Chapter VIII: The Killing of the Tree-Spirit (6)

85 Missionary Holley, “Étude sur les Egbas,” _Missions Catholiques_,
xiii. (1881) pp. 351 _sq._ Here Oyo is probably the same as Eyeo
mentioned above.

86 Simon Grunau, _Preussische Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M.
Perlbach (Leipsic, 1876), i. p. 97.

M28 Voluntary deaths by fire. Peregrinus at Olympia. Buddhist monks in
China.

87 Lucian, _De morte Peregrini_. That Lucian’s account of the
mountebank’s death is not a fancy picture is proved by the evidence
of Tertullian, _Ad martyres_, 4, “_Peregrinus qui non olim se rogo
immisit._”

88 D. S. Macgowan, M.D., “Self-immolation by Fire in China,” _The
Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal_, xix. (1888) pp. 445-451,
508-521.

89 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part I. (Washington,
1899), pp. 320, 433 _sq._

M29 Religious suicides in Russia. Belief in the approaching end of the
world.

90 Revelation xx. 1-3.

91 Revelation xiii. 18.

M30 Epidemic of suicide. Suicide by starvation. Suicide by fire.

92 Ivan Stchoukine, _Le Suicide collectif dans le Raskol russe_ (Paris,
1903), pp. 45-53, 61-78, 84-87, 96-99, 102-112. The mania in its
most extreme form died away towards the end of the seventeenth
century, but during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries cases of
collective suicide from religious motives occurred from time to
time, people burning themselves in families or in batches of thirty
or forty. The last of these suicides by fire took place in 1860,
when fifteen persons thus perished in the Government of Olonetz.
Twenty-four others buried themselves alive near Tiraspol in the
winter of 1896-97. See I. Stchoukine, _op. cit._ pp. 114-126.

M31 A Jewish Messiah.

93 Voltaire, _Essai sur les Mœurs_, iii. 142-145 (_Œuvres complètes de
Voltaire_, xiii. Paris, 1878).

M32 Kings put to death after a fixed term. Suicide of the kings of
Quilacare at the end of a reign of twelve years.

94 Duarte Barbosa, _A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and
Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century_ (Hakluyt Society,
London, 1866), pp. 172 _sq._

M33 Custom of the kings of Calicut.

95 L. di Varthema, _Travels_, translated by J. W. Jones and edited by
G. P. Badger (Hakluyt Society, London, 1863), p. 134. In a note the
Editor says that the name Zamorin (Samorin) according to some “is a
corruption of _Tamuri_, the name of the most exalted family of the
Nair caste.”

96 Francis Buchanan, “Journey from Madras through the Countries of
Mysore, Canara, and Malabar,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,
viii. 735.

97 Alex. Hamilton, “A New Account of the East Indies,” in Pinkerton’s
_Voyages and Travels_, viii. 374.

M34 Fuller account of the Calicut custom.
M35 The _Maha Makham_ or Great Sacrifice at Calicut.

98 The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is completed in 11 years 314.92
days (_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, _s.v._ “Astronomy,”
ii. 808). The twelve-years revolution of Jupiter was known to the
Greek astronomers, from whom the knowledge may perhaps have
penetrated into India. See Geminus, _Eisagoge_, I, p. 10, ed. Halma.

M36 The attack on the king.

99 W. Logan, _Malabar_ (Madras, 1887), i. 162-169. The writer describes
in particular the festival of 1683, when fifty-five men perished in
the manner described.

M37 Custom of kings in Bengal. Custom of the kings of Passier. Custom of
Slavonic kings.

100 Sir H. M. Elliot, _The History of India as told by its own
Historians_, iv. 260. I have to thank Mr. R. S. Whiteway, of
Brownscombe, Shottermill, Surrey, for kindly calling my attention to
this and the following instance of the custom of regicide.

101 De Barros, _Da Asia, dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no
descubrimento e conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente_, Decada
Terceira, Liv. V. cap. i. pp. 512 _sq._ (Lisbon, 1777).

102 Saxo Grammaticus,_Historia Danica_, viii. pp. 410 _sq._, ed. P. E.
Müller (p. 334 of Mr. Oliver Elton’s English translation).

M38 Custom of _Thalavettiparothiam_ in Malabar. Custom of the Sultans of
Java.

103 T. K. Gopal Panikkar (of the Madras Registration Department),
_Malabar and its Folk_ (Madras, N. D., preface dated Chowghaut, 8th
October 1900), pp. 120 _sq._ I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Crooke
for calling my attention to this account.

_ 104 Voyage d’Ibn Batoutah_, texte arabe, accompagné d’une traduction
par C. Deffrémery et B. R. Sanguinetti (Paris, 1853-58), iv. 246
_sq._

M39 Religious suicides in India.

_ 105 The Wonders of the East, by Friar Jordanus_, translated by Col.
Henry Yule (London, 1863, Hakluyt Society), pp. 32 _sq._

_ 106 India in the Fifteenth Century, being a Collection of Voyages to
India in the century preceding the Portuguese discovery of the Cape
of Good Hope_, edited by R. H. Major (Hakluyt Society, London,
1857), “The Travels of Nicolo Conti in the East,” pp. 27 _sq._ An
instrument of the sort described in the text (a crescent-shaped
knife with chains and stirrups attached to it for the convenience of
the suicide) used to be preserved at Kshira, a village of Bengal
near Nadiya: it was called a _karavat_. See _The Book of Ser Marco
Polo_, newly translated and edited by Colonel Henry Yule, Second
Edition (London, 1875), ii. 334.

107 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 102 _sq._,
quoting Mr. Gait in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_
for 1898.

M40 Pretence of putting the king’s proxy to death. Man killed at the
installation of a king of Cassange.

108 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
146.

109 F. T. Valdez, _Six Years of a Traveller’s Life in Western Africa_
(London, 1861), ii. 158-160. I have translated the title _Maquita_
by “chief”; the writer does not explain it.

M41 Sacrifice of the king’s sons in Sweden: evidence of a nine years’
tenure of the throne.

_ 110 Ynglinga Saga_, 29 (_The Heimskringla_, translated by S. Laing, i.
239 sq.). Compare H. M. Chadwick, _The Cult of Othin_ (London,
1899), p. 4. According to Messrs. Laing and Chadwick the sacrifice
took place every _tenth_ year. But I follow Prof. K. Weinhold who
translates “_hit tiunda hvert ár_” by “_alle neun Jahre_” (“Die
mystische Neunzahl bei den Deutschen,” _Abhandlungen der könig.
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1897, p. 6). So in Latin
_decimo quoque anno_ should be translated “every ninth year.”

111 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, iii. pp. 129-131, ed. P. E.
Müller (pp. 98 _sq._ of Oliver Elton’s English translation).

112 Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio insularum Aquilonis_, 27 (Migne’s
_Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. col. 644). See _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 364 _sq._

M42 Limited tenure of the kingship in ancient Greece. The Spartan kings
appear formerly to have held office for periods of eight years only.
The dread of meteors shared by savages.

113 Plutarch, _Agis_, II. Plutarch says that the custom was observed “at
intervals of nine years” (δι᾽ ἐτῶν ἐννέα), but the expression is
equivalent to our “at intervals of eight years.” In reckoning
intervals of time numerically the Greeks included both the terms
which are separated by the interval, whereas we include only one of
them. For example, our phrase “every second day” would be rendered
in Greek διὰ τρίτης ἡμέρας, literally “every third day.” Again, a
cycle of two years is in Greek _trieteris_, literally “a period of
three years”; a cycle of eight years is _ennaeteris_, literally “a
period of nine years”; and so forth. See Censorinus, _De die
natali_, 18. The Latin use of the ordinal numbers is similar, _e.g._
our “every second year” would be _tertio quoque anno_ in Latin.
However, the Greeks and Romans were not always consistent in this
matter, for they occasionally reckoned in our fashion. The resulting
ambiguity is not only puzzling to moderns; it sometimes confused the
ancients themselves. For example, it led to a derangement of the
newly instituted Julian calendar, which escaped detection for more
than thirty years. See Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 14. 13 _sq._;
Solinus, i. 45-47. On the ancient modes of counting in such cases
see A. Schmidt, _Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie_ (Jena,
1888), pp. 95 _sqq._ According to Schmidt, the practice of adding
both terms to the sum of the intervening units was not extended by
the Greeks to numbers above nine.

_ 114 Die Dorier_,2 ii. 96.

M43 Superstitions of the Australian aborigines as to shooting stars.

115 E. Man, _Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, pp. 84
_sq._

116 W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Bulletin, No. 5, Superstition, Magic,
and Medicine_ (Brisbane, 1903), p. 8.

117 A. W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 429.

118 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 430. One of the earliest writers on New
South Wales reports that the natives attributed great importance to
the falling of a star (D. Collins,_Account of the English Colony in
New South Wales_ (London, 1804), p. 383).

119 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 627.

120 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 488, 627 _sq._

121 G. Thilenius, _Ethnographische Ergebnisse aus Melanesien_, ii.
(Halle, 1903) p. 129.

M44 Superstitions of the negroes and other African races as to shooting
stars.

122 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1898), p. 470.

123 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 316.

124 J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815), pp. 428 _sq._

_ 125 Id._, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London, 1822), ii.
204.

126 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
Westafrika,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_,
xii. (1877) pp. 415 _sq._; C. Spiess, “Religionsbegriffe der Evheer
in Westafrika,” _Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische
Sprachen zu Berlin_, vi. (1903) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 112.

M45 Superstitions of the American Indians as to shooting stars.

127 Boscana, “Chinigchinich, a Historical Account of the Origin, etc.,
of the Indians of St. Juan Capistrano,” in A. Robinson’s _Life in
California_ (New York, 1846), p. 299.

128 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 324 _sq._

129 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_
(Berlin, 1894), pp. 514 _sq._ The Peruvian Indians also made a
prodigious noise when they saw a shooting star. See P. de Cieza de
Leon, _Travels_ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864), p. 232.

130 G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” _Mitteilungen
der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xxiii. (1905) p. 17; W.
Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), p. 163.

131 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 86.

M46 Shooting stars regarded as demons.

132 W. Tetzlaff, “Notes on the Laughlan Islands,” _Annual Report on
British New Guinea, 1890-91_ (Brisbane, 1892), p. 105.

133 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, p. 267.

134 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1906), ii. 22.

135 Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) p. 48.

136 Guillain, _Documents sur l’histoire, la géographie, et le commerce
de l’Afrique Orientale_, ii. (Paris, N.D.) p. 97; C. Velten, _Sitten
und Gebräuche der Suaheli_ (Göttingen, 1903), pp. 339 _sq._; C. B.
Klunzinger, _Upper Egypt_ (London, 1878), p. 405; Budgett Meakin,
_The Moors_ (London, 1902), p. 353.

M47 Shooting stars associated with the souls of the dead. Supposed
relation of the stars to men.

137 E. Dieffenbach, _Travels in New Zealand_ (London, 1843), ii. 66.
According to another account, meteors are regarded by the Maoris as
betokening the presence of a god (R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New
Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. 147).

138 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,
v. 88.

139 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 369.

140 A. W. Howitt, in Brough Smyth’s _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 309.

141 E. Palmer, “Notes on some Australian Tribes,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 292. Sometimes
apparently the Australian natives regard crystals or broken glass as
fallen stars, and treasure them as powerful instruments of magic.
See E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_, iii. 29; W. E. Roth, _North
Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5_, p. 8.

142 J. Macgillivray, _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake_
(London, 1852), ii. 30.

143 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_
(Hiltrup bei Münster, N.D.), p. 227.

144 P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” _Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxix. (1904) p.
216.

145 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 149.

146 J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_ (Liège, 1907),
p. 102.

147 O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 163.

148 O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 188.

149 E. Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjé_ (Paris, 1876), p. 60;
_id._, _Monographie des Esquimaux Tchiglit_ (Paris, 1876), p. 24.

150 A. Henry, “The Lolos and other Tribes of Western China,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 103.

151 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 28.

M48 Modern European beliefs as to meteors. Various beliefs as to stars
and meteors.

152 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 293; A. Kuhn und
W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 457, §
422; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_,
p. 506, §§ 379, 380.

153 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_, ii.
353; J. Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_ (Vienna,
1885), p. 300; W. Schmidt, _Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und
Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens_, p. 38; E. Gerard, _The Land
beyond the Forest_, i. 311; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und
Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, p. 31, § 164; Br. Jelínek,
“Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,”
_Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi.
(1891) p. 25; G. Finamore, _Credenze, usi e costumi Abruzzesi_, pp.
47 _sq._; M. Placucci, _Usi e pregiudizj dei contadini della
Romagna_ (Palermo, 1885), p. 141; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandl.
der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) p. 48.
The same belief is said to prevail in Armenia. See Minas Tchéraz,
“Notes sur la mythologie arménienne,” _Transactions of the Ninth
International Congress of Orientalists_ (London, 1893), ii. 824.
Bret Harte has employed the idea in his little poem, “Relieving
Guard.”

154 H. Lew, “Der Tod und die Beerdigungs-gebräuche bei den polnischen
Juden,” _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_,
xxxii. (1902) p. 402.

155 A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen
Steiermark,” _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 389.

156 Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und
Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 73.

157 E. Monseur, _Le Folklore wallon_, p. 61; A. de Nore, _Coutumes,
mythes et traditions des provinces de France_, pp. 101, 160, 223,
267, 284; B. Souché, _Croyances, présages et traditions diverses_,
p. 23; P. Sébillot, _Traditions et superstitions de la
Haute-Bretagne_, ii. 352; J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du bocage normand_,
ii. 13; L. Pineau, _Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 525
_sq._

158 L. F. Sauvé. _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 196
_sq._

159 F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), i. 290; G. Finamore, _Credenze, usi e costumi Abruzzesi_
(Palermo, 1890), p. 48.

_ 160 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 102, § 673. Compare _id._ p.
47, § 356; _Indian Notes and Queries_, iv. p. 184, § 674; W. Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster,
1896), i. 82.

161 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 iii. 171.

162 Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das Innere Nord-America_
(Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 152. It does not, however, appear from the
writer’s statement whether the descent of the soul was identified
with the flight of a meteor or not.

163 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta,
1883), p. 118, § 231.

M49 The fall of the king’s star.
M50 Reasons for limiting a king’s reign to eight years. The octennial
cycle based on an attempt to reconcile solar and lunar time.

164 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
Chronologie_, ii. 605 _sqq._ Ninety-nine lunar months nearly
coincide with eight solar years, as the ancients well knew
(Sozomenus, _Historia ecclesiastica_, vii. 18). On the religious and
political import of the eight years’ cycle in ancient Greece see
especially K. O. Müller, _Orchomenus und die Minyer_,2 pp. 213-218;
_id._, _Die Dorier_,2 i. 254 _sq._, 333 _sq._, 440, ii. 96, 483;
_id._, _Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie_
(Göttingen, 1825), pp. 422-424.

165 “Ancient opinion even assigned the regulation of the calendar by the
solstices and equinoxes to the will of the gods that sacrifices
should be rendered at similar times in each year, rather than to the
strict requirements of agriculture; and as religion undoubtedly
makes larger demands on the cultivator as agriculture advances, the
obligations of sacrifice may probably be reckoned as of equal
importance with agricultural necessities in urging the formation of
reckonings in the nature of a calendar” (E. J. Payne, _History of
the New World called America_, ii. 280).

M51 The octennial cycle in relation to the Greek doctrine of rebirth.

166 As to the eight years’ servitude of Apollo and Cadmus for the
slaughter of dragons, see below, p. 78. For the nine years’ penance
of the man who had tasted human flesh at the festival of Zeus on
Mount Lycaeus, see Pliny, _Nat. hist._ viii. 81 _sq._; Augustine,
_De civitate Dei_, xviii. 17; Pausanias, viii. 2. 6; compare Plato,
_Republic_, viii. p. 565 D E. Any god who forswore himself by the
water of Styx was exiled for nine years from the society of his
fellow-gods (Hesiod, _Theogony_, 793-804). On this subject see
further, E. Rohde, _Psyche_,3 ii. 211 _sq._; W. H. Roscher, “Die
enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten
Griechen,” _Abhandlungen der philolog.-histor. Klasse der Königl.
Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, xxi. No. 4 (1903), pp.
24 _sqq._

167 Plato, _Meno_, p. 81 A-C; Pindar, ed. Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623
_sq._, Frag. 98.

M52 The octennial cycle at Cnossus in Crete. King Minos and Zeus. Sacred
marriage of the king and queen of Cnossus in the form of bull and
cow as symbols of the sun and moon.

168 Homer, _Odyssey_, xix. 178 _sq._,

τῇσι δ᾽ ἐνὶ Κνωσός, μεγάλη πόλις, ἔνθα τε Μίνως
ἐννέωρος βασίλευε Διὸς μεγάλου ὀαριστής.

with the Scholia; Plato, _Laws_, i. I. p. 624 A, B;[_id._] _Minos_,
13 _sq._, pp. 319 _sq._; Strabo, ix. 4. 8, p. 476; Maximus Tyrius,
_Dissert._ xxxviii. 2; _Etymologicum magnum_, _s.v._ ἐννέωροι, p.
343, 23 _sqq._; Valerius Maximus, i. 2, ext. I; compare Diodorus
Siculus, v. 78. 3. Homer’s expression, ἐννέωρος βασίλευε, has been
variously explained. I follow the interpretation which appears to
have generally found favour both with the ancients, including Plato,
and with modern scholars. See K. Hoeck, _Kreta_, i. 244 _sqq._; K.
O. Müller,_Die Dorier_,2 ii. 96; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der
Griechen und Römer,” in Ivan Müller’s _Handbuch der klassischen
Altertumswissenschaft_, i. 569; A. Schmidt, _Handbuch der
griechischen Chronologie_ (Jena, 1888), p. 65; W. H. Roscher, “Die
enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten
Griechen,” _Abhandlungen der philolog.-histor. Klasse der Königl.
Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, xxi. No. 4 (Leipsic,
1903), pp. 22 _sq._; E. Rohde, _Psyche_,3 i. 128 _sq._ Literally
interpreted, ἐννέωρος means “for nine years,” not “for eight years.”
But see above, p. 59, note 1.

169 Apollodorus, iii. 1. 3 _sq._, iii. 15. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 77;
Schol. on Euripides, _Hippolytus_, 887; J. Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, i.
479 _sqq._; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 40; Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 45 _sqq._;
Ovid, _Ars amat._ i. 289 _sqq._

170 K. Hoeck, _Kreta_, ii. (Göttingen, 1828) pp. 63-69; L. Preller,
_Griechische Mythologie_,3 ii. 119-123; W. H. Roscher, _Über Selene
mid Verwandtes_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 135-139; _id._, _Nachträge zu
meiner Schrift über Selene_ (Leipsic, 1895), p. 3; Türk, in W. H.
_Roscher’s Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1666
_sq._; A. J. Evans, “Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult,” _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, xxi. (1901) p. 181; A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter,
and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xvii. (1903) pp. 406-412; compare
_id._, “The European Sky-god,” _Folklore_, xv. (1904) p. 272. All
these writers, except Mr. Cook, regard Minos and Pasiphae as
representing the sun and moon. Mr. Cook agrees so far as relates to
Minos, but he supposes Pasiphae to be a sky-goddess or sun-goddess
rather than a goddess of the moon. On the other hand, he was the
first to suggest that the myth was periodically acted by the king
and queen of Cnossus disguised in bovine form.

171 Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 368 _sq._

172 Bekker’s _Anecdota Graeca_, i. 344, _s.v._ Ἀδιούνιος ταῦρος.

173 Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 13. 1 _sq._; Diodorus
Siculus, i. 84. 4, i. 88. 4; Strabo, xvii. 1. 22 and 27, pp. 803,
805; Aelian, _De natura animalium_, xi. II; Suidas, _s.v._ Ἆπις;
Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots Zweites
Buch_, p. 552; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905),
p. 26; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London,
1904), i. 330.

174 E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 25.

175 Pausanias, i. 26. 1. For a description of the scenery of this coast,
see Morritt, in Walpole’s _Memoirs relating to European Turkey_, i.2
p. 54.

176 W. H. Roscher, _Über Selene und Verwandtes_, pp. 30-33.

177 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 130 _sqq._ We
are told that Egyptian sovereigns assumed the masks of lions, bulls,
and serpents as symbols of power (Diodorus Siculus, i. 62. 4).

M53 The same myth and custom of the marriage of the sun and moon appear
in the stories of Zeus and Europa, of Minos and Britomartis. The
conjunction of the sun and moon regarded as the best time for
marriages. Octennial marriage of the king and queen as
representatives of the sun and moon.

178 As to Minos and Britomartis or Dictynna, see Callimachus, _Hymn to
Diana_, 189 _sqq._; Pausanias, ii. 30. 3; Antoninus Liberalis,
_Transform._ 40; Diodorus Siculus, v. 76. On Britomartis as a
moon-goddess, see K. Hoeck, _Kreta_, ii. 170; W. H. Roscher, _Über
Selene und Verwandtes_, pp. 45 _sq._, 116-118. Hoeck acutely
perceived that the pursuit of Britomartis by Minos “is a trait of
old festival customs in which the conceptions of the sun-god were
transferred to the king of the island.” As to the explanation here
adopted of the myth of Zeus and Europa, see K. Hoeck, _Kreta_, i. 90
_sqq._; W. H. Roscher, _op. cit._ pp. 128-135. Moschus describes
(ii. 84 _sqq._) the bull which carried off Europa as yellow in
colour with a silver circle shining on his forehead, and he compares
the bull’s horns to those of the moon.

179 See W. H. Roscher, _op. cit._ pp. 76-82. Amongst the passages of
classical writers which he cites are Plutarch, _De facie in orbe
lunae_, 30; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 52; Cornutus, _Theologiae
Graecae compendium_, 34, p. 72, ed. C. Lang; Proclus, on Hesiod,
_Works and Days_, 780; Macrobius, _Commentar. in Somnium Scipionis_,
i. 18. 10 _sq._; Pliny, _Nat. hist._ ii. 45. When the sun and moon
were eclipsed, the Tahitians supposed that the luminaries were in
the act of copulation (J. Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern
Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1799), p. 346).

M54 Octennial tribute of youths and maidens probably required as a means
of renewing the sun’s fire by human sacrifices. The Minotaur a
bull-headed image of the sun.

180 Plutarch, _Theseus_, 15 _sq._; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 61; Pausanias,
i. 27. 10; Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 170 _sq._ According to another
account, the tribute of youths and maidens was paid every year. See
Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 14 _sqq._, with the commentary of Servius;
Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 41.

181 Apollodorus, i. 9. 26; Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ iv. 1638 _sqq._,
with the scholium; Agatharchides, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p.
443b, lines 22-25, ed. Bekker; Lucian, _De saltatione_, 49;
Zenobius, v. 85; Suidas, _s.v._ Σαρδάνιος γέλως; Eustathius on
Homer, _Odyssey_, xx. 302, p. 1893; Schol. on Plato, _Republic_, i.
p. 337A.

182 Apollodorus, i. 9. 26.

183 Hesychius, _s.v._ Ταλῶς.

184 Diodorus Siculus, xx. 14; Clitarchus, cited by Suidas, _s.v._
Σαρδάνιος γέλως, and by the Scholiast on Plato, _Republic_, p. 337A;
Plutarch, _De superstitione_, 13; Paulus Fagius, quoted by Selden,
_De dis Syris_ (Leipsic, 1668), pp. 169 _sq._ The calf’s head of the
idol is mentioned only by P. Fagius, who drew his account from a
book Jalkut by Rabbi Simeon.

185 Compare M. Mayer, _s.v._ “Kronos,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon d.
griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1501 _sqq._

186 J. Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, i. 646 _sqq._

M55 Dance of the youths and maidens at Cnossus.

187 Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 590 _sqq._

188 Plutarch, _Theseus_, 21; Julius Pollux, iv. 101.

M56 The game of Troy.

189 As to the Game of Troy, see Virgil, _Aen._ v. 545-603; Plutarch,
_Cato_, 3; Tacitus, _Annals_, xi. 11; Suetonius, _Augustus_, 43;
_id._, _Tiberius_, 6; _id._, _Caligula_, 18; _id._, _Nero_, 6; W.
Smith’s _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_,3 _s.v._ “Trojae
ludus”; O. Benndorf, “Das Alter des Trojaspieles,” appended to W.
Reichel’s _Über homerische Waffen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 133-139.

190 O. Benndorf, _op. cit._ pp. 133 _sq._

191 B. V. Head, _Historia numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 389-391.

192 O. Benndorf, _op. cit._ pp. 134 _sq._

193 Pliny, _Nat. hist._ xxxvi. 85.

194 O. Benndorf, _op. cit._ p. 135; W. Meyer, “Ein Labyrinth mit
Versen,” _Sitzungsberichte der philosoph. philolog. und histor_.
_Classe der k. b. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München_, 1882,
vol. ii. pp. 267-300.

M57 The dance at Cnossus perhaps an imitation of the sun’s course in the
sky.

195 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 312.

196 B. V. Head, _Historia numorum_, p. 389.

M58 Conclusions as to the king of Cnossus.
M59 Octennial festivals of the Crowning at Delphi and the Laurel-bearing
at Thebes. Both represented dramatically the slaying of a
water-dragon.

197 Censorinus, _De die natali_, 18. 6.

198 The suggestion was made by Mr. A. B. Cook. The following discussion
of the subject is founded on his ingenious exposition. See his
article, “The European Sky-god,” _Folklore_, xv. (1904) pp. 402-424.

199 As to the Delphic festival see Plutarch, _Quaest. Graec._ 12; _id._,
_De defectu oraculorum_, 15; Strabo, ix. 3. 12, pp. 422 _sq._;
Aelian, _Var. hist._ iii. 1; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ Δειπνίας;
K. O. Müller, _Die Dorier_,2 i. 203 _sqq._, 321-324; Aug. Mommsen,
_Delphika_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 206 _sqq._; Th. Schreiber, _Apollo
Pythoktonos_, pp. 9 _sqq._; my note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7 (vol. ii.
53 _sqq._). As to the Theban festival, see Pausanias, ix. 10. 4,
with my note; Proclus, quoted by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 321, ed.
Bekker; Aug. Boeckh, in his edition of Pindar, _Explicationes_, p.
590; K. O. Müller, _Orchomenus und die Minyer_,2 pp. 215 _sq._;
_id._, _Dorier_,2 i. 236 _sq._, 333 _sq._; C. Boetticher, _Der
Baumkultus der Hellenen_, pp. 386 _sqq._; G. F. Schömann,
_Griechische Alterthümer_,4 ii. 479 _sq._

200 Apollodorus, iii. 4. 2, iii. 10. 4; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vii.
761. The servitude of Apollo is traditionally associated with his
slaughter of the Cyclopes, not of the dragon. But see my note on
Pausanias, ii. 7. 7 (vol. ii. pp. 53 _sqq._).

201 W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 830,
838, 839. On an Etruscan mirror the scene of Cadmus’s combat with
the dragon is surrounded by a wreath of laurel (Roscher, _op. cit._
ii. 862). Mr. A. B. Cook was the first to call attention to these
vase-paintings in confirmation of my view that the Festival of the
Laurel-bearing celebrated the destruction of the dragon by Cadmus
(_Folklore_, xv. (1904) p. 411, note 224).

202 Pausanias, ix. 10. 2; K. O. Müller, _Die Dorier_,2 i. 237 _sq._

203 For evidence of the wide diffusion of the myth and the drama, see
Th. Schreiber, _Apollon Pythoktonos_, pp. 39-50. The Laurel-bearing
Apollo was worshipped at Athens, as we know from an inscription
carved on one of the seats in the theatre. See E. S. Roberts and E.
A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii. (Cambridge, 1905)
p. 467, No. 247.

M60 Both at Delphi and at Thebes the dragon seems to have guarded the
oracular spring and the oracular tree. The crown of laurel and the
crown of oak. The Festival of Crowning at Delphi originally
identical with the Pythian games.

204 Apollodorus, iii. 4. 3; Schol. on Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 494;
Pausanias, ix. 10. 5; _Homeric Hymn to Apollo_, 300 _sq._ The writer
of the Homeric hymn merely says that Apollo slew the Delphic dragon
at a spring; but Pausanias (x. 6. 6) tells us that the beast guarded
the oracle.

205 Pausanias, x. 8. 9, x. 24. 7, with my notes; Ovid, _Amores_, i. 15.
35 _sq._; Lucian, _Jupiter tragoedus_, 30; Nonnus, _Dionys._ iv. 309
_sq._; Suidas, _s.v._ Κασταλία.

206 W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie_, ii. 830,
838.

207 Euripides, _Iphigenia in Tauris_, 1245 _sq._, where the reading
κατάχαλκος is clearly corrupt.

208 Lucian, _Bis accusatus_, I. So the priest of the Clarian Apollo at
Colophon drank of a secret spring before he uttered oracles in verse
(Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 54; Pliny, _Nat. hist._ ii. 232).

209 Euripides, _Iphigenia in Tauris_, 1245 _sqq._; Apollodorus, i. 4. I;
Pausanias, x. 6. 6; Aelian, _Var. hist._ iii. i; Hyginus, _Fabulae_,
140; Schol. on Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 519; Schol. on Pindar, _Pyth._
Argument, p. 298, ed. Boeckh.

210 Euripides, _Hercules Furens_, 395 _sqq._; Apollodorus, ii. 5. II;
Diodorus Siculus, iv. 26; Eratosthenes, _Catasterism._ 3; Schol. on
Euripides, _Hippolytus_, 742; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon_,
iv. 1396.

211 A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” _Folklore_, xv. (1904) p. 413.

212 Ovid, _Metam._ i. 448 _sqq._

213 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ i. I, p. 2, and ii. 34, p. 29,
ed. Potter; Aristotle, _Peplos_, Frag. (_Fragmenta historicorum
Graecorum_, ii. p. 189, No. 282, ed. C. Müller); John of Antioch,
Frag. i. 20 (_Frag. histor. Graec._ iv. p. 539, ed. C. Müller);
Jamblichus, _De Pythagor. vit._ x. 52; Schol. on Pindar, _Pyth._
Argum. p. 298, ed. Boeckh; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 445 _sqq._; Hyginus,
_Fabulae_, 140.

214 Schol. on Pindar, _l.c._; Censorinus, _De die natali_, 18. 6;
compare Eustathius on Homer, _Od._ iii. 267, p. 1466. 29.

215 Plutarch, _De defectu oraculorum_, 3, compared with _id._ 15; Aug.
Mommsen, _Delphika_, pp. 211, 214; Th. Schreiber, _Apollon
Pythoktonos_ (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 32 _sqq._

216 Aelian, _Var. hist._ iii. I; Schol. on Pindar, _l.c._

217 On the original identity of the festivals see Th. Schreiber,
_Apollon Pythoktonus_, pp. 37 _sq._; A. B. Cook, in _Folklore_, xv.
(1904) pp. 404 _sq._

218 The inference was drawn by Mr. A. B. Cook, whom I follow. See his
article, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 412
_sqq_.

M61 Substitution of the laurel for the oak.

219 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 8.

220 Aelian, _Var. hist._ iii. 1; Schol. on Pindar, _Pyth._ Argum. p.
298, ed. Boeckh.

221 A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 423
_sq_.

222 Pausanias, ix. 3. 4. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,
vol. ii. p. 140.

M62 Hypothesis of octennial kings at Delphi and Thebes, who personated
dragons or serpents. Animals sacred to royal families. Greek stories
of the transformation of gods into beasts point to a custom of a
sacred marriage in which the actors masqueraded as animals.

223 A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 402
_sqq_.

M63 Analogy of the Wolf Society of Arcadia to the Leopard Society of
west Africa.

224 Plato, _Republic_, viii. p. 565 D E; Polybius, vii. 13; Pliny, _Nat.
hist._ viii. 81; Varro, cited by Augustine, _De civitate Dei_,
xviii. 17; Pausanias, vi. 8. 2, viii. 2. 3-6.

225 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, pp. 536-543; T. J.
Alldridge, _The Sherbro and its Hinterland_ (London, 1901), pp.
153-159; compare R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London,
1904), pp. 200-203.

226 T. J. Alldridge, _op. cit._ p. 154.

227 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 248.

M64 Legend of the transformation of Cadmus and Harmonia into serpents.
Transmigration of the souls of the dead into serpents. Kings claim
kinship with the most powerful animals.

228 Apollodorus, iii. 5. 4; Strabo, vii. 7. 8, p. 326; Ovid, _Metam_.
iv. 563-603; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 6; Nicander, _Theriaca_, 607 _sqq._

229 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p.
326.

230 Dercylus, quoted by a scholiast on Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 7;
_Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iv. 387. The
writer rationalises the legend by representing the dragon as a
Theban man of that name whom Cadmus slew. On the theory here
suggested this Euhemeristic version of the story is substantially
right.

231 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 268 _sqq._

232 David Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_, Second Edition
(Edinburgh, 1875), p. 213. Compare H. Callaway, _The Religious
System of the Amazulu_, Part II., pp. 196, 211.

233 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 73 _sqq._

234 D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_,
p. 615; Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_
(London, 1906), p. 64; L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_
(London, 1898), p. 74; J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 sq.; Major J. A.
Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima,” _Journal of the African Society_, No.
22 (January, 1907), pp. 151-153; J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the
Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” _Journal of the
African Society_, No. 36 (July, 1910), pp. 374, 375; P. Alois
Hamberger, in _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 802.

235 W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_
(London, 1906), ii. 194, 197, 221, 227, 305.

236 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 74
sq.

237 This I learned from Professor F. von Luschan in the Anthropological
Museum at Berlin.

238 M. Delafosse, in _La Nature_, No. 1086 (March 24th, 1894), pp.
262-266; J. G. Frazer, “Statues of Three Kings of Dahomey,” _Man_,
viii. (1908) pp. 130-132. King Behanzin, surnamed the Shark, is
doubtless the King of Dahomey referred to by Professor von Luschan
(see the preceding note).

239 The statue was pointed out to me and explained by Professor F. von
Luschan.

240 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, pp. 205
_sq._

241 2 Kings xviii. 4.

242 W. Robertson Smith, “Animal Worship and Animal Tribes,” _Journal of
Philology_, ix. (1880) pp. 99 _sq._ Professor T. K. Cheyne prefers
to suppose that the brazen serpent and the brazen “sea” in the
temple at Jerusalem were borrowed from Babylon and represented the
great dragon, the impersonation of the primaeval watery chaos. See
_Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Nehushtan,” vol. i. coll. 3387. The
two views are perhaps not wholly irreconcilable. See below, pp. 111
_sq._

M65 The serpent the royal animal at Athens and Salamis.

243 Herodotus, viii. 41; Plutarch, _Themistocles_, 10; Aristophanes,
_Lysistrata_, 758 _sq._, with the Scholium; Philostratus,
_Imagines_, ii. 17. 6. Some said that there were two serpents
,Hesychius and Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ οἰκουρὸν ὄφιν. For the
identity of the serpent with Erichthonius, see Pausanias, i. 24. 7;
Hyginus, _Astronomica_, ii. 13; Tertullian, _De spectaculis_, 9;
compare Philostratus, _Vit. Apoll._ vii. 24; and for the identity of
Erichthonius and Erechtheus, see Schol. on Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 547;
_Etymologicum magnum_, p. 371, _s.v._ Ἐρεχθεύς. According to some,
the upper part of Erichthonius was human and the lower part or only
the feet serpentine. See Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 166; _id._,
_Astronomica_, ii. 13; Schol. on Plato, _Timaeus_, p. 23 D;
_Etymologicum magnum_, _l.c._; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 13.
See further my notes on Pausanias i. 18. 2 and i. 26. 5, vol. ii.
pp. 168 _sqq._, 330 _sqq._

244 Apollodorus, iii. 14. i; Aristophanes, _Wasps_, 438. Compare J.
Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, v. 641.

245 W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 1019.
Compare Euripides, _Ion_, 1163 _sqq._

246 O. Immisch, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon d. griech. und röm.
Mythologie_, ii. 1023.

247 Apollodorus, iii. 12. 7; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 72; J. Tzetzes,
_Schol. on Lycophron_, 110, 175, 451.

248 Pausanias, i. 36. 1. Another version of the story was that Cychreus
bred a snake which ravaged the island and was driven out by
Eurylochus, after which Demeter received the creature at Eleusis as
one of her attendants (Hesiod, quoted by Strabo, ix. 1. 9, p. 393).

249 Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ Κυχρεῖος πάγος; Eustathius, _Commentary
on Dionysius_, 507, in _Geographi Graeci minores_, ed. C. Müller,
ii. 314.

250 Hesychius, _s.v._ Ἐρεχθεύς; Athenagoras, _Supplicatio pro
Christianis_, 1; [Plutarch], _Vit. X. Orat._ p. 843 B C; _Corpus
inscriptionum Atticarum_, i. No. 387, iii. Nos. 276, 805; compare
Pausanias, i. 26. 5.

251 Apollodorus, iii. 14. 1; Herodotus, viii. 55; compare Pausanias,
viii. 10. 4.

M66 The wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia at Thebes may have been a
dramatic representation of the marriage of the sun and moon at the
end of the eight years’ cycle.

252 See above, p. 73.

253 Apollodorus, iii. 4. 1 _sq._; Pausanias, ix. 12. 1 _sq._; Schol. on
Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 494; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 178. The mark of the
moon on the cow is mentioned only by Pausanias and Hyginus.

254 Apollodorus, iii. 4. 2; Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 822 _sq._; Pindar,
_Pyth._ iii. 155 _sqq._; Diodorus Siculus, v. 49. 1; Pausanias, iii.
18. 12, ix. 12. 3; Schol. on Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 494.

M67 This theory confirmed by the astronomical symbols carried by the
Laurel-bearer at the octennial festival of Laurel-bearing. The
Olympic festival seems to have been based on the octennial cycle.
Mythical marriage of the sun and moon at Olympia.

255 Proclus, quoted by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 321, ed. Bekker.

256 Proclus, _l.c._

257 Pindar, _Pyth._ iii. 155 _sqq._; Diodorus Siculus, v. 49. 1;
Pausanias, ix. 12. 3; Schol. on Homer, _Iliad_, ii. 494.

258 Schol. on Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 7 καὶ νῦν ἔτι ἐν τῇ Σαμοθρᾴκῃ
ζητοῦσιν αὐτὴν [scil. Ἁρμονίαν] ἐν ταῖς ἑορταῖς. According to the
Samothracian account, Cadmus in seeking Europa came to Samothrace,
and there, having been initiated into the mysteries, married
Harmonia (Diodorus Siculus, v. 48 _sq._). It is probable, though it
cannot be proved, that the legend was acted in the mystic rites.

259 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 133. Mr. A. B.
Cook has suggested that the central scene on the eastern frieze of
the Parthenon represents the king and queen of Athens about to take
their places among the enthroned deities. See his article “Zeus,
Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) p. 371. As
the scenes on the frieze appear to have been copied from the
Panathenaiac festival, it would seem, on Mr. Cook’s hypothesis, that
the sacred marriage of the King and Queen was celebrated on that
occasion in presence of actors who played the parts of gods and
goddesses. In this connexion it may not be amiss to remember that in
the eastern gable of the Parthenon the pursuit of the moon by the
sun was mythically represented by the horses of the sun emerging
from the sea on the one side, and the horses of the moon plunging
into it on the other.

260 Schol. on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 35 (20).

261 Compare Aug. Boeckh, on Pindar, _l.c._, _Explicationes_, p. 138; L.
Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_,
i. 366 _sq._; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in
Iwan Müller’s _Handbuch der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i.
605 _sq._ All these writers recognise the octennial cycle at
Olympia.

262 K. O. Müller, _Die Dorier_,2 ii. 483; compare _id._ i. 254 _sq._

263 Pausanias, v. 1. 4.

264 Aug. Boeckh, _l.c._; A. Schmidt, _Handbuch der griechischen
Chronologie_ (Jena, 1888), pp. 50 _sqq._; K. O. Müller, _Die
Dorier_,2 i. 438; W. H. Roscher, _Selene und Verwandtes_, pp. 2
_sq._, 80 _sq._, 101.

265 See Aug. Boeckh and L. Ideler, _ll.cc._ More recent writers would
date it on the second full moon after the summer solstice, hence in
August or the last days of July. See G. F. Unger, _l.c._; E. F.
Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” _Leipziger Studien
zur classischen Philologie_, vii. (1884) pp. 347 _sq._; Aug.
Mommsen, _Über die Zeit der Olympien_ (Leipsic, 1891); and my note
on Pausanias, v. 9. 3 (vol. iii. pp. 488 _sq._).

M68 The Olympic victors, male and female, may originally have
represented Zeus and Hera or the Sun and Moon, and have reigned as
divine king and queen for four or eight years.

266 A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-God,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp.
398-402.

267 Rapp, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie_,
i. 2005 _sqq._

268 Pausanias, v. 15. 3, with my note; Schol. on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii.
60.

269 Pausanias, v. 11. 1.

270 Pausanias, v. 16. 2 _sqq._

271 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. p. 143.

272 Pausanias, v. 16. 4.

273 Many years after the theory in the text was printed (for the present
volume has been long in the press) I accidentally learned that my
friend Mr. F. M. Cornford, Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College,
Cambridge, had quite independently arrived at a similar conclusion
with regard to the mythical and dramatic parts played by the Olympic
victors, male and female, as representatives of the Sun and Moon,
and I had the pleasure of hearing him expound the theory in a
brilliant lecture delivered before the Classical Society of
Cambridge, 28th February 1911. The coincidence of two independent
enquirers in conclusions, which can hardly be called obvious, seems
to furnish a certain confirmation of their truth. In Mr. Cornford’s
case the theory in question forms part of a more elaborate and
comprehensive hypothesis as to the origin of the Olympic games,
concerning which I must for the present suspend my judgment.

274 Herodian, v. 6. 3-5.

M69 Tradition that the great games of Greece originated in funeral
celebrations.

275 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter. The
following account of funeral games is based on my note on Pausanias
i. 44. 8 (vol. ii. pp. 549 _sq._). Compare W. Ridgeway, _The Origin
of Tragedy_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 32 _sqq._

276 Clement of Alexandria, _l.c._

277 Pausanias, v. 13. 1 _sq._

278 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 146.

279 Varro, cited by Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 67.

280 F. Bonney, “On some Customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 134
_sq._; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp.
507, 509 _sq._; (Sir) G. Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of
Discovery in North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii.
332.

_ 281 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres
Straits_, vi. (Cambridge, 1908) pp. 135, 154.

282 Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 74; Apollodorus, iii. 6. 4; Schol. on Pindar,
_Pyth._, Introduction; Pausanias, ii. 15. 2 _sq._; Clement of
Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter.

283 Scholiast on Pindar, _Isthm._, Introduction, p. 514, ed. Boeckh;
Pausanias, i. 44. 8; Apollodorus, iii. 4. 3; Zenobius, iv. 38;
Clement of Alexandria, _l.c._; J. Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_,
107, 229; Scholia on Euripides, _Medea_, 1284; Hyginus, _Fabulae_,
2.

284 Clement of Alexandria, _l.c._; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 140.

M70 The tradition is confirmed by Greek practice, for in historical
times games were instituted to do honour to many famous men in
Greece.

285 Homer, _Iliad_, xxiii. 255 _sqq._, 629 _sqq._, 651 _sqq._

286 Herodotus, vi. 38.

287 Pausanias, iii. 14. 1.

288 Plutarch, _De sera numinis vindicta_, 17.

289 Thucydides, v. 10 _sq._

290 Plutarch, _Timoleon_, 39.

291 Aulus Gellius, x. 18. 5 _sq._

292 Arrian, vii. 14. 10.

M71 The Greeks also instituted games in honour of large numbers of men
who had perished in battle or a massacre.

293 Herodotus, i. 167.

294 Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Strabo, ix. 2. 31, p. 412; Pausanias, ix.
2. 5 _sq._

295 Philostratus, _Vit. Sophist._ ii. 30; Heliodorus, _Aethiopica_, i.
17; compare Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 58.

M72 Funeral games have been celebrated in honour of the dead by other
peoples both in ancient and modern times.

296 Herodotus, v. 8.

297 Livy, xxiii. 30. 15.

298 Livy, xxxi. 50. 4.

299 Livy, xxxix. 46. 2 _sq._

_ 300 Census of India, 1901_, vol. iii., _The Andaman and Nicobar
Islands_, by Lieut.-Col. Sir Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903), p.
209.

301 Letter of the missionary Chevron, in _Annales de la Propagation de
la Foi_, xv. (1843) pp. 40 _sq._

302 É. Aymonier, _Voyage dans le Laos_ (Paris, 1895-1897), ii. 325
_sq._; C. Bock, _Temples and Elephants_ (London, 1884), p. 262.

303 A. de Levchine, _Description des hommes et des steppes des
Kirghiz-Kazaks ou Kirghiz-Kaisaks_ (Paris, 1840), pp. 367 _sq._; H.
Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), p. 255; P. von Stenin,
“Die Kirgisen des Kreises Saissanak im Gebiete von Ssemipalatinsk,”
_Globus_, lxix. (1906) p. 228.

304 T. de Pauly, _Description ethnographique des peuples de la Russie_
(St. Petersburg, 1862), _Peuples ouralo-altaïques_, p. 29.

305 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 111.

M73 Funeral games among the Bedouins and among the peoples of the
Caucasus.

306 I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle a. S., 1888-1890),
ii. 328 _sq._ However, Prof. Goldziher believes that the festival is
an ancient heathen one which has been subsequently grafted upon the
tradition of the orthodox prophet Salih.

307 J. Potocki, _Voyage dans les steps d’Astrakhan et du Caucase_
(Paris, 1829), i. 275 _sq._; Edmund Spencer, _Travels in Circassia,
Krim Tartary_, etc. (London, 1836) ii. 399.

308 G. Radde, _Die Chews’uren und ihr Land_ (Cassel, 1878), pp. 95
_sq._; Prince Eristow, “Die Pschawen und Chewsurier im Kaukasus,”
_Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, Neue Folge, ii. (1857) p. 77.

309 C. v. Hahn, “Religiöse Anschauungen und Totengedächtnisfeier der
Chewsuren,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) pp. 211 _sq._

310 N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) pp. 42 _sq._

M74 Games periodically held in honour of some famous man might in time
assume the character of a great fair. The great Irish fairs of
Tailltin and Carman, in which horse-races played a prominent part,
are said to have been instituted in honour of the dead.

311 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London, 1888), pp. 409 _sq._;
H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de littérature celtique_, vii.
(Paris, 1895) pp. 309 _sqq._; P. W. Joyce, _Social History of
Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), ii. 438 _sqq._ “The _aenach_ or
fair was an assembly of the people of every grade without
distinction; it was the most common kind of large public meeting,
and its main object was the celebration of games, athletic
exercises, sports, and pastimes of all kinds” (P. W. Joyce, _op.
cit._ ii. 438). The Irish name is _Tailltiu_, genitive _Taillten_,
accusative and dative _Tailltin_ (Sir J. Rhys, _op. cit._ p. 409
note 1).

312 (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 411; H. d’Arbois de
Jubainville, _Cours de littérature celtique_, vii. 313 _sqq._; P. W.
Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, ii. 434 _sq._, 441
_sqq._

M75 Indeed most of the great Irish fairs are said to have originated in
funeral games.

313 P. W. Joyce, _op. cit._ ii. 435.

314 P. W. Joyce, _op. cit._ ii. 434. Compare (Sir) J. Rhys, _Celtic
Heathendom_, p. 411.

315 H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de littérature celtique_, vii.
313.

316 H. d’Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._ vii. 310.

M76 The great Irish fairs were held on the first of August (Lammas),
which seems to have been an old harvest festival of first-fruits.

317 P. W. Joyce, _op. cit._ ii. 389, 439.

318 (Sir) J. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 410.

319 (Sir) J. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, pp. 411 _sq._, quoting the
substance of a note by Thos. Hearne, in his edition of _Robert of
Gloucester’s Chronicles_ (Oxford, 1724), p. 679. As to the
derivation of the word see _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, 1888- )
and W. W. Skeat, _Etymological Dictionary of the English Language_
(Oxford, 1910), _s.v._ “Lammas.”

320 See above, p. 100.

321 See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, ii. 459 _sqq._

322 See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, ii. 460, 463, 464 _sq._

M77 If the great Irish fairs were instituted in honour of the dead, we
can understand why their observance was supposed to ensure plenty of
corn, fruit, milk, and fish.

323 See above, pp. 14 _sqq._, 21, 27, 33, 36 _sq._

324 See above, p. 98.

325 See above, p. 93.

M78 But the theory of the funeral origin of the Olympic games does not
explain all the legends connected with them. Suggested theory of the
origin of the Olympic games.

326 Pausanias, v. 1. 4, v. 8. 1.

327 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, pp. 183-185 ed. R. Wagner (_Epitoma_,
ii. 3-9); Diodorus Siculus, iv. 73; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 84; Schol.
on Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 114; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 7. See
_The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 299 _sq._

328 Strabo, vi. 3. 9, p. 284; K. O. Müller, _Aeschylos Eumeniden_
(Göttingen, 1833), p. 144.

329 Pausanias, vi. 21. 9-11.

M79 The Olympic games not a harvest festival, but based on astronomical
considerations.
M80 Widespread myth of the slaughter of a great dragon. The Babylonian
story of the slaying of Tiamat by Marduk is a myth of the creation
of cosmos out of chaos.

330 P. Jensen, _Die Kosmologie der Babylonier_ (Strasburg, 1890), pp.
263 _sqq._; _id._, _Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen_ (Berlin,
1900), pp. 3 _sqq._; M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and
Assyria_, pp. 407 _sqq._; L. W. King, _Babylonian Religion and
Mythology_, pp. 53 _sqq._; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader’s _Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_ (Berlin, 1902), pp. 488
_sqq._; M. J. Lagrange, _Études sur les religions sémitiques_2
(Paris, 1905); pp. 366 _sqq._

331 P. Jensen, _Die Kosmologie der Babylonier_, pp. 304-306; H. Gunkel,
_Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit_ (Göttingen, 1895), pp.
114 _sqq._; _id._, _Genesis übersetzt und erklärt_ (Göttingen,
1901), pp. 107 _sqq._; _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Creation,”
i. coll. 938 _sqq._; S. R. Driver, _The Book of Genesis_4 (London,
1905), pp. 27 _sqq._ The myth is clearly alluded to in several
passages of Scripture, where the dragon of the sea is spoken of as
Rahab or Leviathan. See Isaiah li. 9, “Art thou not it that cut
Rahab in pieces, that pierced the dragon?”: _id._ xxvii. 1, “In that
day the Lord with his sore and great and strong sword shall punish
leviathan the swift serpent, and leviathan the crooked serpent; and
he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea”: Job xxvi. 12, “He
stirreth up the sea with his power, and by his understanding he
smiteth through Rahab”: Psalm lxxxix. 10, “Thou hast broken Rahab in
pieces as one that is slain”: Psalm lxxiv. 13 _sq._, “Thou didst
divide the sea by thy strength: thou brakest the heads of the
dragons in the waters. Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in
pieces.” See further H. Gunkel, _Schöpfung und Chaos_, pp. 29 _sqq._

M81 Indian story of the slaying of Vṛtra by Indra. The story may be a
myth descriptive of the beginning of the rainy season in India.

332 A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 58-60, 158 _sq._ Compare H.
Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, pp. 134 _sqq._

333 See M. Winternitz, “Der Sarpabali, ein altindischer Schlangencult,”
_Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xviii.
(1888) pp. 44 _sq._

M82 Similarly the other tales of the slaughter of the dragon may be
mythical descriptions of the changes of the seasons.

334 A. Kuhn, “Wodan,” _Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum_, v. (1845)
pp. 484-488.

335 P. Jensen, _Die Kosmologie der Babylonier_, pp. 315 _sq._; H.
Gunkel, _Schöpfung und Chaos_, p. 25; _id._, _Genesis übersetzt und
erklärt_, pp. 115 _sq._; M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and
Assyria_, pp. 411 _sq._, 429 _sq._, 432 _sq._; H. Zimmern, in
_Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ “Creation,” i. coll. 940 _sq._;
_id._, in E. Schrader’s _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
Testament_,3 pp. 370 _sq._, 500 _sq._; S. R. Driver, _The Book of
Genesis_4 (London, 1905), p. 28.

M83 The cosmogonical significance of the Babylonian myth may have been
an after-thought, the early philosophers picturing the creation of
the world on the analogy of the change from winter to summer.

336 Virgil, _Georgics_, ii. 336-342.

M84 Thus ceremonies intended to hasten the departure of winter are in a
sense attempts to repeat the creation of the world.
M85 In Babylon and India the myth of the slaughter of the dragon may
have been acted as a magical ceremony to hasten the advent of summer
or of the rainy season. New-year festival of Zagmuk at Babylon.

337 P. Jensen, _Die Kosmologie der Babylonier_, pp. 84 _sqq._; M.
Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 677 _sqq._; H.
Zimmern, in E. Schrader’s _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
Testament_,3 pp. 371, 384 note 4, 402, 427, 515 _sqq._; R. F.
Harper, _Babylonian and Assyrian Literature_ (New York, 1901), pp.
136, _sq._, 137, 140, 149; M. J. Lagrange, _Études sur les religions
sémitiques_2 (Paris, 1905), pp. 285 _sqq._

338 L. W. King, _Babylonian Religion and Mythology_, pp. 88 _sqq._

339 See C. P. Tiele, _Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst in de Oudheid_, i.
(Amsterdam, 1903) pp. 159 _sq._; L. W. King, _op. cit._ p. 21; H.
Zimmern. in E. Schrader’s _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
Testament_,3 p. 399; M. Jastrow, _Die Religion Babyloniens und
Assyriens_, i (Giessen, 1905) pp. 117 _sqq._

340 P. Jensen, _op. cit._ pp. 85 _sqq._; M. Jastrow, _The Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 679; H. Zimmern, _op. cit._ p. 515; M. J.
Lagrange, _op. cit._ p. 286.

341 P. Jensen, _op. cit._ p. 87; M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria_, p. 681; H. Zimmern, _op. cit._ pp. 402, 415; R. F.
Harper, _op. cit._ p. 136.

342 P. Jensen, _Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen_, p. 29; L. W.
King, _Babylonian Religion and Mythology_, p. 74.

343 This appears to be substantially the view of H. Zimmern (_op. cit._
p. 501) and of Karppe (referred to in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_,
_s.v._ “Creation,” i. coll. 941 note 1).