain that the existing oblong was the choir, that there was a western nave, and that the tower was central. Sir G. Gilbert Scott points out that in the latter case St. Regulus’ would be parallel to Jarrow Church, while in the former case the church may have had a lofty western porch, as had those of Wearmouth and Barton-upon-Humber. Sir Gilbert, however, thinks that the large size of the western arch, and the mark of

the roof on the tower, suggest a nave.[146] The seals of the church, dated 1204 and 1214, which are preserved at Durham, show a nave and chancel.

The chancel is lighted by four windows, two on each side, placed at about 14 feet above the ground. (See Fig. 155.) They are round headed, the circles being cut out of a single stone on the outside, but arched on the inside. The openings are 6 feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 10 inches wide, and have broad splays internally.

The building has a cornice at the wall-head, containing a series of simple corbels. A string course runs round the tower below the top story, and above it there is a belfry window on each face, about 3 feet wide by 8 feet 9 inches high. Each window is divided into two openings by a rounded centre shaft (Fig. 158), and there were round nook shafts at each side, but these have now fallen away. There are a few small openings on each face at different stages. The tower is crowned with a cornice, having two rows of simple corbels similar to those of the chancel cornice. On the east side there is an opening into the space which was covered by the chancel roof. The floors of the tower have been of timber, and there is one set-off in the inside of about 6 inches, at a height of about 64 feet. There was no access stair. At the north-west corner of the chancel, and at the wall-head level, there are two caps which have a very distinct appearance of being of first pointed date.

NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

A general description of the features which distinguish this style of architecture has been given in the Introduction,[147] together with a short summary of the Scottish structures in the Norman style.[148] The more minute features will be referred to in the descriptions of the various churches. It may, however, be pointed out that few structures survive in Scotland which exhibit elevations of façades, such as the east and west fronts of churches, or the north and south façades of transepts, which show the true Norman character. In all Norman churches of any importance in other countries the façades forming the end elevations in the above positions are composed of several stories, piled up one above the other. (See Fig. 17.) In the later styles, the design of the façade is generally composed of one predominating feature, such as a large traceried window, or a series of lofty lancets (like the Five Sisters of York), rising above a single lower story, which generally contains a doorway. But in Norman architecture the façades are usually divided up into a series of stories, one over the other--an arrangement which, to a certain extent, fails to give the impression of one large structure, such as is conveyed in the façades of the later Gothic styles.

In Scotland proper there is only one building of magnitude in which this storied style is preserved--viz., the Abbey Church of Kelso. The same features may, however, be still observed in the façades of the transepts of Kirkwall Cathedral, Orkney. At St. Andrews Cathedral the original storied Norman east end was subsequently altered. In other large Norman churches, such as Dunfermline Abbey, the façades have been removed or altered. The smaller churches in the Norman style are not of sufficient height to give expression to this peculiarity.

It has been shown in the preceding chapter that some of our early Celtic structures were transitional, and contained some signs of the approach of the Norman style; but after its introduction, in the twelfth century, that style at once became universal in the civilised parts of the country, and all the churches of that date of which any portions survive were erected in accordance with the Norman fashion. It has been often remarked that the twelfth century was the great church-building epoch in Scotland, as elsewhere, and the number of these Norman edifices still traceable in the south and east of the country is very large.

The parish churches are generally small and aisleless, most of them being single oblong chambers, with an eastern chancel, sometimes with an eastern apse, and occasionally there was a western tower. St. Nicholas’, Aberdeen, was cruciform, and had a central tower.

During the Norman period monasticism prevailed, and almost all the large churches were conventual. These churches were always designed on the cruciform plan, and contained choir, nave, and north and south transept, each portion having side aisles, and the transepts usually only an eastern aisle. The small churches and side aisles were frequently vaulted, but the large churches appear to have been designed for wooden roofs.

The details and ornaments of the style are often very elaborate, and invariably correspond with those in use in England at, or rather earlier than, the corresponding period. In the early examples, the design was very simple, and ornament was sparingly used; but as time advanced the style was gradually enriched, until towards the close of the period the ornament became very elaborate, especially in the arched heads of doorways, as at Kelso, Jedburgh, and Dunfermline.

A common feature in Norman buildings was an arcade running round the walls below the windows. Almost every Norman structure of importance in Scotland contains this arcade, either in the interior or exterior, or both, and the caps and arches are generally elaborately and richly carved with ornaments. Here, and generally throughout Norman structures, the chevron or zig-zag enrichment is a characteristic feature. The other enrichments of the period in other countries consist of the billet, the bird’s beak, faceted sinkings, grotesque heads, rosettes, &c., all of which are found in the Scottish examples. The doorways are generally the points where the carving is richest, and it naturally followed that the doorways are often preserved where the other parts of the buildings are altered or rebuilt. The windows are always single, and simple in details.

Some of the towers above enumerated are amongst the earliest examples of Norman work which survive. They contain some reminiscences of the early defensive purpose of such structures. They are extremely simple in design, being square on plan, and carried up, without break or buttress, to the parapet, where they were finished with a gabled roof, forming the saddleback arrangement still preserved in the tower at Muthill.

The only break in the height is formed by string courses, which mark the unequal stories. A small wheel stair usually leads to the top. The doorway in some instances is placed several feet above the ground.

Amongst these towers are to be found most of the small fragments which still survive of the extensive building works encouraged by David I. in the first half of the twelfth century.

In the following descriptions the churches are arranged, as far as possible, in the order of their probable dates, commencing with the oldest and simplest, and continuing with the later and more elaborate examples.

MARKINCH TOWER, FIFESHIRE.

The Church and Churchyard of Markinch stand on the top of a small hill, round the base of which lie the houses of the town. The church and its Norman tower are thus conspicuous objects as seen from the railway in approaching from Kirkcaldy, which is about seven miles distant to the southward. The inch, or island, is believed to have derived its name from having been formerly surrounded by a marsh.

A church was consecrated here in 1243, and dedicated to Saints John Baptist and Modrest. There was at one time a Culdee cell in this locality, but afterwards the church belonged to the Priory of St. Andrews.

The only part of the original structure which survives is the tower, which is undoubtedly an ancient Norman building.

It is nearly square on plan (Fig. 159), being 16 feet from north to south by 17 feet from east to west. The tower rises (Fig. 160) without a break (except a string course at each floor) to the height of four stories,

or 73 feet to the top of the parapet. The original entrance (Fig. 161) is by a door, two feet wide, at the north-west angle. The sill is now about two feet above the ground, but it doubtless stood several feet higher originally. From the doorway a wheel stair leads to the upper floors. The stair and upper floors were lighted by small windows, with round heads. These are now built up, except one in the south side, which has been changed into a trefoil head. The top story is lighted by a window in each face. Each of these windows (see Fig. 159) consists of two openings, divided by a central shaft. On the exterior each opening is arched, with a small semi-circular arch, cut out of one stone; but in the interior both openings are spanned by one arch. The arrangement of the shafts is peculiar, the central shaft being placed so as to be in the centre of the abacus which carries the small arches, while the side shafts are wrought upon the angles of the jambs, and do not stand in the same plane as the central shaft. The caps are Norman, of the usual cushion form, with heavy abacus; but they and the bases are now much decayed.

The original mode of finishing the tower is now matter of conjecture, but it was doubtless (as stated by Mr. Muir) finished with a saddleback or gabled roof. It is now terminated with a modern cornice, above which a heavy modern spire has been erected, the top story being domed in order to carry the spire.

The top story is slightly diminished in size, and is set back over the string course. The lower string courses are of three-sided section, and have been carved with the ordinary Norman enrichment of the lozenge (see Fig. 161). These are now nearly wasted away. The church attached to the tower is entirely modern, and a modern doorway of entrance has been cut through the tower.

MUTHILL CHURCH, PERTHSHIRE.