Chapter XVII: Types of Animal Sacrament (7)

684 H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_ (London,
1864), i. 252; J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i.
422.

685 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_
(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 420.

M181 Respect shewn to dead sables. Bones of sables and beavers kept out
of reach of dogs, lest the spirits of the dead animals should be
offended.

686 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), ii.
278.

687 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_, iii. 564.

688 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 89; _id._, in
_The Yukon Territory_ (London, 1898), p. 89.

689 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,
p. 92 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association
for 1890_).

690 A. G. Morice, “Notes, archæological, industrial, and sociological,
on the Western Dénés,” _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv.
(1892-93) p. 108.

691 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir, chez les sauvages de la
Colombie Britannique_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 71.

692 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 97
_sq._

_ 693 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 24 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858). Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not
only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. See F.
Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 256 (pp.
178 _sq._ of the reprint, Librairie Tross, Paris, 1865); S. Hearne,
_Journey to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795), pp. 329 _sq._;
_Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; _ibid._ 1639, p. 95;
Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 225;
Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 140 _sqq._ The Hebrews
sacrificed and burned incense to their nets (Habakkuk i. 16). In
some of the mountain villages of Annam the people, who are great
hunters, sacrifice fowls, rice, incense, and gilt paper to their
nets at the festival of the New Year. See Le R. P. Cadière,
“Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So’n,” _Bulletin de
l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) p. 381. When
a net has caught little or nothing, the Ewe negroes think that it
must be hungry; so they call in the help of a priest, who commonly
feeds the hungry net by sprinkling maize-flour and fish, moistened
with palm oil, on its meshes. See G. Härtter, “Der Fischfang im
Evheland,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906) p. 55.

694 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 175, 178 (Paris, Michel
Lévy Frères, 1870). They will not let the blood of beavers fall on
the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone (_Relations
des Jésuites_, 1633, p. 21). Compare the rule about not allowing the
blood of kings to fall on the ground. See _Taboo and the Perils of
the Soul_, pp. 241 _sqq._

M182 Deer, elk, and elan treated by the American Indians with ceremonious
respect.

695 L. Hennepin, _Nouveau voyage d’un pais plus grand que l’Europe_
(Utrecht, 1698), pp. 141. _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p.
109; F. Gabriel Sagard, Le _Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 255
(p. 178 of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865). Not quite
consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could
overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows
(Sagard, _l.c._).

696 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of
America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv.
142.

_ 697 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris,
1781) p. 339.

698 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der
Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.
(1895) pp. 195 _sq._

699 J. Mooney, “Cherokee Theory and Practice of Medicine,” _American
Journal of Folk-lore_, iii. (1890) pp. 45 _sq._; _id._, “Sacred
Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 320 _sq._, 347; _id._, “Myths of
the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 263 _sq._

700 J. G. Bourke, “Religion of the Apache Indians,” _Folk-lore_, ii.
(1891) p. 438.

701 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 80
_sq._

702 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, pp. 346 sq.
(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum
of Natural History_, April 1900).

703 James Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp.
281 sq. (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American
Museum of Natural History_).

_ 704 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 26 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858).

M183 Porcupines, turtles, and mice treated by American Indians with
ceremonious respect.

705 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,”
_Report of the British Association for 1894_, PP. 459 sq.

706 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_
(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 230.

707 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 443.

M184 Dead foxes, turtles, deer, and pigs treated with ceremonious
respect.

708 W. Bogaras, _The Chuckchee_ (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), p. 409
(_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii., _Memoir of the
American Museum of Natural History_).

709 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 389 _sq._

710 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin,
1896), p. 234.

711 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xli. (1897) pp. 4 _sq._

M185 Ghost of ostrich outwitted.

712 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), pp. 125 _sq._

M186 Esquimau propitiation of the spirit who controls reindeer.
Ceremonious treatment of sea-beasts by the Esquimaux.

713 L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay
Territory,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_
(Washington, 1894), pp. 200 _sq._

714 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of
Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of
Natural History_, xv. (1901) pp. 119 _sqq._ As to the antagonism
which these Esquimaux suppose to exist between marine and
terrestrial animals, see above, p. 84; and with regard to the taboos
observed by these Esquimaux after the slaughter of sea-beasts, see
_Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 205 _sqq._

715 D. Crantz, _History of Greenland_ (London, 1767), i. 216.

M187 Annual ceremony of returning the bladders of the sea-beasts to the
sea in order that the animals may come to life again.

716 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington,
1899), pp. 379-393, 437. Compare A. Woldt, _Captain Jacobsen’s Reise
an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883_ (Leipsic, 1884), pp.
289-291. In the text the ceremony has been described mainly as it
was witnessed by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver,
in December, 1879. As might have been expected, the ritual varies in
details at different places.

M188 Fish treated with respect by fishing tribes. The Peruvian Indians
worshipped the various sorts of fish which they caught. Fish treated
with respect by the North American Indians. Herring respected by
European fishermen. Compensation made to fish for catching them.

717 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated
by C. R. Markham, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. pp. 49 _sq._
(Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871). Compare _id._, vol. ii. p.
148.

718 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,
pp. 61 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British
Association for 1890_); _id._, _Kwakiutl Texts_, ii. pp. 303 _sq._,
305 _sq._, 307, 317 (_Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the
American Museum of Natural History_, December, 1902).

_ 719 Relations des Jésuites_, 1667, p. 12 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858).

720 F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, pp. 255
_sqq._ (pp. 178 _sqq._ of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865).

721 B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 270.

722 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),
pp. 529 _sq._

_ 723 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_
(Middletown, 1820), p. 116.

724 M. J. Schleiden, _Das Salz_ (Leipsic, 1875), p. 47. For this
reference I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith.

725 Hugh Miller, _Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland_, ch.
xvii. pp. 256 _sq._ (Edinburgh, 1889).

726 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in
Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 620.

727 W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883), pp. 66
_sq._

728 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 403.

729 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,
Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 200; A. S. Thomson, _The Story of
New Zealand_ (London, 1859), i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New
Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p.
109.

730 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 395.

M189 Ceremonious treatment of the first fish of the season.

731 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p.
28.

732 Sir John Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 277,
quoting _Metlahkatlah_, p. 96.

733 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 413.

734 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,”
_Report of the British Association for 1894_, p. 461. Compare J.
Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 280
_sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American
Museum of Natural History_); C. Hill Tout, in _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 140; _id._, _The Far
West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, 1907), pp. 170-172.

735 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,
pp. 16 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British
Association for 1890_).

_ 736 Id._, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p.
51 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for
1889_).

737 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 31
_sq._

738 Alex. Ross, _Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or
Columbia River_ (London, 1849), p. 97.

739 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,
New Edition (New York, 1851), iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a
dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in
order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before
they sell it.”

740 H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 253; _id._, _Notes and Sketches from the
Wild Coasts of Nipon_, pp. 27 _sq._ Similarly it is a rule with the
Aino to bring the flesh of bears and other game into the house, not
by the door, but by the window or the smoke-hole. See Rev. J.
Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 123; P.
Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 255 _sq._

_ 741 Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (as to the Gilyak of
the Amoor); J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 242
_sq._; C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita,
et religione pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 503;
_Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 308 _sq._; _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 207; Fr. Boas, “The
Central Eskimo,” in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_
(Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and
Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_,
xv. (1901) p. 148; A. G. Morice, in _Transactions of the Canadian
Institute_, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.

M190 Some savages preserve the bones of the animals they kill in order
that the animals may come to life again.

742 E. James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_
(London, 1823), i. 257.

743 D. G. Brinton, _Myths of the New World_2 (New York, 1876), p. 278.

744 W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_
(London, 1825), i. 452.

745 Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 161.

746 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and
Strasburg, 1844) p. 201. However, in this case a belief in the
resurrection of the animals is not expressly affirmed, and the
practice of burning the bones seems inconsistent with it.

747 E. J. Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana
tractatus singularis_, pp. 46 _sq._, 52 _sq._, 65 (bound with C.
Leem’s _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione
pristina commentatio_, Copenhagen, 1767). Compare Leem’s work, pp.
418-420, 428 _sq._; J. Acerbi, _Travels through Sweden, Finnland,
and Lapland_ (London, 1802), ii. 302.

748 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort
and Leipsic, 1774), p. 269; S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des
Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), p. 246.

749 See A. Erman, referred to above, p. 223; J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch
Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 274, ii. 182 _sq._, 214; H.
Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 118 _sq._ When a fox,
the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its
skin was stuffed and set up (A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten
Amerika_, i. 443). Compare the _bouphonia_, above, pp. 4 _sqq._

750 At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful
to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its
bones; the dog was afterwards burned (L. H. Morgan, _League of the
Iroquois_, Rochester, 1851, p. 210). It is a rule with some of the
Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they may not break
his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of
the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his
skin before roasting him, he would do so again (R. Brough Smyth,
_Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 447 _sqq._). Some of the Queensland
aborigines believe that if the bones or skulls of dugong were not
put away in a heap or otherwise preserved, no more dugong would be
caught (W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_, Bulletin No. 5,
Brisbane, 1903, p. 27). When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed
animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them
with fire (Carpini, _Historia Mongalorum_ (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. §
i. 2, p. 620). North American Indians might not break the bones of
the animals which they ate at feasts (Charlevoix, _Histoire de la
Nouvelle France_, vi. 72). In the war feast held by Indian warriors
after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all
eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the
flesh the bones were hung on a tree (_Narrative of the Captivity and
Adventures of John Tanner_, London, 1830, p. 287). On St. Olaf’s Day
(29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a
knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb
has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a
corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the
field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as
May-trees next year (W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp.
160 _sq._, note). Some of the Esquimaux in skinning a deer are
careful not to break a single bone, and they will not break the
bones of deer while walrus are being hunted (Fr. Boas, “The Central
Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_
(Washington, 1888), pp. 595 _sq._). The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point
Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals
which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving
them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through
a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune
in the pursuit of seals (_Report of the International Expedition to
Point Barrow, Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 40). In this last
custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with
flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of
Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells
of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear (H. H.
Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 741). In Syria at
the present time people offer a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven
days old, and they will not break a bone of the victim, “because
they fear that if a bone of the sacrifice should be broken, the
child’s bones would be broken, too” (S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive
Semitic Religion To-day_, Chicago, etc., 1902, p. 178). This last
may be a later misinterpretation of the old custom. For West African
cases of refusal to break the bones of sacrificial victims, see J.
Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 458, 466, 480, 527,
712, 796, 824. Amongst the Narrinyeri of South Australia, when an
animal was being cut up, the bystanders used to leap and yell as
often as a bone was broken, thinking that if they did not do so
their own bones would rot within them (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes
of South-East Australia_, p. 763).

_ 751 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 25 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858); A. Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of America_
(London, 1801), p. civ.; J. Dunn, _History of the Oregon Territory_
(London, 1844), p. 99; F. Whymper, in _Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society_, xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; _id._, in
_Transactions of the Ethnological Society_, N.S., vii. (1869) p.
174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111; Fr. Boas,
“The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 596; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin
Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History_, xv. (1901) p. 123; E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering
Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 438 _sq._ For more
examples see above, pp. 225, 238 _sqq._, 242 _sq._, 246. After a
meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and
either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. See W. M.
Gabb, _On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_ (read
before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520
(Philadelphia, 1875). The custom of burning the bones to prevent the
dogs getting them does not necessarily contradict the view suggested
in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the
spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the
animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that
if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it
would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal
(_Native Tribes of South Australia_, Adelaide, 1879, pp. 24, 196).

M191 Some savages preserve or destroy the bones of men in order to assist
or prevent their resurrection.

752 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 279 _sqq._

753 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of
America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv.
126.

754 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 475.

M192 Unquestioning faith of savages in the immortality of animals. The
savage faith in human immortality is commonly supposed to be deduced
from a primitive theory of dreams.
M193 But can a theory of dreams account for the savage belief in the
immortality of animals?
M194 Apparently the savage conceives life as an indestructible form of
energy. Analogy of the conception to the modern scientific
conception of the conservation of energy.

755 For this suggestion I am indebted to a hint thrown out in
conversation by my friend Professor G. F. Stout.

756 See _The Dying God_, p. 1.

757 The principle of the conservation of energy is clearly stated and
illustrated by Balfour Stewart in his book _The Conservation of
Energy_, Fourth Edition (London, 1877). The writer does not
countenance the view that life is a form of energy distinct from and
independent of physical and chemical forces; he regards a living
being simply as a very delicately constructed machine in which the
natural forces are in a state of unstable equilibrium. To avoid
misapprehension it may be well to add that I do not pretend to argue
either for or against the theory of life which appears to be
implicitly adopted by the savage; my aim is simply to explain, not
to justify or condemn, the mental attitude of primitive man towards
these profound problems.

M195 The resurrection of the body in tales and legends.

758 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), pp. 57-74; _id._,
_Baumkultus_, p. 116; C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_
(Berlin, 1867), i. 219 _sqq._; J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-lore of
Ireland_ (London, N.D.), pp. 45 _sq._; E. Cosquin, _Contes
populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), ii. 25; E. S. Hartland, “The
Physicians of Myddfai,” _Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 30
_sq._ In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes
not allowed to fall on the ground. See E. Cosquin, _l.c._

759 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 66.

760 Jamblichus, _Vita Pythag._ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._
28.

761 Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 37 _sqq._, with the Scholiast.

762 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 34.

763 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. This is one of the sacred stories
which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch
divulged.

M196 The sinew of the thigh regularly cut out and thrown away by some
American Indians.

764 Adam Hodgson, _Letters from North America_ (London, 1824), i. 244.

765 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 137
_sq._ This writer, animated by a curious though not uncommon passion
for discovering the ten lost tribes of Israel, imagined that he
detected the missing Hebrews disguised under the red skins and
beardless faces of the American Indians.

M197 Story told by the Indians to explain the custom.

766 É. Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjie_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81
_sq._; _id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest_ (Paris,
1886), pp. 132 _sqq._, compare pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. The story is
told in a briefer form, though without any reference to the custom,
by another French missionary. See the letter of Mgr. Tache, in
_Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxiv. (1852) pp. 336 _sq._

M198 The custom of cutting out the sinew of the thigh in animals seems to
be based on the principle of sympathetic magic.

767 The first part of this suggestion is due to my friend W. Robertson
Smith. See his _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites_2 (London,
1894), p. 380, note 1. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia,
after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from
the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” See Halévy, “Travels in
Abyssinia,” in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature_,
Second Series, vol. ii. p. 220. Caffre men will not eat the sinew of
the thigh; “it is carefully cut out and sent to the principal boy at
the kraal, who with his companions consider it as their right.” See
Col. Maclean, _Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), p. 151.
Gallas who pride themselves on their descent will not eat the flesh
of the biceps; the reasons assigned for the custom are inconsistent
and unsatisfactory. See Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie
Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_
(Berlin, 1893), p. 154. When the Bushmen kill a hare, they cut out a
sinew of the thigh and will not eat it, alleging as their reason
that the hare was once a man, and that this particular sinew is
still human flesh. See W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd. _Specimens of
Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), pp. xxxix., 60 _sq._, 63.

768 J. Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), p. 323.
Compare _id._, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of
the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp.
267, 447. In the last of these passages the writer quotes Buttrick,
_Antiquities_, p. 12, as follows: “The Indians never used to eat a
certain sinew in the thigh.... Some say that if they eat of the
sinew they will have cramp in it on attempting to run. It is said
that once a woman had cramp in that sinew, and therefore none must
eat it.”

769 See above, pp. 138 _sqq._

M199 Some hunters hamstring the dead game in order to lame the ghosts of
the animals. Some savages put out the eyes of dead game in order
perhaps to blind the ghosts of the animals.

770 É. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 23.

771 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington,
1899) p. 423.

772 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p.
504.

773 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande_, iii. 546.

774 P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen
Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 70.

775 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
p. 171.

776 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians cf British Columbia_, p. 317 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, April, 1900).

777 So among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait a girl at puberty is
considered unclean. “A peculiar atmosphere is supposed to surround
her at this time, and if a young man should come near enough for it
to touch him it would render him visible to every animal he might
hunt, so that his success as a hunter would be gone.” See E. W.
Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report
of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p.
291.

778 P. Dobell, _Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia_ (London, 1830), i.
19.

M200 The custom of cutting out the tongues of dead animals may sometimes
be intended to prevent their ghosts from telling tales. Tongues of
animals cut out in order to confer superhuman knowledge or power on
their possessors.

779 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 289 _sq._

780 J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix,
_Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 173; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en
Amérique_, pp. 179 _sq._, 184.

781 For examples of the incident, see J. F. Bladé, _Contes populaires
recueillis en Agenais_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 12, 14; G. W. Dasent,
_Popular Tales from the Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 133 sq.
(“Shortshanks”); Aug. Schleicher, _Litauische Märchen_ (Weimar,
1857), p. 58; Sepp, _Altbayerischer Sagenschatz_ (Munich, 1876), p.
114; R. Köhler, on L. Gonzenbach’s _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic,
1870), ii. 230; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 13. 3; Schol. on
Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ i. 517; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald-
und Feldkulte_, p. 53; J. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_
(Vienna, 1876), pp. 231 sq.; A. F. Chamberlain, in _Eighth Report on
the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 35 (separate reprint from
the _Report of the British Association for 1892_); I. V. Zingerle,
_Kinder und Hausmärchen aus Tirol_2 (Gera, 1870), No. 25, p. 127; A.
Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_
(Leipsic, 1848), p. 342; S. Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_,
übersetzt von W. Leo (Leipsic, 1878), p. 289; A. Leskien und K.
Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_ (Strasburg, 1882),
pp. 405 _sq._, 409 _sq._; A. und A. Schott, _Walachische Maerchen_
(Stuttgart and Tübingen), No. 10, p. 142; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen
und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 39, pp. 116 _sq._;
G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von F. Liebrecht (Breslau,
1846), i. 99; P. Sébillot, _Contes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_
(Paris, 1885), No. 11, p. 80; E. Cosquin, _Contes Populaires de
Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), i. p. 61; J. Haltrich, _Deutsche
Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna and
Hermannstadt, 1885), No. 24, pp. 104 _sqq._; Grimm, _Household
Tales_, No. 60. The incident often occurs in the type of tale
analysed by Mr. E. S. Hartland in his _Legend of Perseus_ (vol. i.
pp. 12, 17, 18, etc.; vol. iii. pp. 6, 7, 8, etc.).

782 Fr. Boas, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,
p. 58 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association
for 1889_); _id._, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, i. (1888) p.
218.

783 See W. H. Dall, “Masks and Labrets,” _Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 111 _sq._ Compare
_id._, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 425; Ivan
Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of
Alaska_, p. 176.

784 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die Geistige Cultur
der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 47.

785 Ph. Paulitschke, _op. cit._ p. 156; _id._, _Ethnographie
Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur_, etc. (Berlin, 1893), p.
226.

786 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 54, § 354.

787 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 94, § 381; E. Monseur, in _Revue de
l’Histoire des Religions_, xxxi. (1895) pp. 297 _sq._

788 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 81, § 576.

789 Homer, _Od._ iii. 332, 341.

790 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1110; Athenaeus, i. 28, p. 16
B; _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 415, No.
100.

791 See further H. Gaidoz, “Les Langues coupées,” _Mélusine_, iii.
(1886-87) coll. 303-307; E. Monseur, _loc. cit._

M201 Bechuana custom of mutilating a sacrificial ox in order to inflict
corresponding mutilations on the enemy. Mutilation of the corpses of
enemies or other dangerous persons for the purpose of maiming their
ghosts. Disabling the ghost by mutilating his dead body.

792 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d’un Voyage d’Exploration au
Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp.
562-564.

793 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the
Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902)
p. 60. This custom appears not to be mentioned by the writer in his
book _The Baganda_ (London, 1911).

794 A. Oldfield, “On the Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the
Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 287.

795 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (Melbourne and London, 1886), i.
348, 381.

796 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London,
1822), p. 231.

797 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington,
1899) p. 423.

798 Rev. S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1871), pp. 203 _sq._

799 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 420.

800 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 126.

M202 Propitiation of the vermin which infest crops and cattle in Europe.

801 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 105 note.

802 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen
Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), pp. 15 _sq._

803 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 79, 103; _id._,
“Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,” _Globus_, lxix.
(1906) p. 387.

804 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in
Berlin,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 93.

M203 Similar attempts made to propitiate vermin by savages.

805 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 160.

806 Vetter, “Aberglaube unter dem Jabim-Stamme in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland,”
_Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xii. (1893)
pp. 95 _sq._

807 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 626.

808 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 303.

809 M. Merker, “Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga,”
_Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_ No. 113 (Gotha, 1902), pp.
35 _sq._

810 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 320.

M204 Sometimes in dealing with vermin the farmer aims at a judicious mean
between undue severity and weak indulgence.

_ 811 Geoponica_, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field
assigned to the mice is a neighbour’s, but it may be a patch of
waste ground on the farmer’s own land. The charm is said to have
been employed formerly in the neighbourhood of Paris (A. de Nore,
_Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, Paris and
Lyons, 1846, p. 383).

812 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_
(Charleville, 1890), p. 176.

_ 813 American Journal of Folk-lore_, xi. (1898) p. 161.

814 G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der
Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 329 _sq._

815 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p.
509.

M205 Sometimes a few of the vermin are treated with high distinction,
while the rest are pursued with relentless rigour. Mock lamentations
of women for insects which destroy the crops.

816 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 125.

817 J. L. van Gennep, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van den Kangean-Archipel,”
_Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvi. (1896) p. 101.

818 C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in
Sarawak” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)
pp. 198 _sq._

819 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 60, § 405.

820 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), Heft i. p. 157.

821 Lagarde, _Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae_, p. 135. For
this passage I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith, who
kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. It occurs in the Canons
of Jacob of Edessa, of which a German translation has been published
by C. Kayser (_Die Canones Jacob’s von Edessa übersetzt und
erläutert_, Leipsic, 1886; see pp. 25 _sq._).

822 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p.
255.

823 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_ (London,
1906), p. 292.

M206 Ceremony performed by Baronga women to drive insects from the crops.

824 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 419 _sq._ As to
the rain-making ceremony among the Baronga, see _The Magic Art and
the Evolution of Kings_, i. 267 _sq._

M207 Images made of vermin as a charm to get rid of them.

825 J. Malalas, _Chronographia_, ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831), p. 264.

826 D. Comparetti, _Vergil in the Middle Ages_ (London, 1895), p. 265. I
have to thank Mr. J. D. May of Merton College, Oxford, for this and
the following references to Comparetti’s book.

827 D. Comparetti, _op. cit._ pp. 259, 293, 341.

828 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), p. 144.

_ 829 Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iv. (London, 1903) col. 4395.

830 Grégoire de Tours, _Histoire Ecclésiastique des Francs_, traduction
de M. Guizot, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1874), viii. 33, vol. i. p.
514. For some stories of the same sort, see J. B. Thiers, _Traité
des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 306-308.

831 1 Samuel vi. 4-18. The passage in which the plague of mice is
definitely described has been omitted in the existing Hebrew text,
but is preserved in the Septuagint (1 Samuel v. 6, καὶ μέσον τῆς
χώρας αὐτῆς ἀνεφύησαν μύες). See Dean Kirkpatrick’s note on 1 Samuel
v. 6 (_Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges_).

832 Numbers xxi. 6-9.

M208 Greek gods who took titles from vermin. Mouse (Smintheus) Apollo.

833 Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, with the Scholia and the comment of
Eustathius; Strabo, xiii. 1. 48 and 63; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5;
Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter;
Pausanias, x. 12. 5.

834 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Pausanias, i. 24. 8.

835 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, p. 34;
Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 609 (vol. ii.
p. 386).

836 Strabo and Eustathius, _ll.cc._

837 Professor W. Ridgeway has pointed out that the epithet Bassareus
applied to Dionysus (Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30)
appears to be derived from bassara, “a fox.” See J. Tzetzes, _Schol.
on Lycophron_, 771; W. Ridgeway, in _The Classical Review_, x.
(1896) pp. 21 _sqq._; S. Reinach, _Cultes, Mythes, et Religions_,
ii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 106 _sqq._

838 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 75; Pausanias, v. 14. 1, viii. 26. 7; Clement
of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 38, p. 33, ed. Potter.

_ 839 Robigo_ or personified as _Robigus_. See Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_,
i. 1. 6; _id._, _De lingua latina_, vi. 16; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905
_sqq._; Tertullian, _De spectaculis_, 5; Augustine, _De civitate
Dei_, iv. 21; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. 20; L. Preller,
_Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 43 _sqq._; W. Warde
Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London,
1899), pp. 88 _sqq._

840 Aristotle, _Hist. Anim._ vi. 37, p. 580 b 15 _sqq._; Aelian, _Nat.
Anim._ xvii. 41; W. Warde Fowler, in _The Classical Review_ vi.
(1892) p. 413. In Laos, a province of Siam, the ravages committed by
rats are terrible. From time to time whole armies of these
destructive rodents appear and march across the country in dense
columns and serried ranks, devouring everything as they go, and
leaving famine, with all its horrors, in their train. See
Lieut.-Col. Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos Français_ (Hanoi, 1900),
pp. 104, 135. So in Burma, the rats multiply in some years to such
an extent that they cause a famine by destroying whole crops and
granaries. See Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), pp.
149 _sq._

841 Polemo, cited by a scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39 (ed. Im.
Bekker). Compare Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39.

842 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5.

843 Aelian, _l.c._

844 See above, p. 279.

845 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’Histoire
des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 236.

M209 Wolfish Apollo.

846 Λύκειος or Λύκιος, Pausanias, i. 19. 3 (with my note), ii. 9. 7, ii.
19. 3, viii. 40. 5; Lucian, _Anacharsis_, 7; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota
Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 277, lines 10 _sq._

847 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7; Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

848 Sophocles, _Electra_, 6.

849 Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

850 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.

851 P. Einhorn, _Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae_,
reprinted in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, vol. ii. (Riga and
Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn’s work is dated 17th
July 1636.

M210 Many savages spare certain animals because they believe the souls of
their dead to be lodged in them. Examples of this belief among the
American Indians.

852 A. Biet, _Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_
(Paris, 1664), p. 361.

853 J. Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_ (Paris, 1889), p. 203.

854 Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,”
_Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi.
(1839) p. 75.

855 G. Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed
il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1850), p. 114.

856 J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),”
_Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino_, xv. (Buenos Ayres,
1895) p. 740.

857 Ch. Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (Paris, 1880), p. 369.

_ 858 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris,
1781) pp. 335 _sqq._

859 Fr. Coreal, _Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Amsterdam, 1722), ii.
132.

860 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_
(Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 _sq._

861 H. R. Schoolcraft, _op. cit._ iii. 113.

M211 Belief of the transmigration of human souls into animals in Africa.

862 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 210.

863 J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la
Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 _sq._

864 D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_
(London, 1857), p. 615.

865 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London,
1906), p. 64.

866 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 200.

867 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 _sq._ Compare Major J. A. Meldon,
“Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” _Journal of the African Society_,
No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.

868 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the
human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the
practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not
infrequent. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,2 pp. 71 _sq._

869 J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_ (Liége, 1907),
p. 102; _Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du
Musée du Congo, La Religion_ (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.

870 Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar
beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,”
_Les Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in
guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls,
etc.).

M212 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in
Madagascar.

871 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account
of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by
another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo
Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_
(Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, _Tabou et
Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 _sq._, 283, 291.

872 Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 270.

873 “Das Volk der Tanala,” _Globus_, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.

M213 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Assam,
Burma, and Cochin China.

874 W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.

875 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 159.

876 (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma
and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.

877 Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar,
Reungao, Sédang,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143
_sq._

878 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire
des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham
et leurs superstitions,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896)
p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially
set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After
its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted
again.

M214 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the
Philippines, the Sandwich Islands, and the Pelew Islands.

879 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der
Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr.
Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 164; _id._, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der
Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (_Petermanns Mittheilungen,
Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).

880 L. de Freycinet, _Voyage autour du Monde_, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595
_sq._

881 K. Semper, _Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean_ (Leipsic, 1873), pp.
87 _sq._, 193. These sacred animals were called _kalids_. A somewhat
different account of the _kalids_ of the Pelew Islanders is given by
J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 _sqq._).

M215 Transmigration of human souls into tigers in Sumatra.

882 W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiv.
(1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the
reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably
the source of, Mr. Batten’s account cited above (pp. 216 _sq._).

M216 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Borneo.

883 C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In
Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_
(Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the
Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and
of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be
in them.

884 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in
Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)
p. 193.

885 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_
(London, 1911), p. 143.

M217 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in New
Guinea.

886 F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch
Nieuw-Guinea,” _Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch
Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.

887 Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 404.

888 K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22.
Compare _id._, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land_, 1897, pp.
87 _sq._; B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.

889 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) p. 310.

890 R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie
der Neu-Guinea Küste,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,
xiii. (1900) p. 40.

891 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 _sq._

M218 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the
Solomon Islands.

892 Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.

893 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 _sq._

894 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 177.

895 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 33. East Indian evidence of the
belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken
(“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De
Indische Gids_, June 1884, pp. 988 _sqq._), who argues that this
belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism.
Compare the same writer’s article “Iets over de Papoewas van de
Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 _sqq._ (separate reprint from _Bijdragen tot
de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië_, 5e Volgreeks ii.).
Wilken’s view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor
(_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146
_sq._). See further, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 45 _sqq._

M219 The doctrine of the transmigration of human souls into animals in
ancient India. The doctrine of transmigration in Buddhism.

_ 896 The Laws of Manu_, ii. 201.

_ 897 Id._, v. 164.

_ 898 Id._, xi. 25.

_ 899 Id._, xii. 39-78.

900 Sir Monier Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, Second Edition (London,
1890), pp. 111 _sq._ Full, if not always authentic, particulars of
the Buddha’s manifold transmigrations are contained in the
_Jatakas_, a large collection of stories which has been completely
translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W.
H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).

M220 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls taught in ancient Greece
by Pythagoras and Empedocles.

901 Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xiv.
63; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._ 26 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ xv. 160
_sqq._ According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered
his personal identity in four different human lives before he was
born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, _Vit.
Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 _sq._). See further E. Rohde, _Psyche_3
(Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 _sqq._

902 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 and 36.

903 Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus,
ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.

904 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, _Die
Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.

905 Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 213 _sq._,
frag. 137.

906 Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.

907 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9;
H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.

M221 The doctrine of transmigration used by Pythagoras and Empedocles
mainly to inculcate certain ethical precepts. The pessimism of
Empedocles unlike the ordinary Greek view of life; its similarity to
Buddhism.

908 As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen
and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 _sqq._

909 Plutarch, _De exilio_, 17; _id._, _De esu carnium_, i. 7. 4; Clement
of Alexandria, _Strom._ iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus,
_Refutatio omnium Haeresium_, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F.
G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 207 _sq._, fragments
115, 119.

910 Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 8.

911 H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 208 _sq._, frag. 121.

912 Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123,
pp. 516 _sq._, 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der
Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 _sq._,
fragments 115, 124, 144-147.

913 Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy
which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See
Aristotle, _Problem_. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.

914 Stobaeus, _Eclogae_, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke);
Plutarch, _De esu carnium_ ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 210,
frag. 126.

915 It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was
born somewhere about the year 480 B.C. Hence it is difficult to
suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from
India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter.
As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, _Buddha_5 (Stuttgart
and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der
Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.

M222 Analogy of the physical speculations of Empedocles to those of
Herbert Spencer.

916 Plutarch, _Adversus Coloten_, 10; Aristotle, _De Xenophane_, 2, p.
975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 175, 176,
fragments 8 and 12.

917 The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities
and the fragments of Empedocles’s own writings, is fully collected
by H. Diels in his excellent work _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,
Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 _sqq._, 173 _sqq._ Compare
_Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i.
(Paris, 1875) pp. 1 _sqq._; H. Ritter et L. Preller, _Historia
Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta_, Editio
Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 _sqq._; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie
der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 _sqq._

M223 Herbert Spencer’s theory of alternate periods of concentration and
dissipation of matter.

918 Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, Third Edition (London, 1875),
pp. 536 _sq._

M224 Evolution or dissolution.

919 On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical
elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?)
raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of
Matter,” in _Darwin and Modern Science_ (Cambridge, 1909), pp.
565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense
of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by
the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In
each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier,
more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to
regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord
with which the universe has reached its present state, and is
passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a
backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from
which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large
highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by
radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval
substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come
together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an
anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium
and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of
primaeval simplicity?”

M225 Empedocles as a forerunner of Darwin.

920 H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp.
190 _sqq._; _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A.
Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 _sqq._; H. Ritter und L. Preller,
_Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis
contexta_5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 _sq._; E. Zeller, _Die
Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 _sqq._

921 Aristotle, _Physic. Auscult._ ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 _sqq._, ed. Im.
Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο,
ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ
οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ
ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical
Sketch” prefixed to _The Origin of Species_ with the remark, “We
here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how
little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his
remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle’s
reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or
unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical
speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would
have included him among the pioneers of evolution.

M226 Empedocles as a pretender to divinity.