Chapter VIII: The Killing of the Tree-Spirit (8)

501 Strabo, v. 4. 2 and 12; Pliny, _Nat. hist._ iii. 110; Festus, _De
verborum significatione_, _s.v._ “Irpini,” ed. C. O. Müller, p. 106.
It is worthy of note that the three swarms which afterwards
developed into the Piceni, the Samnites, and the Hirpini were said
to have been guided by a woodpecker, a bull, and a wolf
respectively, of which the woodpecker (_picus_) and the wolf
(_hirpus_) gave their names to the Piceni and the Hirpini. The
tradition may perhaps preserve a trace of totemism, but in the
absence of clearer evidence it would be rash to assume that it does
so. The woodpecker was sacred among the Latins, and a woodpecker as
well as a wolf is said to have fed the twins Romulus and Remus
(Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 21; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 37 _sq._). Does
this legend point to the existence of a wolf-clan and a
woodpecker-clan at Rome? There was perhaps a similar conjunction of
wolf and woodpecker at Soracte, for the woodpecker is spoken of as
the bird of Feronia (“_picus Feronius_,” Festus, _s.v._ “Oscines,”
p. 197, ed. C. O. Müller), a goddess in whose sanctuary at Soracte
certain men went by the name of Soranian Wolves (Servius, on Virgil,
_Aen._ xi. 785; Pliny, _Nat. hist._ vii. 19; Strabo, v. 2. 9). These
“Soranian Wolves” will meet us again later on.

502 Livy, xxii. 9 _sq._; Plutarch, _Fabius Maximus_, 4.

503 Livy, xxxiv. 44.

504 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 24.

505 Schwegler thought it hardly open to question that the “sacred
spring” was a substitute for an original custom of human sacrifice
(_Römische Geschichte_, i. 240 _sq._). The inference is denied on
insufficient grounds by R. von Ihering (_Vorgeschichte der
Indoeuropäer_, pp. 309 _sqq._).

506 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 16. 1. Rhegium in
Italy was founded by Chalcidian colonists, who in obedience to the
Delphic Oracle had been dedicated as a tithe-offering to Apollo on
account of a dearth (Strabo, vi. 1. 6, p. 257). Justin speaks of the
Gauls sending out three hundred thousand men, “as it were a sacred
spring,” to seek a new home (Justin, xxiv. 4. 1).

M146 Different motives may have led to the practice of killing the
firstborn. A belief in the rebirth of souls may in some cases have
operated to produce infanticide, especially of the firstborn. The
Hindoos believe that a man is reborn in his son, while at the same
time he dies in his own person.

507 The Australian aborigines resort to infanticide to keep down the
number of a family. But “the number is kept down, not with any idea
at all of regulating the food supply, so far as the adults are
concerned, but simply from the point of view that, if the mother is
suckling one child, she cannot properly provide food for another,
quite apart from the question of the trouble of carrying two
children about. An Australian native never looks far enough ahead to
consider what will be the effect on the food supply in future years
if he allows a particular child to live; what affects him is simply
the question of how it will interfere with the work of his wife so
far as their own camp is concerned” (Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 264).

508 See above, pp. 57, 160 _sq._

509 Above, p. 185.

510 Father Baudin, “Le Fétichisme,” _Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884)
p. 259.

_ 511 The Laws of Manu_, ix. 8, p. 329, G. Bühler’s translation (_Sacred
Books of the East_, vol. xxv.). On this Hindoo doctrine of
reincarnation, its logical consequences and its analogies in other
parts of the world, see J. von Negelein, “Eine Quelle der indischen
Seelenwanderungvorstellung,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vi.
(1903) pp. 320-333. Compare E. S. Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_,
i. 218 _sq._; _id._, _Primitive Paternity_ (London, 1909-1910), ii.
196 _sqq._

512 H. A. [J. A.] Rose, “Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth
Superstitions,” _Indian Antiquary_, xxxi. (1902) p. 516; _id._, in
_Folklore_, xiii. (1902) pp. 278 _sq._ As to the Khatris, see D. C.
J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_, pp. 295 _sq._; H. H.
Risley, _The Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, i. 478 _sqq._; W. Crooke,
_The Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh_,
iii. 264 _sqq._

M147 Painful dilemma of a father.

513 The same suggestion has been made by Dr. E. Westermarck (_The Origin
and Development of the Moral Ideas_, i. (London, 1906) pp. 460
_sq._). Some years ago, before the publication of his book and while
the present volume was still in proof, Dr. Westermarck and I in
conversation discovered that we had independently arrived at the
same conjectural explanation of the custom of killing the firstborn.

M148 The same notion of the rebirth of the father in the son would
explain why in Polynesia infants succeeded to the chieftainship as
soon as they were born, their fathers abdicating in their favour.

514 Capt. J. Cook, _Voyages_ (London, 1809), i. 225 _sq._; Capt. J.
Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_ (London,
1799), pp. 327, 330, 333; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 iii.
99-101; J. A. Mourenhout, _Voyages aux îles du Grand Océan_, ii. 13
_sq._; Mathias G. ——, _Lettres sur les Îles Marquises_ (Paris,
1843), pp. 103 _sq._; H. Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition,
Ethnography and Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 34.

M149 Such a rule of succession might easily lead to a practice of
infanticide. Prevalence of infanticide in Polynesia.

515 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 i. 251-253.

M150 In some places the father either abdicates when his son attains to
manhood or is forcibly deposed by him.

516 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western
Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 233.

517 J. Williams, _Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea
Islands_ (London, 1836), pp. 117 _sq._

518 J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London,
1822), ii. 276.

M151 The custom of the deposition of the father by his son may perhaps be
traced in Greek myth and legend. Cronus and his children.

519 Hesiod, _Theogony_, 137 _sqq._, 453 _sqq._, 886 _sqq._; Apollodorus,
_Bibliotheca_, i. 1-3.

520 Above, pp. 179 _sq._ Traces of a custom of sacrificing the children
instead of the father may perhaps be found in the legends that
Menoeceus, son of Creon, died to save Thebes, and that one or more
of the daughters of Erechtheus perished to save Athens. See
Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 889 _sqq._; Apollodorus, iii. 6. 7, iii.
15. 4; Schol. on Aristides, _Panathen._ p. 113, ed. Dindorf; Cicero,
_Tuscul._, i. 48. 116; _id._, _De natura deorum_, iii. 19. 50; W. H.
Roscher, _Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie_, i. 1298 _sq._,
ii. 2794 _sq._

M152 Legend of Oedipus, who slew his father and married his mother.
Marriage with a widowed queen sometimes forms a legitimate title to
the kingdom. Marriage with a stepmother or a sister, a mode of
securing the succession of the king’s own children, and so of
transferring the inheritance from the female to the male line.
Brother and sister marriages in royal families.

521 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 269
_sqq._

522 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. p. 283. The
Oedipus legend would conform still more closely to custom if we
could suppose that marriage with a mother was formerly allowed in
cases where the king had neither a sister nor a stepmother, by
marrying whom he could otherwise legalise his claim to the throne.

523 Examples of this custom are collected by me in a note on Pausanias,
i. 7. 1 (vol. ii. p. 85). For other instances see V. Noel, “Île de
Madagascar, recherches sur les Sakkalava,” _Bulletin de la Société
de Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, xx. (Paris, 1843) pp. 63
_sq._ (among the Sakkalavas of Madagascar); V. L. Cameron, _Across
Africa_ (London, 1877), ii. 70, 149; J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on
the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 27 (among the Baganda
of Central Africa); J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 523,
538 (among the Banyoro and Bahima); J. Dos Santos, “Eastern
Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal’s _Records of South-Eastern Africa_,
vii. 191 (as to the kings of Sofala in eastern Africa). But Dos
Santos’s statement is doubted by Dr. McCall Theal (_op. cit._ p.
395).

524 This explanation of the custom was anticipated by McLennan: “Another
rule of chiefly succession, which has been mentioned, that which
gave the chiefship to a sister’s son, appears to have been nullified
in some cases by an extraordinary but effective expedient—by the
chief, that is, marrying his own sister” (_The Patriarchal Theory,
based on the Papers of the late John Ferguson McLennan_, edited and
completed by Donald McLennan (London, 1885), p. 95).

525 Compare Cicero, _De natura deorum_, ii. 26. 66; [Plutarch], _De vita
et poesi Homeri_, ii. 96; Lactantius, _Divin. Inst._ i. 10; Firmicus
Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, xii. 4.

M153 Kings’ sons sacrificed instead of their fathers. Substitution of
condemned criminals.

526 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 54.

M154 A custom of putting kings to death at short intervals might
extinguish the families from which the kings were drawn; but this
tendency would be no bar to the observance of the custom. Many races
have indulged in practices which tend directly to their extinction.

527 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 292 _sqq._

_ 528 See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 269 _sqq._

529 Men and women of the Khlysti sect in Russia abhor marriage; and in
the sect of the Skoptsi or Eunuchs the devotees mutilate themselves.
See Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace, _Russia_. (London [1877]), p. 302. As
to collective suicide, see above, pp. 43 _sqq._

530 Above, p. 191.

531 Father Picarda, “Autour de Mandéra, notes sur l’Ouzigowa, l’Oukwéré
et l’Oudoe (Zanguebar),” _Missions Catholiques_, xviii. (1886) p.
284.

_ 532 The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell_ (Hakluyt Society, 1901),
pp. 32, 84 _sq._

533 F. de Azara, _Voyages dans l’Amérique Méridionale_ (Paris, 1809),
ii. 115-117. The writer affirms that the custom was universally
established among all the women of the Mbaya nation, as well as
among the women of other Indian nations.

534 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, iii. (London, 1819) p. 385.

535 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), p. 233.

536 Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, new edition with additional
chapters by the Rev. John Taylor Dean (Edinburgh and London, 1901),
pp. 34 _sq._, 37 _sq._ The preface to the original edition of this
work is dated 1890. By this time the tribal suicide is probably
complete.

M155 Transmission of the soul of the slain king to his successor.
Transmission of the souls of chiefs to their sons in Nias.

537 See above, pp. 21, 23, 26 _sq._

538 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 410 _sqq._

539 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias,” _Verhandelingen van het Batav. Genootschap van Kunsten
en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (1863) p. 85; H. von Rosenberg, _Der
Malayische Archipel_, p. 160; L. N. H. A. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en
bijgeloof der Niassers,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xxvi. (1880) pp. 142 _sq._; H. Sundermann, “Die Insel
Nias und die Mission daselbst,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_,
xi. (1884) p. 445; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_, pp. 277, 479
_sq._; _id._, _L’Isola delle Donne_ (Milan, 1894), p. 195.

M156 Succession to the soul among the American Indians and other races.

540 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_
(London, 1845), iv. 453; _United States Exploring Expedition,
Ethnography and Philology_, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 203.

541 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_, ii. 574.

542 D. G. Brinton, _Myths of the New World_2 (New York, 1876), pp. 270
_sq._

_ 543 Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 130 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858).

544 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, iv. 386.

545 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 685; Cicero, _In Verr._ ii. 5. 45; K.
F. Hermann, _Lehrbuch der griechischen Privatalterthümer_, ed. H.
Blümner, p. 362, note 1.

546 J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_ (London,
1882), pp. 7 _sq._

M157 Succession to the soul in Africa. Inspired representatives of dead
kings in Africa.

_ 547 The Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia_, collected and historically
digested by F. Balthazar Tellez (London, 1710), p. 198.

548 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur
der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 28.

549 This account I received from my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe in a
letter dated Mengo, Uganda, April 27, 1900. See his “Further Notes
on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 42, 45 _sq._, where,
however, the account is in some points not quite so explicit.

550 J. Dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal’s _Records of
South-eastern Africa_, vii. 196 _sq._

551 See above, p. 35.

552 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 423 _sqq._

M158 Right of succession to the kingdom conferred by possession of
personal relics of dead kings. Sometimes a king has to eat a portion
of his predecessor.

553 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 362 _sqq._

554 A. Grandidier, “Madagascar,” _Bull. de la Société de Géographie_
(Paris), VIème Série, iii. (1872) pp. 402 _sq._

555 Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, cxxiii. 12
(_Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, iii. 463). The
Issedones of Scythia used to gild the skulls of their dead fathers
and offer great sacrifices to them annually (Herodotus, iv. 26);
they also used the skulls as drinking-cups (Mela, ii. 1. 9). The
Boii of Cisalpine Gaul cut off the head of a Roman general whom they
had defeated, and having gilded the scalp they used it as a sacred
vessel for the pouring of libations, and the priests drank out of it
(Livy, xxiii. 24. 12).

556 Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 828.

557 Missionary Holley, “Étude sur les Egbas,” _Missions Catholiques_,
xiii. (1881) p. 353. The writer speaks of “_le roi d’Alakei_,” but
this is probably a mistake or a misprint. As to the Alake or king of
Abeokuta, see Sir William Macgregor, “Lagos, Abeokuta, and the
Alake,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. xii. (July, 1904) pp.
471 _sq._ Some years ago the Alake visited England and I had the
honour of being presented to his Majesty by Sir William Macgregor at
Cambridge.

558 F. T. Valdez, _Six Years of a Traveller’s Life in Western Africa_,
ii. 161 _sq._

559 Missionary Holley, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, liv.
(1882) p. 87. The “King of Ake” mentioned by the writer is the Alake
or king of Abeokuta; for Ake is the principal quarter of Abeokuta,
and Alake means “Lord of Ake.” See Sir William Macgregor, _l.c._

560 Extracted from a letter of Mr. Harold G. Parsons, dated Lagos,
September 28th, 1903, and addressed to Mr. Theodore A. Cooke of 54
Oakley Street, Chelsea, London, who was so kind as to send me the
letter with leave to make use of it. “It is usual for great chiefs
to report or announce their succession to the Oni of Ife, or to the
Alafin of Oyo, the intimation being accompanied by a present” (Sir
W. Macgregor, _l.c._).

M159 Succession to the soul of the slain king or priest.

561 See above, pp. 23, 26 _sq._ Dr. E. Westermarck has suggested as an
alternative to the theory in the text, “that the new king is
supposed to inherit, not the predecessor’s soul, but his divinity or
holiness, which is looked upon in the light of a mysterious entity,
temporarily seated in the ruling sovereign, but separable from him
and transferable to another individual.” See his article, “The
Killing of the Divine King,” _Man_, viii. (1908) pp. 22-24. There is
a good deal to be said in favour of Dr. Westermarck’s theory, which
is supported in particular by the sanctity attributed to the
regalia. But on the whole I see no sufficient reason to abandon the
view adopted in the text, and I am confirmed in it by the Shilluk
evidence, which was unknown to Dr. Westermarck when he propounded
his theory.

M160 The single combat of the King of the Wood at Nemi was probably a
mitigation of an older custom of putting him to death at the end of
a fixed period.

562 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 1 _sqq._, ii. 378
_sqq._

563 See above, pp. 21 _sq._, 27 _sq._

564 See above, pp. 47 _sq._

M161 Custom of killing the human representatives of the tree-spirit. M162 Bavarian customs of beheading the representatives of the tree-spirit at Whitsuntide.

565 Fr. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
i. 235 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 320
_sq._ In some villages of Lower Bavaria one of the _Pfingstl’s_
comrades carries “the May,” which is a young birch-tree wreathed and
decorated. Another name for this Whitsuntide masker, both in Lower
and Upper Bavaria, is the Water-bird. Sometimes he carries a straw
effigy of a monstrous bird with a long neck and a wooden beak, which
is thrown into the water instead of the bearer. The wooden beak is
afterwards nailed to the ridge of a barn, which it is supposed to
protect against lightning and fire for a whole year, till the next
_Pfingstl_ makes his appearance. See _Bavaria, Landes- und
Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. 375 _sq._, 1003 _sq._ In
Silesia the Whitsuntide mummer, called the _Rauchfiess_ or
_Raupfiess_, sometimes stands in a leafy arbour, which is mounted on
a cart and drawn about the village by four or six lads. They collect
gifts at the houses and finally throw the cart and the _Rauchfiess_
into a shallow pool outside the village. This is called “driving out
the _Rauchfiess_.” The custom used to be associated with the driving
out of the cattle at Whitsuntide to pasture on the dewy grass, which
was thought to make the cows yield plenty of milk. The herdsman who
was the last to drive out his beasts on the morning of the day
became the _Rauchfiess_ in the afternoon. See P. Drechsler, _Sitte,
Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. (Leipsic, 1903), pp.
117-123.

566 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 409-419; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 349
_sq._

M163 Killing the Wild Man in Saxony and Bohemia.

567 E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_
(Halle, 1846), pp. 154 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 335
_sq._

568 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 336.

569 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.,
preface dated 1861), p. 61; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 336
_sq._

M164 Beheading the King on Whit-Monday in Bohemia.

570 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 263; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 343.

571 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 269 _sq._

M165 Beheading the King on Whit-Monday in Bohemia.

_ 572 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 86 _sq._

573 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 264 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 353 _sq._

M166 The leaf-clad mummers in these customs represent the tree-spirit or
spirit of vegetation.

574 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 73 _sqq._

575 See pp. 208, 210.

_ 576 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 247 _sqq._, 272
_sqq._

M167 The tree-spirit is killed in order to prevent its decay and ensure
its revival in a vigorous successor.

577 See above, p. 208.

M168 Resemblances between these North European customs and the rites of
Nemi.

578 Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 271.

579 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 308 _sqq._

580 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 20.

M169 The mock killing of the leaf-clad mummers is probably a substitute
for an old custom of killing them in earnest. Substitution of mock
human sacrifices for real ones.

581 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 16; Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio Insularum
Aquilonis_, 27 (Migne’s _Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. col. 644); Olaus
Magnus, _De gentium septrionalium variis conditionibus_, iii. 7; J.
Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 35 _sqq._; F. J. Mone, _Geschichte
des nordischen Heidenthums_, i. 69, 119, 120, 149, 187 _sq._

582 H. J. Tendeloo, “Verklaring van het zoogenaamd Oud-Alfoersch
Teekenschrift,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxvi. (1892) pp. 338 _sq._

583 Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 719
_sq._ The writer describes the ceremony from the testimony of an
eye-witness.

584 J. G. Bourke, _Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_, pp. 196 _sq._

585 Euripides, _Iphigenia in Taur._ 1458 _sqq._

586 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias,” _Verhandelingen van het Batav. Genootschap van Kunsten
en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (1863) p. 43; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a
Nias_ (Milan, 1890), pp. 282 _sq._

587 J. A. Dubois, _Mæurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de
l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), i. 151 _sq._

588 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
iv. 437, quoting Mr. A. R. Loftus-Tottenham.

589 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 31 _sq._; compare pp. 38, 58, 59, 69 _sq._,
72.

M170 Mock human sacrifices carried out in effigy.

590 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 55, citing Manetho as his authority.

591 “The Rudhirádhyáyă, or sanguinary chapter,” translated from the
_Calica Puran_ by W. C. Blaquiere, in _Asiatick Researches_, v. 376
(8vo ed., London, 1807).

592 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
281.

593 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ pp. 258 _sq._

594 Mgr. Bruguière, in _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la
Foi_, v. (1831) p. 201.

595 B. C. A. J. van Dinter, “Eenige geographische en ethnographische
aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland Siaoe,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xli. (1899) p. 379.

596 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in
Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)
p. 208.

597 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905). pp. 56 _sq._

598 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 222.

M171 Mimic sacrifices of various kinds. Mimic sacrifices of fingers.
Mimic rite of circumcision.

599 E. Thurston, “Deformity and Mutilation,” _Madras Government Museum,
Bulletin_, vol. iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), pp. 193-196. As to the
custom of sacrificing joints of fingers, see my note on Pausanias,
viii. 34. 2, vol. iv. pp. 354 _sqq._ To the evidence there adduced
add P. J. de Smet, _Western Missions and Missionaries_ (New York,
1863), p. 135; G. B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_, pp. 194,
258; A. d’Orbigny, _L’Homme américain_, ii. 24; J. Williams,
_Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands_, pp.
470 _sq._; J. Mathew, _Eaglehawk and Crow_ (London and Melbourne,
1899), p. 120; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, pp. 746 _sq._; L. Degrandpré, _Voyage à la côte
occidentale d’Afrique_ (Paris, 1801), ii. 93 _sq._; Dudley Kidd,
_The Essential Kaffir_, pp. 203, 262 _sq._; G. W. Stow, _Native
Races of South Africa_ (London, 1905), pp. 129, 152; _Lettres
édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, ix. 369, xii. 371;
_Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xiii. (1841) p. 20; _id._,
xiv. (1842) pp. 68, 192; _id._, xvii. (1845) pp. 12, 13; _id._,
xviii. (1846) p. 6; _id._, xxiii. (1851) p. 314; _id._, xxxii.
(1860) pp. 95 _sq._; _Indian Antiquary_, xxiv. (1895) p. 303;
_Missions Catholiques_, xxix. (1897) p. 90; _Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie_, xxxii. (1900) p. 81. The objects of this mutilation
were various. In ancient Athens it was customary to cut off the hand
of a suicide and bury it apart from his body (Aeschines, _Contra
Ctesiph._ § 244, p. 193, ed. F. Franke), perhaps to prevent his
ghost from attacking the living.

600 Basil C. Thomson, _Savage Island_ (London, 1902), pp. 92 _sq._

601 E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906),
p. 390.

M172 It has been customary to kill animal gods and corn gods as well as tree-spirits. M173 Customs of burying the Carnival and carrying out Death.

602 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 645; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der
Lausitz_, ii. 58; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_,
pp. 86 _sq._; _id._, _Das festliche Jahr_, pp. 77 _sq._; _Bavaria,
Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 958 _sq._;
Sepp, _Die Religion der alten Deutschen_ (Munich, 1890), pp. 67
_sq._; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_
(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 258, 353. The fourth Sunday in Lent
is also known as Mid-Lent, because it falls in the middle of Lent,
or as _Laetare_ from the first word of the liturgy for that day. In
the Roman calendar it is the Sunday of the Rose (_Domenica rosae_),
because on that day the Pope consecrates a golden rose, which he
presents to some royal lady. In one German village of Transylvania
the Carrying out of Death takes place on Ascension Day. See below,
pp. 248 _sq._

M174 Effigy of the Carnival burnt at Frosinone in Latium.

603 G. Targioni-Tozzetti, _Saggio di novelline, canti ed usanze popolari
della Ciociaria_ (Palermo, 1891), pp. 89-95. At Palermo an effigy of
the Carnival (_Nannu_) was burnt at midnight on Shrove Tuesday 1878.
See G. Pitrè, _Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo
siciliano_, i. 117-119; G. Trede, _Das Heidentum in der römischen
Kirche_, iii. 11, note.

M175 Burying the Carnival in the Abruzzi.

604 A. de Nino, _Usi e costumi abruzzesi_, ii. 198-200. The writer omits
to mention the date of these celebrations. No doubt it is either
Shrove Tuesday or Ash Wednesday. Compare G. Finamore, _Credenze, usi
e costumi abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 111. In some parts of
Piedmont an effigy of Carnival is burnt on the evening of Shrove
Tuesday; in others they set fire to tall poplar trees, which, stript
of their branches and surmounted by banners, have been set up the
day before in public places. These trees go by the name of _Scarli_.
See G. di Giovanni, _Usi, credenze e pregiudizi del Canavese_
(Palermo, 1889), pp. 161, 164 _sq._ For other accounts of the
ceremony of the death of the Carnival, represented either by a
puppet or a living person, in Italy and Sicily, see G. Pitrè, _Usi e
costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano_, i. 96-100; G.
Amalfi, _Tradizioni ed usi nella Penisola Sorrentina_ (Palermo,
1890), pp. 40, 42. It has been rightly observed by Pitrè (_op. cit._
p. 96), that the personification of the Carnival is doubtless the
lineal descendant of some mythical personage of remote Greek and
Roman antiquity.

605 R. Wünsch, _Das Frühlingsfest der Insel Malta_ (Leipsic, 1902), pp.
29 _sq._, quoting Ciantar’s supplements to Abelas’s _Malta
illustrata_.

M176 Burial of the Carnival at Lerida in Spain.

606 J. S. Campion, _On Foot in Spain_ (London, 1879), pp. 291-295.

M177 Funeral of the Carnival in France. Execution of Shrove Tuesday in
the Ardennes and Franche-Comté.

607 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 37 _sq._ The name Caramantran is
thought to be compounded of _carême entrant_, “Lent entering.” It is
said that the effigy of Caramantran is sometimes burnt (E. Cortet,
_Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_, Paris, 1867, p. 107).

608 L. Pineau, _Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), p. 493.

609 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, légendes et contes des Ardennes_
(Charleville, 1890), p. 63. According to the writer, the custom of
burning an effigy of Shrove Tuesday or the Carnival is pretty
general in France.

610 Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 30. In
Beauce and Perche the burning or burial of Shrove Tuesday used to be
represented in effigy, but the custom has now disappeared. See F.
Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris, 1902),
i. 320 _sq._

M178 Burial of Shrove Tuesday in Normandy. Burning Shrove Tuesday at
Saint-Lô.

611 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), ii. 148-150.

612 Madame Octave Feuillet, _Quelques années de ma vie_5 (Paris, 1895),
pp. 59-61.

M179 Burial of Shrove Tuesday or the Carnival in Brittany.

613 P. Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris,
1886), pp. 227 _sq._

614 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des Provinces de
France_, p. 206.

615 P. Sébillot, _Le Folk-lore de France_, ii. (Paris, 1905) p. 170.

616 P. Sébillot, _l.c._

617 J. L. M. Nogues, _Les Mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_
(Saintes, 1891), p. 60. As to the trial and condemnation of the
Carnival on Ash Wednesday in France, see further Bérenger-Féraud,
_Superstitions et survivances_, iv. 52 _sq._

618 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p.
93.

M180 Burying the Carnival in Germany and Austria.

619 See above, p. 209.

620 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p.
371.

621 J. Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_ (Vienna,
1885), pp. 284 _sq._

622 K. von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_, pp. 162 _sqq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 411.

623 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p.
374; compare A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg
im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 54 _sq._, § 71.

624 E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 372.

625 E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 373.

626 E. Meier, _op. cit._ pp. 373, 374.

627 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,
1859), ii. p. 130, § 393.

M181 Burning the Carnival in Greece. Esthonian custom on Shrove Tuesday.

_ 628 Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 206.

629 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_
(St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 353.

M182 Resurrection enacted in these ceremonies.

630 E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 374.

631 H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_ (Leipsic, 1855), p. 54.

M183 Carrying out Death in Bavaria.

_ 632 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 958.

633 J. Boemus, _Omnium gentium mores, leges, et ritus_ (Paris, 1538), p.
83.

_ 634 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 958.

635 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 639 _sq._; W. Mannhardt,
_Baumkultus_, p. 412.

636 Sepp, _Die Religion der alten Deutschen_ (Munich, 1876), p. 67.

637 Fr. Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), p. 283.

M184 Carrying out Death in Thüringen.

638 Aug. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna,
1878), p. 193.

639 A. Witzschel, _op. cit._ p. 199; J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch,
Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Überlieferungen im Voigtlande_
(Leipsic, 1867), pp. 171 _sq._

640 Fr. Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), p. 283 note, quoting J.
K. Zeumer, _Laetare vulgo Todten Sonntag_ (Jena, 1701), pp. 20
_sqq._; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 640 _sq._ The words of
the song are given as “_So treiben wir den todten auss_,” but this
must be a mistake for “_So treiben wir den Tod hinaus_,” as the line
is given by P. Drechsler (_Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in
Schlesien_, i. 66). In the passage quoted the effigy is spoken of as
“_mortis larva_.”

641 Zacharias Schneider, _Leipziger Chronik_, iv. 143, cited by K.
Schwenk, _Die Mythologie der Slaven_ (Frankfort, 1853), pp. 217
_sq._, and Fr. Kauffmann, _Balder_, pp. 284 _sq._

M185 Carrying out Death in Silesia.

642 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i.
65-71. Compare A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus
Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 281 _sq._

643 F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” _Globus_,
lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.

M186 Carrying out Death in Bohemia.

644 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 642.

645 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 90 _sq._

_ 646 Ibid._ p. 91.

M187 Carrying out Death in Moravia.

647 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna
and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 353-355.

M188 The effigy of Death feared and abhorred.

648 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 644; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der
Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 55; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Branch
und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. 70 _sq._

649 J. Grimm, _op. cit._ ii. 640, 643; P. Drechsler, _op. cit._ i. 70.
See also above, p. 236.

650 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich_
(Vienna, 1859), pp. 294 _sq._; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender
aus Böhmen_, p. 90.

651 See above, p. 236.

652 See above, pp. 234, 235, 236, 237.

653 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 80.

654 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p.
211.

_ 655 Ibid._ p. 210.

M189 Sawing the Old Woman at Mid-Lent in Italy.

656 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 652; H. Usener, "Italische
Mythen," _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx. (1875) pp. 191 _sq._

657 G. Pitrè, _Spettacoli e feste popolari siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881),
pp. 207 _sq._, _id._, _Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del
popolo siciliano_, i. 107 _sq._

_ 658 Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari_, iv. (1885) pp.
294 _sq._

659 H. Usener, _op. cit._ p. 193.

660 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 43
_sq._

661 E. Martinengo-Cesaresco, in _The Academy_, No. 671, March 14, 1885,
p. 188.

M190 Sawing the Old Woman at Mid-Lent in France.

662 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et légendes du centre de la France_
(Paris, 1875), i. 43 _sq._

M191 Sawing the Old Woman at Mid-Lent in Spain and among the Slavs.

663 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 652; H. Usener, “Italische
Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx. (1875) pp. 191 _sq._

664 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen
Volksbrauch,” _Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde_, xi. (1903) p.
239.

M192 Sawing the Old Woman on Palm Sunday among the gypsies.

665 H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner_
(Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 145 _sq._

M193 Seven-legged effigies of Lent in Spain.

666 E. Cortet, _Essai sur les fêtes religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 107
_sq._; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et légendes du centre de la
France_, i. 45 _sq._ A similar custom appears to be observed in
Minorca. See _Globus_, lix. (1891) pp. 279, 280.

M194 Seven-legged effigies of Lent in Italy.

667 A. de Nino, _Usi e costumi abruzzesi_, ii. 203-205 (Florence, 1881);
G. Finamore, _Credenze, usi e costumi abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890),
pp. 112, 114.

668 G. Amalfi, _Tradizioni ed usi nella Penisola Sorrentina_ (Palermo,
1890), p. 41.

669 Lucy E. Broadwood, in _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) p. 390.

M195 The custom of carrying out Death is often followed by the ceremony
of bringing in Summer, in which the Summer is represented by a tree
or branches.

670 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 89 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 156. This custom has been already
referred to. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 73
_sq._

671 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. 71
_sqq._; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_, p. 82; Philo
vom Walde, _Schlesien in Sage und Brauch_ (Berlin, N.D., preface
dated 1883), p. 122.

672 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, pp. 192
_sq._; compare pp. 297 _sqq._

673 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 643 _sq._; K. Haupt,
_Sagenbuch der Lausitz_, ii. 54 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_,
pp. 412 _sq._; W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p.
211.

M196 New potency of life ascribed to the image of Death. Carrying out
Death at Braller in Transylvania.

674 J. Grimm, _op. cit._ ii. 644; K. Haupt, _op. cit._ ii. 55.

675 J. K. Schuller, _Das Todaustragen und der Muorlef, ein Beitrag zur
Kunde sächsischer Sitte und Sage in Siebenbürgen_ (Hermannstadt,
1861), pp. 4 _sq._ The description of this ceremony by Miss E.
Gerard (_The Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 47-49) is plainly borrowed
from Mr. Schuller’s little work.

676 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna
and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 258 _sq._

M197 Life-giving virtue ascribed to the effigy of Death.

677 P. 247.

678 This is also the view taken of the custom by W. Mannhardt,
_Baumkultus_, p. 419.

679 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich_, pp.
293 _sq._

680 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_, p. 82.

681 Philo vom Walde, _Schlesien in Sage und Brauch_, p. 122; P.
Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. 74.

682 See above, p. 236.

683 See above, pp. 239 _sq._

684 See above, p. 236.

M198 The Summer-tree equivalent to the May-tree. But the Summer-tree is a
revival of the image of Death; hence the image of Death must be an
embodiment of the spirit of vegetation.

685 Above, p. 246.

686 Above, p. 246.

687 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 73 _sqq._

688 Above, p. 246, and J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 644;
Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 87 _sq._

689 Above, p. 246.

690 See above, pp. 250 _sq._

691 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 45 _sqq._

692 Above, pp. 234, 235, 240, 248, 250; and J. Grimm, _Deutsche
Mythologie_,4 ii. 643.

693 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 88. Sometimes
the effigy of Death (without a tree) is carried round by boys who
collect gratuities (J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 644).

694 Above, p. 208.

695 Above, p. 231.

696 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, p.
353; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” in _Verhandlungen der gelehrten
Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2, pp. 10 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 407 _sq._

M199 The names of Carnival, Death, and Summer in the preceding customs
seem to cover an ancient tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation.

697 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 417-421.

M200 Dramatic contests between representatives of Summer and Winter.

698 Olaus Magnus, _De gentium septentrionalium variis conditionibus_,
xv. 8 _sq._ In _Le Temps_, No. 15,669, May 11, 1902, p. 2, there is
a description of this ceremony as it used to be performed in
Stockholm. The description seems to be borrowed from Olaus Magnus.

699 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 637-639; _Bavaria, Landes- und
Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iv. 2, pp. 357 _sq._ See also E.
Krause, “Das Sommertags-Fest in Heidelberg,” _Verhandlungen der
Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, 1895, p. (145); A.
Dieterich, “Sommertag,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii.
(1905) Beiheft, pp. 82 _sqq._

_ 700 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. 369
_sq._

_ 701 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, ii. 259
_sq._; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. pp.
253-256; K. von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_, pp. 167 _sq._ A
dialogue in verse between representatives of Winter and Summer is
spoken at Hartlieb in Silesia, near Breslau. See _Zeitschrift des
Vereins für Volkskunde_, iii. (1893) pp. 226-228.

M201 Dramatic contests between representatives of Summer and Winter.

702 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Völkes in Österreich_, pp.
297 _sq._

703 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 250.

704 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_, pp.
430-436.

705 W. Müller, _op. cit._ p. 259.

M202 Queen of Winter and Queen of May in the Isle of Man.

706 J. Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_
(Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 118-120. It has been suggested
that the name Maceboard may be a corruption of May-sports.

M203 Contests between representatives of Summer and Winter among the
Esquimaux. Canadian Indians drove away Winter with burning brands.

707 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 605. The account of this custom
given by Captain J. S. Mutch is as follows: “The people take a long
rope, the ends of which are tied together. They arrange themselves
so that those born during the summer stand close to the water, and
those born in the winter stand inland; and then they pull at the
rope to see whether summer or winter is the stronger. If winter
should win, there will be plenty of food; if summer should win,
there will be a bad winter.” See Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin
Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History_, xv. (1901) pp. 140 _sq._ At Memphis in Egypt there were
two statues in front of the temple of Hephaestus (Ptah), of which
the more northern was popularly called Summer and the more southern
Winter. The people worshipped the image of Summer and execrated the
image of Winter. It has been suggested that the two statues
represented Osiris and Typhon, the good and the bad god. See
Herodotus, ii. 121, with the notes of Bähr and Wiedemann.

_ 708 Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 38 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858).

M204 The burning of Winter at Zurich.

709 H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aurau,
1884), pp. 164-166; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 498 _sq._

710 Letter to me of Dr. J. S. Black, dated Lauriston Cottage, Wimbledon
Common, 28th May, 1903. In a subsequent letter (dated 9th June,
1903) Dr. Black enclosed some bibliographical references to the
custom which were kindly furnished to him by Professor P. Schmiedel
of Zurich, who speaks of the effigy as a representative of Winter.
It is not expressly so called by H. Herzog and W. Mannhardt. See the
preceding note.

M205 Funeral of Kostrubonko, Kostroma, Kupalo, and Yarilo in Russia.

711 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 221.

712 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 241.

713 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ pp. 243 _sq._; W. Mannhardt,
_Baumkultus_, p. 414.

714 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 414 _sq._; W. R. S. Ralston, _op.
cit._ p. 244.

715 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 245; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p.
416.

716 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; W. R. S. Ralston, _l.c._

M206 The Russian Kostrubonko, Yarilo, and so on, were probably at first spirits of vegetation dying and coming to life again. M207 In these ceremonies grief and gladness, love and hatred appear to be curiously combined. M208 Expulsion of Death sometimes enacted without an effigy.

717 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 644.

718 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 160.

M209 Images of Siva and Pârvatî married, drowned, and mourned for in
India.

719 R. C. Temple, in _Indian Antiquary_, xi. (1882) pp. 297 _sq._

M210 In this Indian custom Siva and Pârvatî seem to be the equivalents of
the King and Queen of May.

720 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 84 _sqq._

721 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 45 _sqq._

M211 The foregoing customs were originally rites intended to ensure the
revival of nature in spring by means of imitative magic. Feelings
with which the primitive savage may have regarded the changes of the
seasons.

722 When the Kurnai of Victoria saw the Aurora Australis, which
corresponds to the Northern Streamers of Europe, they exchanged
wives for the day and swung the severed hand of a dead man towards
it, shouting, “Send it away! do not let it burn us up!” See A. W.
Howitt, “On some Australian Beliefs,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 189; _id._, _Native
Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 276 sq., 430.

M212 In modern Europe the old magical rites for the revival of nature in
spring have degenerated into mere pageants and pastimes.

723 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 242 _sq._

M213 Parallel to the spring customs of Europe in the magical rites of the
Central Australian aborigines.

724 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 4
_sq._, 170.

725 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 170. For a description of some of
these ceremonies see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i.
85 _sqq._

M214 Letter of Mr. M. W. Lampson. M215 Lord Avebury’s statement.

726 Lord Avebury, _Origin of Civilisation_,5 pp. 378 _sq._; compare
_id._, _Prehistoric Times_,5 p. 561.

M216 Opinions of various authorities. M217 Substitutes for corporal punishment in China.

727 De Guignes, _Voyages à Peking, Manille et l’Île de France_, iii.
(Paris, 1808) pp. 114 _sq._

M218 The custom of swinging practised for various reasons. Swinging at
harvest.

728 Above, pp. 156 _sq._

729 B. F. Matthes, _Einige Eigenthumlichkeiten in den Festen und
Gewohnheiten der Makassaren und Buginesen_ (Leyden, 1884), p. 1;
_id._, “Over de âdá’s of gewoonten der Makassaren en Boegineezen,”
_Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van
Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Derde Reeks, Tweede Deel
(Amsterdam, 1885), pp. 169 _sq._

730 H. A. Oldfield, _Sketches from Nipal_ (London, 1880), ii. 351.

731 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 194
_sq._

732 Ch. Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_, ii. 226 _sq._

M219 Swinging for fish and game.

733 J. S. G. Gramberg, “De Troeboekvisscherij,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxiv. (1887) pp. 314 _sq._

734 E. Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjiè_ (Paris, 1876), p. 38. The
same ceremony is performed, oddly enough, to procure the death of an
enemy.

M220 Indian custom of swinging on hooks. Swinging in the rainy season.
Swinging in honour of Krishna. Esthonian custom of swinging at the
summer solstice.

735 Hamilton’s “Account of the East Indies,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and
Travels_, viii. 360 _sq._ In general we are merely told that these
Indian devotees swing on hooks in fulfilment of a vow or to obtain
some favour of a deity. See Duarte Barbosa, _Description of the
Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of the Sixteenth
Century_, translated by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley (Hakluyt Society,
London, 1866), pp. 95 _sq._; Gaspar Balbi’s “Voyage to Pegu,” in
Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix. 398; Sonnerat, _Voyage aux
Indes orientales et à la Chine_, i. 244; S. Mateer, _The Land of
Charity_, p. 220; W. W. Hunter, _Annals of Rural Bengal_,5 p. 463;
_North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 76, § 511.

736 V. Ball, _Jungle Life in India_ (London, 1880), p. 232.

737 W. W. Hunter, _Annals of Rural Bengal_5 (London, 1872), p. 463.

738 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_ (Lahore,
1878), p. 12.

739 Sarat Chandra Mitra, “Notes on two Behari Pastimes,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Society of Bombay_, iii. 95 _sq._

740 H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” _Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, ix. (1848) p. 98. Compare E. T. Dalton,
_Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 314; Monier Williams,
_Religious Life and Thought in India_, p. 137; W. Crooke, “The
Legends of Krishna,” _Folk-lore_, xi. (1900) pp. 21 _sqq._

_ 741 The Hymns of the Rigveda_, vii. 87. 5 (vol. iii. p. 108 of R. T. H.
Griffith’s translation, Benares, 1891); H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion
des Veda_, pp. 444 _sq._

742 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
Leipsic, 1841), ii. 268 _sqq._

743 L. v. Schroeder, “Lihgo (Refrain der lettischen Sonnwendlieder),”
_Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxii.
(1902) pp. 1-11.

M221 Swinging for inspiration.

744 S. W. Tromp, “Uit de Salasila van Koetei,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal-
Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xxxvii. (1888) pp.
87-89.

M222 Swinging as a cure for sickness.

745 J. Perham, “Manangism in Borneo,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), pp. 97 _sq._;
E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_
(London, 1911), pp. 169, 170, 171; H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of
Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. 279.

746 C. Bock, _The Head-hunters of Borneo_ (London, 1881), pp. 110-112.

M223 Athenian festival of swinging.

747 Hyginus, _Astronomica_, ii. 4, pp. 34 _sqq._, ed. Bunte; _id._,
_Fabulae_, 130; Servius and Probus on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 389;
Festus, _s.v._ “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller; Athenaeus,
xiv. 10, p. 618 E F; Pollux, iv. 55; Hesychius, _s.vv._ Ἀλῆτις and
Αἰώρα; _Etymologicum magnum_, _s.v._ Αἰώρα, p. 42. 3; Schol. on
Homer, _Iliad_, xxii. 29. The story of the murder of Icarius is told
by a scholiast on Lucian (_Dial. meretr._ vii. 4) to explain the
origin of a different festival (_Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxv.
(1870) pp. 557 _sqq._; _Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe, p. 280).
As to the swinging festival at Athens see O. Jahn, _Archäologische
Beiträge_, pp. 324 _sq._; Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
antiquités grecques et romaines_, _s.v._ “Aiora”; Miss J. E.
Harrison, in _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_, by Mrs.
Verrall and Miss J. E. Harrison, pp. xxxix. _sqq._

M224 Swinging as a mode of expiation and purification.

748 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ xii. 603: “_Et Varro ait: Suspendiosis
quibus iusta fieri ius non sit, suspensis oscillis veluti per
imitationem mortis parentari._”

749 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 389; _id._, on _Aen._ vi. 741.

750 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 505
_sq._

751 Festus, _s.v._ “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller. This
festival and its origin are also alluded to in a passage of one of
the manuscripts of Servius (on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 389), which is
printed by Lion in his edition of Servius (vol. ii. 254, note), but
not by Thilo and Hagen in their large critical edition of the old
Virgilian commentator. “In _Schol. Bob._ p. 256 we are told that
there was a reminiscence of the fact that, the bodies of Latinus and
Aeneas being undiscoverable, their _animae_ were sought in the air”
(G. E. M. Marindin, _s.v._ “Oscilla,” W. Smith’s _Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Antiquities_,3 ii. 304).

M225 Swinging to promote the growth of plants.

752 Hyginus, _Fab._ 130.

753 Probus on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 385.

754 Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 388 _sqq._

755 See above, p. 157.

M226 Swinging as a festal rite in modern Greece and Italy.

756 W. G. Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858), p. 274.

757 J. T. Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), p. 5.

758 J. T. Bent, quoted by Miss J. E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments
of Ancient Athens_, p. xliii.

759 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), p. 36.
In one village the custom is observed on Ascension Day instead of at
Christmas.

760 Valdés, _Los Majos de Cadiz_, extract sent to me in the original
Spanish by Mr. W. Moss, of 21 Abbey Grove, Bolton, March 23rd, 1907.

M227 Swinging at festivals in spring.

761 E. Doutté, _Magie et religion dans l’Afrique du nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 580 _sq._

762 W. W. Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and
Superstitions of Korea,” _American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891) pp.
185 _sq._

763 Pausanias, v. 1. 4.

764 Pausanias, vi. 20. 9.

_ 765 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 88 _sq._

766 J. L. van Hasselt, “Aanteekeningen aangaande de gewoonten der
Papoeas in de Dorebaai, ten opzichte van zwangerschap en geboorte,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xliii.
(1901) p. 566.

767 J. H. Letteboer, “Eenige aanteekeningen omtrent de gebruiken bij
zwangerschap en geboorte onder de Savuneezen,” _Mededeelingen van
wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. 45.