Chapter XVII: Types of Animal Sacrament (4)

Sky God, the, i. 69

—— -god Zeus, i. 65

Skye, harvest custom in, i. 284

Slaves of the Earth Gods, ii. 61, 62 _n._ 1

Slavonic peoples, harvest customs among, i. 144 _sqq._

Slayers of leopards, rules of diet observed by, ii. 230 _sq._

Slow-footed animals not eaten by some savage tribes, ii. 139 _sq._;
eaten by preference by the Bushmen, 140 _sq._

Small-pox, cure for, i. 9 _sq._

Smearing the body as a means of imparting certain qualities, ii. 162
_sqq._

—— of blood on worshippers a mode of communion with the deity, ii. 316

Smintheus Apollo, ii. 283

Smith, Professor, G. C., ii. 329

Smith, W. Robertson, i. 259 _n._ 1, ii. 5 _n._ 2, 27 _n._ 5, 31 _n._ 1, 35
_n._ 2, 251 _n._ 5, 266 _n._ 1, 280 _n._

Smoking as a means of inducing state of ecstasy, ii. 72;
in honour of slain bears, 224, 226

—— first tobacco of season, ceremony at, ii. 82

Snake worshipped, ii. 316 _sq._;
white, eaten to acquire supernatural knowledge, 146.
_See_ Serpent

—— -bite, inoculation against, ii. 160

—— -priest, ii. 219

—— tribe, ii. 316, 317

Snake’s tongue as amulet, ii. 270

Snakes respected by the North American Indians, ii. 217 _sqq._;
sacred at Whydah, 287;
souls of dead in, 293, 294 _sq._;
souls of dead princes in, 288

Society, stratification of religion according to types of, ii. 35 _sqq._

—— Islanders, i. 312

Solar and lunar time, attempts to harmonise, i. 80 _sq._

Solomon Islands, ii. 85, 126, 127;
belief in the transmigration of souls in the, 296 _sqq._

Solstice, the midsummer, rain-making ceremony at the, ii. 179

—— the summer, i. 117

—— the winter, ii. 325;
festival of, 90

Solstices observed, i. 125

Somerville, Professor W., i. 193 _n._

Songish or Lkungen tribe of Vancouver Island, ii. 254

Songs of the corn-reapers, i. 214 _sqq._

Sophocles, his play _Triptolemus_, i. 54

Soul thought to be seated in the liver, ii. 147 _sq._

—— of rice, i. 180 _sqq._;
eating the, ii. 54

—— -stuff in the East Indies, i. 182 _sq._

Souls, immortal, attributed by savages, to animals, ii. 204;
of the human dead in caterpillars, 275 _sq._;
transmigration of human, into animals, 285 _sqq._

South American Indians, women’s agricultural work among the, i. 120 _sqq._

Southey, R., quoted, i. 122, ii. 157

Sowing, festival of Demeter at, i. 46 _n._ 2;
sacrifice to Demeter at, 57;
Festival of the, 111;
time of, determined by observation of the sun, 187;
goat killed at, 288;
ceremonies at, ii. 57;
customs observed by Saxons of Transylvania at, 274 _sq._

—— and planting, time of, determined by the appearance of the Pleiades, i.
313 _sqq._

Sowing in Greece, time for, i. 45

—— festival of the Kayans, i. 93 _sqq._

—— seed to make children grow, i. 11

Sowing the seed done by women, i. 113 _sqq._;
done by children, 115 _sq._

Spades and hoes, human victim killed with, i. 239, 251

Sparrows, charm to keep them from the corn, ii. 274

Spearing taro stalks, as a charm, i. 102, 103

Spell and prayer, i. 105

Spells for growth of crops, i. 100;
narrative, 104 _sqq._;
imperative, 105

Spencer, Herbert, his theory of the material universe compared to that of
Empedocles, ii. 303 _sqq._

Spiders, ceremony at killing, ii. 236 _sq._

Spieth, J., ii. 59 _sqq._

Spindle used in ritual, ii. 119

Spinning acorns or figs, i. 102

—— tops, i. 95, 97, 187

Spirit of Beans, Iroquois, i. 177

—— of the Corn, Iroquois, i. 177. _See_ Corn-spirit

—— of Squashes, Iroquois, i. 177

Spirits, evil, averted from children, i. 6 _sqq._;
of the dead supposed to influence the crops, 104;
distinguished from gods, 169;
imitation of, 186

Spittle, virtue of, i. 247, 250

Sports, athletic, at harvest, i. 76 _sq._ _See also_ Contests, Games

Spring, ceremony at beginning of, in China, ii. 10 _sqq._

—— customs and harvest customs compared, i. 167 _sqq._

—— festival of Dionysus, i. 15

Springbok not eaten, ii. 141

Squirrels, souls of dead in, ii. 291 _sq._

Sri, Hindoo goddess of crops, i. 182

Star, the Morning, i. 238

Stars, their supposed influence on the weather, i. 318

Stepping or jumping over a woman, ii. 70 _n._ 1

Sternberg, Leo, ii. 196, 199 _n._ 1, 201

Stettin, harvest customs near, i. 220

Stevenson, Mrs. Matilda Coxe, quoted, ii. 179

Stewart, Balfour, ii. 262 _n._ 1

Sticks. _See_ Digging-sticks

Stiens of Cambodia, ii. 237

Stomach of eater, certain foods forbidden to meet in, ii. 83 _sqq._

Stone, magic of heavy, i. 100

—— Age, agriculture in the, i. 79, 132

Stones fastened to last sheaf, i. 135 _sq._, 138, 139;
the meeting of the, 237;
worshipped, ii. 127 _sq._

Stories told as charms, i. 102 _sqq._

Stout, Professor G. F., 261 _n._ 1

Stranger regarded as representative of the corn-spirit, i. 225 _sqq._

Strangers excluded, i. 94, 111, 249;
preferred as human victims, 242;
as representatives of the corn-spirit, 253

Strata of religion and society, ii. 36 _sq._

Stratification of religion according to types of society, ii. 35 _sqq._

Straw, the Yule, i. 301 _sq._;
of Shrovetide Bear used to make geese and hens lay eggs, ii. 326

—— -bear at Whittlesey, ii. 329

—— -bull, i. 289 _sq._

—— -man placed on apple-tree, ii. 6

Stubble-cock, i. 277

Styria, harvest customs in, i. 133, 134, 283

Sublician bridge at Rome, ii. 107

Substitutes for animal sacrifices, ii. 94 _n._ 2

“Substitutes for a person” in China, ii. 104

Subterranean Zeus, i. 66

Sudanese negroes respect ravens, ii. 221

Sufferings and death of Dionysus, i. 17

Sugar-cane cultivated, i. 121, 123

Suk, the, of British East Africa, i. 118, ii. 84, 142

Sumatra, i. 315;
tigers respected in, ii. 215 _sqq._

Summer in Greece rainless, i. 69

Sun, time of sowing determined by observation of the, i. 187;
Japanese deities of the, 212;
first-fruits offered to the, 237;
savage observation of the, 314;
rites instituted by the, ii. 75;
temple of the, 135

—— and moon conjunction of, ii. 15 _n._ 1

—— father of Alectrona, ii. 45

—— -god, the, i. 86

——, moon, and planets, human victims sacrificed to, i. 261 _sq._

——, the Great, title of head chief of the Natchez, ii. 77 _sqq._

Sunflower root, ceremony at eating the, ii. 81

Sunkalamma, a goddess, ii. 93

Superstitious practices to procure good crops, i. 100

Supper, the harvest, i. 134, 138. _See_ Harvest-supper

Survival of the fittest, doctrine of the, ii. 306

Sutherlandshire, ii. 51

Swabia, harvest customs in, i. 136, 282, 289, 290, 298 _sq._

Swallow Song, the Greek, ii. 322 _n._

Swans, transmigration of bad poets into, ii. 308

Sweat of famous warriors drunk, ii. 152

Sweden, harvest customs in, i. 149, 230, 280

Sweet potatoes cultivated in Africa, i. 117;
cultivated in Assam, 123;
cultivated in New Britain, 123;
cultivated in South America, 121;
sacred, ii. 133

Swine, wild, their ravages in the corn, ii. 31 _sqq._

Swine’s flesh sacramentally eaten, ii. 20, 24. _See also_ Pork

Swinging for good crops, i. 101, 103, 107

Switzerland, harvest customs in, i. 283, 289, 291, 295

Syleus, i. 257 _sq._

Sympathetic magic, i. 102, ii. 271, 311 _sq._

Syria, precaution against caterpillars in, ii. 279

Syrians, their religious attitude to pigs, ii. 23;
esteemed fish sacred, 26

Szis, the, of Burma, i. 203

Tabooed village, ii. 122

Taboos observed at the sowing festival among the Kayans, i. 94;
observed by enchanters, 100;
communal, 109 _n._ 2;
agricultural, 187;
relating to milk, ii. 83 _sq._;
observed after the capture of a ground seal, walrus, or whale, 246

Tahiti, ii. 132; funeral rites in, 97

Tail of corn-spirit, 268, 272, 300, ii. 10, 43

Talaings, the, i. 190

Tales told as charms, i. 102 _sqq._;
the resurrection of the body in popular, ii. 263 _sqq._

Tamara, island of, ii. 296

Tammuz, his death in a mill, i. 258;
a Babylonian month, 259

Tana, one of the New Hebrides, ii. 125

Tanala, the, of Madagascar, i. 9, ii. 290

Tanganyika plateau, the, i. 115

Tani, a god, ii. 132

Tano, a fetish, ii. 287

Tapir, custom of Indians after killing a, ii. 236

Tapirs, souls of dead in, ii. 285

Tapuiyas, the, of Brazil, i. 309

Tarahumare Indians of Mexico, i. 227 _sq._, ii. 252

Tarianos Indians, ii. 157

Taro, charms for growth of, i. 100, 102

Tarri Pennu, a Khond goddess, i. 245

Tauaré Indians, ii. 157

Taungthu, the, i. 190

Tears of human victim signs of rain, i. 248, 250;
of oxen as rain-charm, ii. 10

Teasing animals before killing them, ii. 190

Telephus at Pergamus, ii. 85

Temples dedicated to sharks, ii. 292

Tenimber, island, ii. 123

Teton Indians, ii. 236

Tetzcatlipoca, a Mexican god, ii. 92, 93, 165

Thargelion, an Attic month, ii. 8

Thay, the, of Indo-China, ii. 121

Thebes, grave of Dionysus at, i. 14;
Dionysus torn to pieces at, 25

Theocritus on the harvest-home, i. 46 _sq._

Thesmophoria, the, i. 14, ii. 17 _sqq._;
chastity of women at the, i. 116

Thigh, sinew of the, customs and myths as to, ii. 264 _sqq._

Thlinkeet or Tlingit, the, ii. 253

Thompson Indians, ii. 81, 82, 133, 140, 207, 226, 268

Thrace, worship of Dionysus in, i. 3;
the Bacchanals of, 17;
modern Carnival customs in, 25 _sqq._, ii. 331 _sqq._

Thresher tied up in last sheaf, i. 134, 147, 148

Threshers, contests between, i. 147 _sqq._, 218, 219 _sq._, 221 _sq._, 223
_sq._, 253;
pretend to throttle or thresh people on threshing-floor, 149 _sq._, 230;
tied in straw and thrown into water, 224 _sq._

Threshing, customs at, i. 134, 147 _sqq._, 203;
contests in, 218 _sqq._;
corn-spirit killed at, 291 _sq._

—— -cow, i. 291

—— -dog, i. 271

—— -floor, Demeter at the, i. 41 _sq._, 47;
of Triptolemus at Eleusis, 61, 72, 75;
sanctity of the, ii. 110 _n._ 4

—— in Greece, date of, i. 62

Throttling farmer’s wife at threshing, pretence of, i. 150

Thumbs of dead enemies cut off, ii. 272

Thüringen, harvest customs in, i. 147, 222, 232, 276, 290, 291, 298

Thurn, E. F. im. quoted, ii. 204

Tibetans, the, ii. 96

Tiger, ghost of, ii. 155 _n._ 4

Tiger’s flesh eaten to make men brave, ii. 145

Tigers, ceremonies at killing, ii. 215, 216 _sq._;
respected in Sumatra, 215 _sq._;
kinship of men with, 216;
souls of dead in, 293

Tilling of the earth treated as a crime, ii. 57

Timekeepers, natural, i. 53

Timor, island of, ii. 98

Timor-laut, ii. 123, 244

Tinneh Indians, ii. 80, 220

Titans attack and kill Dionysus, i. 12 _sq._, 17

Tjumba, island of, ii. 122

Tlaloc, Mexican god of thunder, i. 237

Toad, figure of, ii. 193, 194;
soul of dead man in a, 291

Tobacco used as an emetic, ii. 73;
first of season, ceremony at smoking, 82

Todas, their sacrament of buffalo’s flesh, ii. 314

Toepffer, J., quoted, i. 73

Toerateyas, the, i. 196 _n._

Tofoke, the, i. 119

Togoland, i. 130, ii. 59, 105, 105

Tolalaki, the, ii. 152

Tomb, sacrifices at, ii. 113

Tomori, the, of Central Celebes, i. 193 _sq._, 288

_Tondi_, soul-stuff, i. 182

Tonga Islands, ii. 28;
offerings of first-fruits in the, 128 _sqq._

Tongues of birds eaten, ii. 147;
of slain men eaten, 153;
of dead animals cut out, 269 _sqq._;
of animals worn as amulets, 270

Tonsure, the clerical, ii. 105 _n._ 1

Tooitonga, the sacred chief of Tonga, ii. 128, 129, 130, 131

Tops, spinning, i. 95, 97, 187

Toradjas, the, of Central Celebes, i. 183, 193, 194, 228, ii. 153

Torch-bearer, the Eleusinian, i. 54, 59

Torches in relation to Demeter and Persephone, i. 57

Torchlight dance, ii. 79;
procession at Eleusis, i. 38

Torres Straits islands, i. 313, ii. 152, 153

Tortoises not eaten, ii. 140

Tossing successful reaper, i. 154

Totem, skin-disease supposed to be caused by eating, ii. 25 _sq._

—— sacrament, ii. 165

Totemic animals, dances in imitation of, ii. 76

Totemism, ii. 35, 37;
not proved for the Aryans, 4;
in Australia and America, 311

Transformation of woman into crocodile, ii. 212

Transmigration of human souls into animals, ii. 141, 285 _sqq._;
into turtles, 178 _sq._;
into bears, 191

—— of souls, doctrine of, in ancient India, ii. 298 _sq._;
in ancient Greece, 300 _sqq._, 307 _sq._

Transmigrations of Buddha, ii. 299

Transubstantiation, ii. 89 _sq._

Transylvania, harvest customs in, i. 221, 276, 278, 280, 285, 295;
customs at sowing in, ii. 274 _sq._

Travancore, i. 8;
custom at executions in, ii. 272

Treasury Islanders, i. 313

Trees in relation to Dionysus, i. 3 _sq._;
spirits of the dead in, ii. 124

Triptolemus, i. 37, 38, ii. 19;
agent of Demeter, i. 54, 72 _sq._;
sacrifices to, 56;
his Threshing-floor at Eleusis, 61, 72, 75;
in Greek art, 68 _n._ 1;
sows seed in Rarian plain, 70;
the corn-hero, 72 _sq._

Tristram, H. B., ii. 31 _sq._

Troezenians, the, ii. 133

Trumpets in rites of Dionysus, i. 15

Tschwi, the, of West Africa, ii. 98

Tsimshian Indians of British Columbia, ii. 254

Tucanos Indians, ii. 157

Tug of War, i. 103 _n._ 1, 110 _n._

Tupi Indians of Brazil, ii. 272

Tupinambas, the, i. 122

Turmeric cultivated, i. 245, 250

Turtles, killing the sacred, ii. 175 _sqq._;
transmigration of human souls into, 178 _sq._

Tusayan, an ancient province of Arizona, i. 312

Twelfth Day, ii. 320, 321, 327, 329

Twelve Gods, the, ii. 8

Twin, ghost of a, ii. 98

—— girl charged with special duty, ii. 280

Two Goddesses, the, i. 56, 59, 73, 90

Types of animal sacrament, ii. 310 _sqq._

Typhon, i. 262, 263, ii. 30, 31, 33, 34, 100

Tyrol, harvest customs in the, i. 163, 224, 273, 286

Tzentales of Mexico, ii. 241

Uaupes River, tribes of the, i. 121

Uganda, ii. 213

Underground Zeus, i. 45, 50

Unleavened bread, ii. 137

Usagara hills, German East Africa, i. 240

Varro, on the rites of Eleusis, i. 88;
on killing oxen in Attica, ii. 6;
on sacrifice of goat, ii. 41

Vedijovis, i. 33

Venison, Esquimau rules as to eating, ii. 84;
not eaten, 144;
not brought into hut by door, 242 _sq._;
reason for not eating, 286, 293

Vera Cruz, the tribes of, i. 310

Vermin propitiated by farmers, ii. 274 _sqq._;
images of, made as a protection against them, 280 _sq._

Verres, C., i. 65

Vessels, new or specially reserved, to hold new fruits, ii. 50, 53, 65,
66, 72, 81, 83;
special, reserved for eating bear’s flesh, 196, 198

Vestal virgins, ii. 42

Vicarious use of images, ii. 96 _sqq._

Victim, human, taken in procession from door to door, i. 247

Victims, human, treated as divine, i. 250;
assimilated to gods, 261 _sq._

Victoria, aborigines of, i. 127

Vicuña not eaten, ii. 140

Village tabooed, ii. 122

Vine in relation to Dionysus, i. 2

Vintage, first-fruits of, ii. 133;
inaugurated by priests, 133

—— in Greece, time of, i. 47

Vintagers and vine-diggers, i. 257 _sq._

Virbius and the horse, ii. 40 _sqq._

Virgil as an enchanter, ii. 281

Virgins sacrificed, i. 237

Vitzilipuztli, a Mexican god, ii. 86, 87, 88

Viza in Thrace, i. 26

Vizyenos, G. M., i. 25 _n._ 4, 26

Volos, the beard of, i. 233

Vomiting as a religious rite, ii. 73, 75

Vosges Mountains, harvest customs in the, i. 272, 279, 281

Vulture, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Wa, the Wild, i. 241 _sqq._

Wabondei, the, ii. 142

Wadowe, the, i. 118

Wagogo, the, ii. 26, 142, 149, 276

Wahehe, the, ii. 26

Waheia, the, ii. 26

Wajagga, the, of East Africa, ii. 276

—— warriors, ii. 143

_Wakan_, ii. 180 _n._ 2

Wales, harvest customs in, i. 142 _sqq._

Wallace, A. R., quoted, i. 121 _sq._

Wamegi, the, of German East Africa, i. 240

Wanyamwezi, the, i. 118, ii. 227

War dance, ii. 79

Washing as a ceremonial purification, ii. 27 _sq._, 71, 84, 85

Wataturu, the, ii. 84

Weasels, superstition of farmers as to, ii. 275

Weevils, spared by Esthonian peasants, ii. 274

Weihaiwei, ii. 11

Welsh, Miss, i. 155 _n._ 1

Wemba, the, ii. 158

Wends, harvest customs among the, i. 138, 149, 276

Wermland, harvest customs in, i. 230, ii. 48

Westphalia, harvest customs in, i. 135 _sq._, 138, 277 _sq._, 296, 297

Wetar, island, ii. 25

Whales, ceremonies observed after the slaughter of, ii. 232 _sqq._

Wheat-bride, i. 162, 163

—— -cock, i. 276

Wheat-cow, i. 289

—— -dog, i. 272

—— -mallet at threshing, i. 148

—— -man, i. 223

—— -mother, i. 135

—— -sow, i. 298

—— -wolf, i. 273, 274

Whetham, W. C. D., ii. 305 _n._ 2

White Maize, Goddess of the, i. 261

—— ram, ii. 313

Whittlesey in Cambridgeshire, the Straw-bear at, ii. 328 _sq._

Whydah, snakes sacred at, ii. 287

Widows and widowers, disability of, ii. 253 _sq._

Wiedemann, Prof. A., ii. 35 _n._ 4

Wild animals propitiated by hunters, ii. 204 _sqq._

—— fig trees, sacred, ii. 113

—— fruits and roots, ceremonies at gathering the first of the season, ii.
80 _sqq._

—— seeds and roots collected by women, i. 124 _sqq._

—— Wa, the, i. 241 _sqq._

Wilkinson, R. J., i. 181 _sq._

Winamwanga, the, ii. 112

Wine, new, offered to Liber, ii. 133

Winnowing done by women, i. 117, 128

—— -basket, image of snake in, ii. 316

—— -fan, an emblem of Dionysus, i. 5 _sqq._;
as cradle, 6 _sqq._;
used to scatter ashes of human victims, 260, 262

Winter, name given to man who cuts the last sheaf, i. 142;
name of harvest-supper, 160

—— festival of Dionysus, i. 16 _sq._

—— solstice, ii. 325;
festival of, 90

Witch, burning the Old, i. 224

Witchcraft, protection against, i. 156, ii. 324

Wolf, corn-spirit as, i. 271 _sqq._, ii. 327;
stuffed, carried about, i. 275;
ceremonies at killing a, ii. 220 _sq._, 223.
_See also_ Wolves

Wolf’s heart eaten, ii. 146

—— skin, man clad in, i. 275

Wolfish Apollo, ii. 283 _sq._

Wollaroi, the, of New South Wales, ii. 163

Wolves, sacrifices offered to, ii. 284;
transmigration of sinners into, 308

Woman’s part in primitive agriculture, i. 113 _sqq._

Women, influence of corn-spirit on, i. 168;
who have died in childbed, attempts to deceive their ghosts, ii. 97
_sq._;
thought to have no soul, ii. 148

—— milk cows, i. 118

—— swear by the Pleiades, i. 311

Women’s race at harvest, i. 76 _sq._

Wood-spirits in goat form, ii. 2 _sq._

—— woman, i. 232

Woodford, C. M., ii. 126

Words, special, used by reapers, i. 193

Worm, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Worms, souls of dead in, ii. 289

Worship of cattle, ii. 35 _sqq._;
of animals, two forms of the, 311;
of snake, 316 _sq._

Worshipful animal killed once a year, ii. 322

_Wrach_ (Hag), name given to last corn cut in Wales, i. 142 _sqq._

Wreath of corn, i. 134

Wren, hunting the, ii. 317 _sqq._;
called the king of birds, 317;
superstitions as to the, 317 _sq._, 319

Wrestling, i. 98, ii. 131

Würtemburg, harvest customs in, i. 286, 287

Xanthicus, a Macedonian month, i. 259 _n._ 1

Xenophon, on Triptolemus, i. 54

Xochiquetzal, a Mexican goddess, i. 237

Yabim, the, of German New Guinea, i. 104 _sqq._, 228, ii. 275, 295

Yams, charm for growth of, i. 100, 101;
cultivated in Africa, 119;
cultivated in New Britain, 123;
cultivated in South America, 120, 121;
dug by Australian aborigines, 126 _sq._;
ceremonies at eating the new, ii. 53, 58 _sqq._

—— festival of the new, ii. 115;
in Tonga, 128 _sqq._

Yang-Seri, prayers to, ii. 33

Yaos, the, ii. 111 _sq._

Year, beginning of, marked by appearance of Pleiades, i. 309, 310, 312,
313, 314, 315;
divided into thirteen moons, ii. 77

Yellow Demeter, i. 41 _sq._

Yezo or Yesso, ii. 180, 185

Yombe, the, ii. 112

Yorkshire, harvest customs in, i. 151 _sq._, 224

Yoruba negroes, ii. 149

Youngest person cuts the last corn, i. 158, 161

Yuchi Indians, ii. 75, 311 _n._ 1

Yule Boar, i. 300 _sqq._, ii. 43, 328

—— Goat, the, ii. 327 _sq._

—— ram, the, ii. 328

—— straw, i. 301 _sq._

Yuracares Indians of Bolivia, ii. 235, 257

Zabern in Alsace, harvest custom at, i. 297

Zagreus, i. 12

Zambesi, tribes of the Upper, ii. 141

—— region, Caffres of the, ii. 289

Zanzibar, custom at sowing in, i. 233

Zaparo Indians, the, ii. 139

Zapotecs of Mexico, their harvest customs, i. 174 _sq._

Zeus, his intrigue with Persephone, i. 12;
father of Dionysus by Demeter, 12, 14, 66;
his intrigue with Demeter, 66;
surnamed Underground, 45, 50

—— and Demeter, ii. 9; marriage of, i. 65 _sqq._

—— and Hercules, ii. 172

——, Laphystian, i. 25

—— Polieus, ii. 5, 7

—— Sosipolis, ii. 7

——, Subterranean, i. 66, ii. 9

—— the Fly-catcher, ii. 282

Zulu king, dance of the, ii. 66

Zulus, the, ii. 32, 142, 143;
women’s part in agriculture among the, i. 113 _sq._;
their festival of first-fruits, ii. 67;
their inoculation, 160 _sq._

Zuni Indians, their custom of killing sacred turtles, ii. 175 _sqq._

Zurich, harvest customs in the canton of, i. 291, 297

FOOTNOTES

M1 Ancient deities of vegetation as animals.
M2 Dionysus as a goat: his association with the Pans, Satyrs, and
Silenuses, who have been interpreted as semi-goat-shaped deities of
the woods.

1 See above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sqq._

2 Herodotus, ii. 46; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,4 i.
(Berlin, 1894), pp. 745 _sq._; K. Wernicke, in W. H. Roscher’s
_Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1407 _sqq._

3 L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,3 i. 600; W. Mannhardt, _Antike
Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 138.

4 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 139.

5 Julius Pollux, iv. 118.

6 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 142 _sq._

7 Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 361, iii. 312, v. 101; _id._, _Heroides_, iv. 49.

8 Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 22. 3.

9 Homer, _Hymn to Aphrodite_, 262 _sqq._

10 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392; _id._, _Fasti_,
iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by W.
Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 113.

11 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine,
_De civitate Dei_, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_,
iv. 6.

12 Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 14; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392 _sq._;
Martianus Capella, ii. 167.

13 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 138 _sq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_, p. 145.

14 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 10.

15 Above, vol. i. pp. 281 _sqq._

_ 16 Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, ch. iii. pp. 113-211. In the text I
have allowed my former exposition of Mannhardt’s theory as to
ancient semi-goat-shaped spirits of vegetation to stand as before,
but I have done so with hesitation, because the evidence adduced in
its favour appears to me insufficient to permit us to speak with any
confidence on the subject. Pan may have been, as W. H. Roscher and
L. R. Farnell think, nothing more than a herdsman’s god, the
semi-human, semi-bestial representative of goats in particular. See
W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1405
_sq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, v. (Oxford,
1909) pp. 431 _sqq._ And the Satyrs and Silenuses seem to have more
affinity with horses than with goats. See W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon
der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iv. 444 _sqq._

17 Above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._

M3 Wood-spirits in the form of goats.

18 Above, vol. i. pp. 17 _sq._

M4 The bull as an embodiment of Dionysus seems to be another expression
of his character as a god of vegetation.

19 Above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sq._

20 Above, vol. i. pp. 288 _sqq._

21 A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_,2 ii. 252.

22 Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 12 _sqq._

M5 The _bouphonia_, an Athenian sacrifice of an ox to Zeus Polieus.

23 Pausanias, i. 24. 4; _id._, i. 28. 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_,
ii. 29 _sq._; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Scholia on Aristophanes,
_Peace_, 419, and _Clouds_, 985; Hesychius, Suidas, and
_Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ βούφονια; Suidas, _s.v._ Θαύλων; Im.
Bekker’s _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), p. 238, _s.v._
Δυπόλια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by
the Scholiast on Aristophanes and the _Etymologicum Magnum_; and
this date corresponds, according to W. Mannhardt (_Mythologische
Forschungen_, p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No
writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias
speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of
the knife. But from Porphyry’s description it is clear that the
slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the
other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter.
Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King (as to whom see
_The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 44 _sq._) presided at
the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Aristotle
(_Constitution of Athens_, 57) and Julius Pollux (viii. 90, compare
viii. 120).

M6 The ox sacrificed at the _bouphonia_ appears to have embodied the
corn-spirit.

24 The real import of the name _bouphonia_ was first perceived by W.
Robertson Smith. See his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 304 _sqq._
In Cos also an ox specially chosen was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus.
See Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 616; Ch.
Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 716; H. Collitz und
F. Bechtel, _Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii.
pp. 357 _sqq._, No. 3636; J. de Prott et L. Ziehen, _Leges Graecorum
Sacrae e Titulis collectae_, Fasciculus i. (Leipsic, 1896) pp. 19
_sqq._, No. 5; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906),
pp. 17-21. A month Bouphonion, corresponding to the Attic Boedromion
(September), occurred in the calendars of Delos and Tenos. See E.
Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” in _Leipziger Studien
für classische Philologie_, vii. (Leipsic, 1884) p. 414.

25 Varro, _De re rustica_, ii. 5. 4. Compare Columella, _De re
rustica_, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro’s statement may be
merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the _bouphonia_ and the
legend told to explain it.

26 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 409.

27 See _The Dying God_, p. 208.

M7 Sacrifice of an ox to Zeus Sosipolis at Magnesia on the Maeander.
The bull so sacrificed seems to have been regarded as an embodiment
of the corn-spirit.

28 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_2 (Leipsic,
1898-1901), vol. ii. pp. 246-248, No. 553. As to the identification
of the Magnesian month Artemision with the Attic month Thargelion
(May), see Dittenberger, _op. cit._ ii. p. 242, No. 552 note 4. It
is interesting to observe that at Magnesia the sowing took place in
Cronion, the month of Cronus, a god whom the ancients regularly
identified with Saturn, the Italian god of sowing. In Samos,
Perinthus, and Patmos, however, the month Cronion seems to have been
equivalent to the Attic Scirophorion, a month corresponding to June
or July, which could never have been a season of sowing in the hot
rainless summers of Greece. See E. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecarum
antiquioribus,” in _Leipziger Studien für classische Philologie_,
vii. (1884) p. 400; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum
Graecarum_,2 No. 645 note 14, vol. ii. p. 449.

29 In thus interpreting the sacrifice of the bull at Magnesia I follow
the excellent exposition of Professor M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische
Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 23-27.

M8 The Greek conception of the corn-spirit as both male and female.

30 See above, vol. i. pp. 36 _sq._, 65 _sqq._

M9 The ox as a representative of the corn-spirit at Great Bassam in
Guinea.

31 H. Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_
(Leipsic, 1854), pp. 41-43.

32 See above, vol. i. p. 248.

33 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.

34 Franz Cumont, _Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de
Mithra_ (Brussels, 1896-1899), ii. figures 18, 19, 20, 59 (p. 228,
corn-stalks issuing from wound), 67, 70, 78, 87, 105, 143, 168, 215,
also plates v. and vi.

M10 The ox as a personification of the corn-spirit in China.

_ 35 China Review_, i. (July 1872 to June 1873, Hongkong), pp. 62, 154,
162, 203 _sq._; Rev. J. Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, ed.
Paxton Hood (London, 1868), pp. 375 _sq._; Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_
(London, 1878), ii. 115 _sq._

_ 36 Ostasiatischer Lloyd_, March 14, 1890, quoted by J. D. E. Schmeltz,
“Das Pflugfest in China,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,
xi. (1898) p. 79. With this account the one given by S. W. Williams
(_The Middle Kingdom_, New York and London, 1848, ii. 109)
substantially agrees. In many districts, according to the
_Ostasiatischer Lloyd_, the Genius of Spring is represented at this
festival by a boy of blameless character, clad in green. As to the
custom of going with one foot bare and the other shod, see _Taboo
and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 311-313.

37 R. F. Johnston, _Lion and Dragon in Northern China_ (London, 1910),
pp. 180-182.

38 Ed. Chavannes, _Le T’ai Chan, Essai de Monographie d’un Culte
Chinois_ (Paris, 1910), p. 500 (_Annales du Musée Guimet,
Bibliothèque d’Études_, vol. xxi.).

39 See _The Dying God_, pp. 240 _sq._, 250.

M11 The ox as a personification of the corn-spirit in Kashgar and Annam.

40 J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, _Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie,
1890-1895_, i. (Paris, 1897) pp. 95 _sq._ After describing the
ceremony as he witnessed it at Kashgar, the writer adds: “Probably
the ox was at first a living animal which they sacrificed and
distributed the flesh to the bystanders. At the present day the
official who acts as pontiff has a number of small pasteboard oxen
made, which he sends to the notables in order that they may
participate intimately in the sacrifice, which is more than
symbolical. The reason for carrying the ox a long distance is that
as much as possible of the territory may be sanctified by the
passage of the sacred animal, and that as many people as possible
may share in the sacrifice, at least with their eyes and good
wishes. The procession, which begins very early in the morning,
moves eastward, that is, toward the quarter where, the winter being
now over, the first sun of spring may be expected to appear, whose
divinity the ceremony is intended to render propitious. It is
needless to insist on the analogy between this Chinese festival and
our Carnival, at which, about the same season, a fat ox is led
about. Both festivals have their origin in the same conceptions of
ancient natural religion.”

41 Colonel E. Diguet, _Les Annamites, Société, Coutumes, Religions_
(Paris, 1906), pp. 250-253.

42 See above, vol. i. pp. 41 _sq._, and below, pp. 21 _sq._

M12 Annual inauguration of ploughing by the Chinese emperor.

43 Du Halde, _The General History of China_, Third Edition (London,
1741), ii. 120-122; Huc, _L’Empire Chinois_5 (Paris, 1879), ii.
338-343; Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 116-118.
Compare _The Sacred Books of China_, translated by James Legge, Part
iii., _The Lî Kî_ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxvii., Oxford,
1885), pp. 254 _sq._: “In this month [the first month of spring] the
son of Heaven on the first day prays to God for a good year; and
afterwards, the day of the first conjunction of the sun and moon
having been chosen, with the handle and share of the plough in the
carriage, placed between the man-at-arms who is its third occupant
and the driver, he conducts his three ducal ministers, his nine high
ministers, the feudal princes and his Great officers, all with their
own hands to plough the field of God. The son of Heaven turns up
three furrows, each of the ducal ministers five, and the other
ministers and feudal princes nine. When they return, he takes in his
hand a cup in the great chamber, all the others being in attendance
on him and the Great officers, and says, ‘Drink this cup of comfort
after your toil.’ In this month the vapours of heaven descend and
those of the earth ascend. Heaven and earth are in harmonious
co-operation. All plants bud and grow.” Here the selection of a day
in spring when sun and moon are in conjunction is significant. Such
conjunctions are regarded as marriages of the great luminaries and
therefore as the proper seasons for the celebration of rites
designed to promote fertility. See _The Dying God_, p. 73.

M13 Analogy of the Chinese custom to the agricultural rites at Eleusis
and elsewhere.

44 See above, pp. 74, 108.

45 See above, p. 93.

46 See above, pp. 94, 109; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,
ii. 105 _sqq._

M14 The rending of live animals in the rites of Dionysus.

47 As to the European customs, see above, p. 12.

M15 Association of the pig with Demeter. Pigs in the ritual of the
Thesmophoria. The sacred serpent at Lanuvium.

48 See above, vol. i. pp. 298 _sqq._

49 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 747.

50 J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, Besonderer Theil, ii.
(Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 493; Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler der alten
Kunst_, ii. pl. viii. 94.

51 Hyginus, _Fab._ 277; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28;
Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 23; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._
747; _id._, on _Frogs_, 338; _id._, on _Peace_, 374; Servius on
Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 380; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16.

52 See above, vol. i. pp. 22 _sq._

53 As to the Thesmophoria see my article “Thesmophoria” in the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, vol. xxiii, 295 _sqq._;
August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898),
pp. 308 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harisson, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_2 (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 120 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson,
_Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 313 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell,
_The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 75 _sqq._
At Thebes and in Delos the Thesmophoria was held in summer, in the
month of Metageitnion (August). See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, v. 2. 29;
M. P. Nilsson _Griechische Feste_, pp. 316 _sq._

54 Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ στήνια, speaks of the ascent of _Demeter_
from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both
Demeter and Persephone as having been engulfed in the chasm
(_Protrept._ ii. 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and
Persephone must be borne steadily in mind.

55 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ στήνια.

56 E. Rohde, “Unedirte Lucians-scholien, die attischen Thesmophorien
und Haloen betreffend,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxv. (1870) p.
548; _Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 275
_sq._ Two passages of classical writers (Clement of Alexandria,
_Protrept._ ii. 17, and Pausanias, ix. 8. 1) refer to the rites
described by the scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly
interpreted by Chr. A. Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, pp. 827 _sqq._) before
the discovery of the scholia.

57 The scholiast speaks of them as _megara_ and _adyta_. The name
_megara_ is thought to be derived from a Phoenician word meaning
“cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” the Hebrew מעךה. See F. C. Moyers,
_Die Phoenizier_ (Bonn, 1841), i. 220. In Greek usage the _megara_
were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See
Hesychius, quoted by Movers, _l.c._ (the passage does not appear in
M. Schmidt’s minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, _De antro
nympharum_, 6; and my note on Pausanias, ii. 2. 1.

58 We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8. 1, though the passage is
incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck
(_Aglaophamus_, pp. 829 _sq._) proposed to read ἀναδῦναι or
ἀναδοθῆαι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea
geese and goats were thrown into the _adyton_ and left there till
the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at
a certain spot a little way from the temple. See Pausanias, x. 32.
14. This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the
caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival.

59 Aelian, _De natura animalium_, xi. 16; Propertius, v. 8. 3-14. The
feeding of the serpent is represented on a Roman coin of about 64
B.C.; on the obverse of the coin appears the head of Juno Caprotina.
See E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République Romaine_ (Paris, 1886),
ii. 402. A common type of Greek art represents a woman feeding a
serpent out of a saucer. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
Edition, p. 75.

M16 Legend told to explain the ritual of the Thesmophoria.

_ 60 Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe, pp. 275 _sq._

61 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “_Sues melius
poeta omisisset in hac narratione_.” Such is the wisdom of the
commentator.

62 Pausanias, i. 14. 3.

63 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 338.

M17 Analogy of the Thesmophoria to the folk-customs of Northern Europe.

64 Above, vol. i. p. 285.

65 Above, vol. i. p. 290.

66 Above, vol. i. p. 278.

67 Above, vol. i. p. 300.

68 Above, vol. i. pp. 300 _sq._

69 In Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες
χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, p. 831) would read
μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias,
see above, p. 18 note 1.

70 It is worth nothing that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of
Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 131), the pig was esteemed
very sacred and was not eaten (Athenaeus, ix. 18, pp. 375 F-376 A).
This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten
sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria.

M18 The horse-headed Demeter of Phigalia.

71 Pausanias, viii. 42.

72 Above, vol. i. pp. 292 _sqq._

73 Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. At the sanctuary of the Mistress (that
is, of Persephone) in Arcadia many terracotta statuettes have been
found which represent draped women with the heads of cows or sheep.
They are probably votive images of Demeter or Persephone, for the
ritual of the sanctuary prescribed the offering of images
(Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939, vol. ii.
pp. 803 _sq._). See P. Perdrizet, “Terres-cuites de Lycosoura, et
mythologie arcadienne,” _Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique_,
xxiii. (1899) p. 635; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic,
1906), pp. 347 _sq._ On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt,
_Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 244 _sqq._ I well remember how on a
summer afternoon I sat at the mouth of the shallow cave, watching
the play of sunshine on the lofty wooded sides of the ravine and
listening to the murmur of the stream.

M19 Attis and the pig.

74 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 221. On the position
of the pig in ancient Oriental and particularly Semitic religion,
see F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841), pp. 218 _sqq._

_ 75 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 220.

76 Demosthenes, _De corona_, p. 313.

77 The suggestion was made to me in conversation by my lamented friend,
the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

M20 Adonis and the boar. Ambiguous position of pigs at Hierapolis.

78 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 8; and to the
authorities there cited add Athenaeus, ii. 80, p. 69 B; Cornutus,
_Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv.
5. 3, § 8; Aristides, _Apologia_, II, p. 107, ed. J. Rendel Harris
(Cambridge, 1891); Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 44; Propertius,
iii. 4 (5). 53 _sq._, ed. F. A. Paley; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._
i. 17; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 7; Firmicus Maternus, _De
errore profanarum religionum_, 9; Macrobius, _Saturnal._ i. 21. 4.
See further W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic,
1911), pp. 142 _sqq._

79 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 186.

80 W. Cureton, _Spicilegium Syriacum_ (London, 1855), p. 44.

81 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 54.

82 The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the
flesh (En-Nedîm, in D. Chwolsohn’s _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_,
St. Petersburg, 1856, ii. 42). My friend W. Robertson Smith
conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2nd
April (Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 45) represented Adonis
himself. See his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 290 _sq._, 411.

M21 Attitude of the Jews to the pig.

83 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 5.

84 Isaiah lxv. 3, lxvi. 3, 17. Compare R. H. Kennett, _The Composition
of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and Archaeology_
(London, 1910) p. 61, who suggests that the eating of the mouse as a
sacrament may have been derived from the Greek worship of the Mouse
Apollo (Apollo Smintheus). As to the Mouse Apollo see below, pp. 282
_sq._

M22 Attitude of the ancient Egyptians to the pig. Annual sacrifice of
pigs to Osiris and the moon.

85 Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8; Aelian, _Nat.
Anim._ x. 16. Josephus merely says that the Egyptian priests
abstained from the flesh of swine (_Contra Apionem_, ii. 13).

86 Herodotus, _l.c._

87 Plutarch and Aelian, _ll.cc._

88 Herodotus, _l.c._ At Castabus in Chersonese there was a sacred
precinct of Hemithea, which no one might approach who had touched or
eaten of a pig (Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5).

89 Herodotus, ii. 47 _sq._; Aelian and Plutarch, _ll.cc._ Herodotus
distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris.
According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the
pig’s tail, together with the spleen and the caul, was covered with
fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not
the eve, see H. Stein’s note on the passage) of the festival the
sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door,
then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take
away.

M23 Belief that the eating of a sacred animal causes skin-disease,
especially leprosy.

90 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 432, 452.

91 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 225; Miss A. C. Fletcher
and F. la Flesche, “The Omaha Tribe,” _Twenty-seventh Annual Report
of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1911), p. 144.
According to the latter writers, any breach of a clan taboo among
the Omahas was supposed to be punished either by the breaking out of
sores or white spots on the body of the offender or by his hair
turning white.

92 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, _op. cit._ p. 231.

93 J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1883), p. 59.

94 Plutarch, _De superstitione_, 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iv.
15. As to the sanctity of fish among the Syrians, see also Ovid,
_Fasti_, ii. 473 _sq._; Diodorus Siculus, ii. 4.

95 R. Sutherland Rattray, _Some Folklore Stories and Songs in
Chinyanja_ (London, 1907), pp. 174 _sq._

96 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 307, compare p.
317.

97 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_ (Berlin, 1908), p. 42.

98 J. Kohler, “Das Banturecht in Ostafrika,” _Zeitschrift für
vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft_, xv. (1902) pp. 2, 3.

99 C. W. Hobley, “Anthropological Studies in Kavirondo and Nandi,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 347.

_ 100 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, II. _Draft Articles on
Uriya Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 16.

101 C. Creighton, _s.v._ “Leprosy,” _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. col.
2766.

102 2 Kings v. 27; 2 Chronicles xxvi. 16-21.

M24 Mere contact with a sacred object is deemed dangerous and calls for
purification as a sort of disinfectant.

103 Leviticus xvi. 23 _sq._

104 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples
I am indebted to my friend W. Robertson Smith. Compare his _Religion
of the Semites_,2 pp. 351, 426, 450 _sq._

_ 105 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, VII. _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1911), p. 97.

_ 106 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, I. _Draft Articles on
Hindustani Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 32.

107 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 133 _sq._

_ 108 Op. cit._ pp. 134-136.

109 E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), p. 211; D. Livingstone,
_Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (London, 1857),
p. 255; John Mackenzie, _Ten Years north of the Orange River_
(Edinburgh, 1871), p. 135 note. See further _Totemism and Exogamy_,
ii. 372.

110 J. Mackenzie, _l.c._

111 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 225.

_ 112 Ibid._ p. 275.

113 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 76.

_ 114 Ibid._ p. 70.

115 Captain C. Eckford Luard, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xix.
_Central India_, Part i. (Lucknow, 1902) pp. 299 _sq._; also _Census
of India, 1901_, vol. i. _Ethnographic Appendices_ (Calcutta, 1903),
p. 163.

M25 Thus the pig was probably at first a sacred animal with the
Egyptians, and may have been regarded as an embodiment of the
corn-god Osiris, though at a later time he was looked on as an
embodiment of Typhon, the enemy of Osiris. The havoc wrought by wild
boars in the corn is a reason for regarding them as foes of the
corn-god.

116 Diogenes Laertius, _Vitae Philosophorum_, viii. 8.

117 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, _Nat.
Hist._ xviii. 168.

118 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_
(Paris, 1874), p. 44; _The Book of the Dead_, English translation by
E. A. Wallis Budge (London, 1901), ii. 336 _sq._, chapter cxii.; E.
A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, 1904), i. 496
_sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New
York, 1911), i. 62 _sq._

119 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. E. Lefébure (_op. cit._ p. 46)
recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.

120 This important principle was first recognised by W. Robertson Smith.
See his article, “Sacrifice,” _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth
Edition, xxi. 137 _sq._ Compare his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp.
373, 410 _sq._

121 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31.

M26 Evidence of the depredations committed by wild boars on the crops.

122 H. B. Tristram, _The Natural History of the Bible_, Ninth Edition
(London, 1898), pp. 54 _sq._

123 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
1857), pp. 18-20.

124 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London,
1906), pp. 182 _sq._

125 E. Modigliano, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), pp. 524 _sq._,
601.

126 A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_, (Manilla, 1905), pp. 100, 102.

127 A. Bastian, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Gebirgs-stämme in Kambodia,”
_Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, i. (1866) p.
44.

128 G. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia,
1903), p. 348.

129 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), p. 125.

M27 The ravages of wild boars among the crops help us to understand the
ambiguous attitude of the ancient Egyptians to swine.

130 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_
(Paris, 1874), pp. 48 _sq._

M28 Egyptian sacrifices of red oxen and red-haired men.

131 See above, pp. 260 _sq._; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition,
pp. 331, 338.

132 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 33, 73; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88.

133 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. Compare
Herodotus, ii. 38.

M29 Osiris identified with the sacred bulls Apis and Mnevis.
Stratification of three great types of religion or superstition in
ancient Egypt.

134 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1. 31;
Diodorus Siculus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5
i. 55 _sqq._ On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, with
A. Wiedemann’s comment, iii. 27 _sq._; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii.
14. 7; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184 _sqq._; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21;
Cicero, _De natura deorum_, i. 29; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_,
xviii. 5; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10 _sq._; Plutarch, _Quaest.
Conviv._ viii. 1. 3; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 5, 35; Eusebius,
_Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 13. 1 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 18. 4, vii.
22. 3 _sq._; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones
Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), Nos. 56, 90 (vol. i. pp. 98, 106,
159). Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain
white spots. See A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_
(Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 95, 99-101. When Apis died, pious people
used to put on mourning and to fast, drinking only water and eating
only vegetables, for seventy days till the burial. See A. Erman,
_Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905), pp. 170 _sq._

135 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21.

136 On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and
the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the
pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_,2 pp. 296 _sqq._

137 Herodotus, ii. 41.

138 Herodotus, ii. 41, with A. Wiedemann’s commentary; Plutarch, _Isis
et Osiris_, 19; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 8. In his commentary
on the passage of Herodotus Prof. Wiedemann observes (p. 188) that
“the Egyptian name of the Isis-cow is _ḥes-t_ and is one of the few
cases in which the name of the sacred animal coincides with that of
the deity.”

139 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus
Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned
was perhaps the one from which his drinking-water was procured; he
might not drink the water of the Nile (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_,
5).

140 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 56.

141 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne_4 (Paris, 1886), p. 31. Compare
Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 56. It has been
conjectured that the period of twenty-five years was determined by
astronomical considerations, that being a period which harmonises
the phases of the moon with the days of the Egyptian year. See L.
Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_
(Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 182 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der
mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906), pp.
180 _sq._

M30 On the stratification of religions corresponding to certain social
types.
M31 Reverence of the Dinka for their cattle.

142 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_, Third Edition (London,
1878), i. 59 _sq._

143 E. de Pruyssenaere, _Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen
und Blauen Nil_ (Gotha, 1877), pp. 22 _sq._ (_Petermann’s
Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 50).

M32 Reverence of the Nuehr for their cattle.

144 Ernst Marno, _Reisen im Gebiete des Blauen und Weissen Nil_ (Vienna,
1874), p. 343. The name _Nyeledit_ is explained by the writer to
mean “very great and mighty.” It is probably equivalent to
_Nyalich_, which Dr. C. G. Seligmann gives as a synonym for Dengdit,
the high god of the Dinka. According to Dr. Seligmann, _Nyalich_ is
the locative of a word meaning “above” and, literally translated,
signifies, “in the above.” See C. G. Seligmann, _s.v._ “Dinka,” in
_Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, edited by J. Hastings, D.D.,
vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 707. The Sakalava of Ampasimene, in
Madagascar, are said to worship a black bull which is kept in a
sacred enclosure in the island of Nosy Be. On the death of the
sacred bull another is substituted for it. See A. van Gennep, _Tabou
et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 247 _sq._, quoting J.
Carol, _Chez les Hova_ (Paris, 1898), pp. 418 _sq._ But as the
Sakalava are not, so far as I know, mainly or exclusively a pastoral
people, this example of bull-worship does not strictly belong to the
class illustrated in the text.

M33 The tradition that Virbius had been killed in the character of
Hippolytus by horses, and the custom of excluding horses from the
sacred Arician grove, may point to the conclusion that the horse was
regarded as an embodiment of Virbius and was annually sacrificed in
the grove. Similarly at Athens the goat was usually excluded from
the Acropolis but was admitted once a year for a necessary
sacrifice.

145 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 19 _sqq._

146 See above, vol. i. pp 292-294.

147 Athenaeus, xiii. 51, p. 587 A; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 204.
Compare W. Robertson Smith, in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth
Edition, article “Sacrifice,” vol. xxi. p. 135.

148 Varro, _De agri cultura_, i. 2. 19 _sq._: “_hoc nomine etiam Athenis
in arcem non inigi, praeterquam semel ad necessarium sacrificium._”
By _semel_ Varro probably means once a year.

149 The force of this inference is greatly weakened, if not destroyed,
by a fact which I had overlooked when I wrote this book originally.
A goat was sacrificed to Brauronian Artemis at her festival called
the Brauronia (Hesychius, _s.v._ Βραυρωνίοις; compare Im. Bekker’s
_Anecdota Graeca_, p. 445, lines 6 _sqq._). As the Brauronian
Artemis had a sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens (Pausanias, i.
23. 7), it seems probable that the goat sacrificed once a year on
the Acropolis was sacrificed to her and not to Athena. (Note to
Second Edition of _The Golden Bough_.)

150 Herodotus, ii. 42.

151 It is worth noting that Hippolytus, with whom Virbius was
identified, is said to have dedicated horses to Aesculapius, who had
raised him from the dead (Pausanias, ii. 27. 4).

M34 Annual sacrifice of a horse at Rome in October.

152 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, _Quaestiones
Romanae_, 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by
Julian, _Orat._ v. p. 176 D (p. 228 ed. F. C. Hertlein). It is the
subject of a valuable essay by W. Mannhardt, whose conclusions I
summarise in the text. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_
(Strasburg, 1884), pp. 156-201.

153 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 731 _sqq._, compare 629 _sqq._; Propertius, v. 1.
19 _sq._