Chapter XIII: Farewell to Nemi (8)

225 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 314 _sqq._; Hilderic Friend,
_Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), pp. 60, 78,
150, 279-283; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire
Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 242; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and
Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 89 _sq._; J. B. Thiers,
_Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p. 314; J. Lecœur,
_Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i. 290; P. Sébillot, _Coutumes
populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 217; _id._,
_Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882),
ii. 336; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869),
pp. 94 _sq._, § 123; F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), pp. 133 _sqq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen
Volksfesten_, p. 144; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus
Mecklenburg_, ii. 288, § 1437; M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus
Masuren_,2 p. 72; A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube
aus der deutschen Steiermark,” _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p.
387; Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in
Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 309; J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg,
_Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 407 _sq._; I. V.
Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2
(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 103, § 882, p. 158, § 1350; Christian
Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p.
237; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und
Mähren_, p. 97, §§ 673-677; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar
aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 311 _sq._; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur
Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p.
265; R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 106; _id._,
“Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 275; P.
Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 142, § 159; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi
Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 161; C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in
Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
iv. (1859) pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_
(Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 144 _sqq._ The practice of gathering ferns
or fern seed on the Eve of St. John was forbidden by the synod of
Ferrara in 1612. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_5
(Paris, 1741), i. 299 _sq._ In a South Slavonian story we read how a
cowherd understood the language of animals, because fern-seed
accidentally fell into his shoe on Midsummer Day (F. S. Krauss,
_Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven_, Leipsic, 1883-1884, ii. 424
_sqq._, No. 159). On this subject I may refer to my article, “The
Language of Animals,” _The Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 164
_sqq._

226 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 97, §§ 673, 675.

_ 227 Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859)
pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 146.

228 M. Longworth Dames and E. Seemann, “Folk-lore of the Azores,”
_Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._

229 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), p. 275, § 82.

M53 Branches of hazel cut at Midsummer to serve as divining-rods.

230 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna
and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche
aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p. 285, § 1431, p. 288, § 1439; J. Napier,
_Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_
(Paisley, 1879), p. 125.

231 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330. As to
the divining-rod in general, see A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers
und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 181 _sqq._; J. Grimm,
_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 813 _sqq._; S. Baring-Gould, _Curious
Myths of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1884), pp. 55 _sqq._ Kuhn
plausibly suggests that the forked shape of the divining-rod is a
rude representation of the human form. He compares the shape and
magic properties of mandragora.

232 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
i. 296 _sq._

233 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin
und nächster Umgebung,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p.
89.

234 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,
1857), p. 393.

235 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855),
p. 98. Some people in Swabia say that the hazel branch which is to
serve as a divining-rod should be cut at midnight on Good Friday,
and that it should be laid on the altar and mass said over it. If
that is done, we are told that a Protestant can use it to quite as
good effect as a Catholic. See E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und
Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 244 _sq._, No. 268.
Some of the Wends of the Spreewald agree that the divining-rod
should be made of hazel-wood, and they say that it ought to be wrapt
in swaddling-bands, laid on a white plate, and baptized on Easter
Saturday. Many of them, however, think that it should be made of
“yellow willow.” See Wilibald von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen
und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 204 _sq._ A
remarkable property of the hazel in the opinion of Bavarian peasants
is that it is never struck by lightning; this immunity it has
enjoyed ever since the day when it protected the Mother of God
against a thunderstorm on her flight into Egypt. See _Bavaria,
Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860) p.
371.

M54 The divining-rod in Sweden obtained on Midsummer Eve.

236 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 289, referring to Dybeck’s
_Runa_, 1844, p. 22, and 1845, p. 80.

237 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 266 _sq._

M55 The mythical springwort supposed to bloom on Midsummer Eve.

238 Heinrich Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 99, No. 23.

M56 Another way of catching the springwort. The white bloom of chicory.

239 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 812 _sq._, iii. 289; A. Kuhn,
_Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886),
pp. 188-193; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European
Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 174-178; J. F. L.
Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn,
1848), p. 44; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen
und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 459, No. 444; Ernst Meier,
_Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart,
1852), pp. 240 _sq._, No. 265; C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in
Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
iv. (Göttingen, 1859) p. 153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und
Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 88,
No. 623; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in
Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 207 _sq._ In Swabia some people
say that the bird which brings the springwort is not the woodpecker
but the hoopoe (E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 240). Others associate the
springwort with other birds. See H. Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic,
1859), ii. 116, No. 308; A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p.
190. It is from its power of springing or bursting open all doors
and locks that the springwort derives its name (German
_Springwurzel_).

240 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 40.

241 Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_
(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 238 _sq._, No. 264.

M57 The magical virtues ascribed to plants at Midsummer may be thought
to be derived from the sun, then at the height of his power and
glory. Hence it is possible that the Midsummer bonfires stand in
direct relation to the sun.
M58 This consideration tends to bring us back to an intermediate
position between the rival theories of Mannhardt and Westermarck.

242 See above, pp. 45, 46, 49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67.

M59 Miscellaneous examples of the baleful activity of witches at
Midsummer and of the precautions which it is necessary to take
against them at that time. Witches in Voigtland. The witches’
Sabbath in Prussia on Walpurgis Night and Midsummer Eve. Midsummer
Eve a witching time among the South Slavs.

243 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,
1861-1862), i. 423 _sq._

244 Anton Birlinger, _Völksthumliches aus Schwaben_, Freiburg im
Breisgau, (1861-1862), i. 278, § 437.

245 Robert Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210, Nr.
551.

246 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen
Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), pp. 263
_sq._

247 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_
(Münster i. W., 1890), p. 128.

M60 Relation of the fire-festivals to the myth of Balder.
M61 Veneration of the Druids for the mistletoe.

248 Pliny derives the name Druid from the Greek _drus_, “oak.” He did
not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (_daur_), and
that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, might be
genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. This etymology is
accepted by some modern scholars. See G. Curtius, _Grundzüge der
Griechischen Etymologie_5 (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 238 _sq._; A.
Vaniček, _Griechisch-Lateinisch Etymologisches Wörterbuch_ (Leipsic,
1877), pp. 368 _sqq._; (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London
and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 221 _sqq._ However, this derivation is
disputed by other scholars, who prefer to derive the name from a
word meaning knowledge or wisdom, so that Druid would mean “wizard”
or “magician.” See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 305; Otto
Schrader, _Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde_
(Strasburg, 1901), pp. 638 _sq._; H. D’Arbois de Jubainville, _Les
Druides et les Dieux Celtiques à forme d’animaux_ (Paris, 1906), pp.
1, 11, 83 _sqq._ The last-mentioned scholar formerly held that the
etymology of Druid was unknown. See his _Cours de Littérature
Celtique_, i. (Paris, 1883) pp. 117-127.

249 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249-251. In the first edition of this book
I understood Pliny to say that the Druidical ceremony of cutting the
mistletoe fell in the sixth month, that is, in June; and hence I
argued that it probably formed part of the midsummer festival. But
in accordance with Latin usage the words of Pliny (_sexta luna_,
literally “sixth moon”) can only mean “the sixth day of the month.”
I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler for courteously
pointing out my mistake to me. Compare my note in the _Athenaeum_,
November 21st, 1891, p. 687. I also misunderstood Pliny’s words,
“_et saeculi post tricesimum annum, quia jam virium abunde habeat
nec sit sui dimidia_,” applying them to the tree instead of to the
moon, to which they really refer. After _saeculi_ we must understand
_principium_ from the preceding _principia_. With the thirty years’
cycle of the Druids we may compare the sixty years’ cycle of the
Boeotian festival of the Great Daedala (Pausanias, ix. 3. 5; see
_The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._), which,
like the Druidical rite in question, was essentially a worship, or
perhaps rather a conjuration, of the sacred oak. Whether any deeper
affinity, based on common Aryan descent, may be traced between the
Boeotian and the Druidical ceremony, I do not pretend to determine.
In India a cycle of sixty years, based on the sidereal revolution of
Jupiter, has long been in use. The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is
accomplished in approximately twelve solar years (more exactly 11
years and 315 days), so that five of its revolutions make a period
of approximately sixty years. It seems, further, that in India a
much older cycle of sixty lunar years was recognized. See Christian
Lassen, _Indische Alter-thumskunde_, i.2 (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 988
_sqq._; Prof. F. Kielhorn (Göttingen), “The Sixty-year Cycle of
Jupiter,” _The Indian Antiquary_, xviii. (1889) pp. 193-209; J. F.
Fleet, “A New System of the Sixty-year Cycle of Jupiter,” _ibid._
pp. 221-224. In Tibet the use of a sixty-years’ cycle has been
borrowed from India. See W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet,” _Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 207 note 1.

M62 Medical and magical virtues ascribed to mistletoe in ancient Italy.

250 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 11 _sq._

251 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 94.

M63 Agreement between the Druids and the ancient Italians as to the
valuable properties of mistletoe.
M64 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Ainos of Japan.

252 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),
p. 222.

M65 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Torres Straits Islanders
and the Walos of Senegambia. These beliefs perhaps originate in a
notion that the mistletoe has fallen from heaven.

_ 253 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres
Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 198 _sq._

254 M. le baron Roger (ancien Gouverneur de la Colonie française du
Sénégal), “Notice sur le Gouvernement, les Mœurs, et les
Superstitions des Nègres du pays de Walo,” _Bulletin de la Société
de Géographie_, viii. (Paris, 1827) pp. 357 _sq._

M66 Such a notion would explain the ritual used in cutting mistletoe and
other parasites.

255 Above, p. 77.

256 Compare _The Times_, 2nd April, 1901, p. 9: “The Tunis correspondent
of the _Temps_ reports that in the course of certain operations in
the Belvedere Park in Tunis the workmen discovered a huge circle of
enormous stumps of trees ranged round an immense square stone
showing signs of artistic chisel work. In the neighbourhood were
found a sort of bronze trough containing a gold sickle in perfect
preservation, and a sarcophagus containing a skeleton. About the
forehead of the skeleton was a gold band, having in the centre the
image of the sun, accompanied by hieratic signs, which are
provisionally interpreted as the monogram of Teutates. The discovery
of such remains in North Africa has created a sensation.” As to the
Celtic god Teutates and the human sacrifices offered to him, see
Lucan, _Pharsalia_, i. 444 _sq._:

“_Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro_
_ Teutates horrensque feris altaribus Hesus._”

Compare (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh,
1888), pp. 44 _sqq._, 232. Branches of the sacred olive at Olympia,
which were to form the victors’ crowns, had to be cut with a golden
sickle by a boy whose parents were both alive. See the Scholiast on
Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 60, p. 102, ed. Aug. Boeck (Leipsic, 1819). In
Assyrian ritual it was laid down that, before felling a sacred
tamarisk to make magical images out of the wood, the magician should
pray to the sun-god Shamash and touch the tree with a golden axe.
See C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 132 _sq._
Some of the ancients thought that the root of the marsh-mallow,
which was used in medicine, should be dug up with gold and then
preserved from contact with the ground (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 29).
At the great horse-sacrifice in ancient India it was prescribed by
ritual that the horse should be slain by a golden knife, because
“gold is light” and “by means of the golden light the sacrificer
also goes to the heavenly world.” See _The Satapatha-Brâhmana_,
translated by Julius Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, 1900) p. 303
(_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xliv.). It has been a rule of
superstition both in ancient and modern times that certain plants,
to which medical or magical virtues were attributed, should not be
cut with iron. See the fragment of Sophocles’s _Root-cutters_,
quoted by Macrobius, _Saturn_. v. 19. 9 _sq._; Virgil, _Aen._ iv.
513 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ vii. 227; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv.
68, 103, 176; and above, p. 65 (as to purple loosestrife in Russia).
On the objection to the use of iron in such cases compare F.
Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_ (Hanover,
1856), pp. 102 _sq._; _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 225
_sqq._

257 Étienne Aymonier, “Notes sur les Coutumes et Croyances
Superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions
et Reconnaissance_ No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 136.

258 See above, vol. i. pp. 2 _sqq._

M67 The ancient beliefs and practices concerning mistletoe have their
analogies in modern European folk-lore.

259 Ernst Meier, “Über Pflanzen und Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche
Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (Göttingen, 1853), pp. 443 _sq._ The
sun enters the sign of Sagittarius about November 22nd.

260 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 533, referring to Dybeck,
_Runa_, 1845, p. 80.

261 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), p. 87.

M68 Medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe by ancients and moderns.
Mistletoe as a cure for epilepsy.

262 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 250, “_Omnia sanantem appellantes suo
vocabulo_.” See above, p. 77.

263 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1009: “_Sonst aber wird das
welsche_ olhiach, _bretagn._ ollyiach, _ir._ uileiceach, _gal._
uileice, _d. i. allheiland_, _von_ ol, uile universalis, _als
benennung des mistels angegeben_.” My lamented friend, the late R.
A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge, pointed out to me that in N.
M’Alpine’s _Gaelic Dictionary_ (Seventh Edition, Edinburgh and
London, 1877, p. 432) the Gaelic word for mistletoe is given as _an
t’ uil_, which, Mr. Neil told me, means “all-healer.”

264 A. de Gubernatis, _La Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),
ii. 73.

265 Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition
(London, 1886), p. 378. Compare A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers
und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 206, referring to
Keysler, _Antiq. Sept._ p. 308.

266 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 102 _sq._ The local name for mistletoe
here is _besq_, which may be derived from the Latin _viscum_.

267 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2
(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 205; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of
Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.

268 “Einige Notizen aus einem alten Kräuterbuche,” _Zeitschrift für
deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (Göttingen, 1859) pp. 41
_sq._

269 Francis Pérot, “Prières, Invocations, Formules Sacrées, Incantations
en Bourbonnais,” _Revue des Traditions Populaires_, xviii. (1903) p.
299.

_ 270 County Folk-lore_, v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and
Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.

271 Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur, iii. De Mistel en de
Riembloem,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894)
p. 111. He names Ray in England (about 1700), Boerhaave in Holland
(about 1720), and Van Swieten, a pupil of Boerhaave’s (about 1745).

_ 272 County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch
and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.

273 Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, quoted by Thomas Pennant in his
“Tour in Scotland, 1769,” printed in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and
Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 136; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities
of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 151.

274 Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and
Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.

M69 The medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe seem to be mythical,
being fanciful inferences from the parasitic nature of the plant.

275 On this point Prof. P. J. Veth (“De Leer der Signatuur,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 112)
quotes Cauvet, _Eléments d’Histoire naturelle medicale_, ii. 290:
“_La famille des Loranthacées ne nous offre aucun intéret._”

M70 The belief that mistletoe extinguishes fire seems based on a fancy
that it falls on the tree in a flash of lightning.

276 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2
(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 205, referring to Dybeck, _Runa_, 1845, p. 80.

277 A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 204, referring to Rochholz, _Schweizersagen
aus d. Aargau_, ii. 202.

278 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 153.

279 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 37, § 218. In Upper Bavaria the
mistletoe is burned for this purpose along with the so-called
palm-branches which were consecrated on Palm Sunday. See _Bavaria,
Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860),
p. 371.

M71 Other wonderful properties ascribed to mistletoe; in particular it
is thought to be a protection against witchcraft.

280 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_,2 p. 206,
referring to Albertus Magnus, p. 155; Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der
Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1904)
p. 111.

281 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,
1857), p. 398.

282 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 97, §
128; Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales
Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 111.

283 A. Wuttke, _op. cit._ p. 267, § 419.

284 W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of
England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), p. 114.

285 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), p. 88.

286 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 269.

M72 A favourite time for gathering mistletoe is Midsummer Eve.

287 Above, pp. 77, 78.

288 Above, pp. 82, 84.

289 Above, pp. 83, 86.

290 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 353, referring to Dybeck,
_Runa_, 1844, p. 22.

291 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), p. 88.

M73 The two main incidents of Balder’s myth, namely the pulling of the
mistletoe and the lighting of the bonfire, are reproduced in the
great Midsummer celebration of Scandinavia.

292 See above, p. 86.

293 G. Wahlenberg, _Flora Suecica_ (Upsala, 1824-1826), ii. No. 1143
_Viscum album_, pp. 649 _sq._: “_Hab. in sylvarum densiorum et
humidiorum arboribus frondosis, ut Pyris, Quercu, Fago etc. per
Sueciam temperatiorem passim_.”

294 Above, vol. i. pp. 171 _sq._

295 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 259.

296 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 78, who adds, “_Mahnen die
Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?_” This pregnant hint perhaps
contains in germ the solution of the whole myth.

M74 Hence the myth of Balder was probably the explanation given of a
similar rite.

297 Above, vol. i. p. 148.

298 Above, vol. i. p. 186.

299 Above, p. 26.

M75 If a human representative of a tree-spirit was burned in the
bonfires, what kind of tree did he represent? The oak the principal
sacred tree of the Aryans.

300 As to the worship of the oak in Europe, see _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ Compare P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in
alter und neuer Zeit_, in two parts (Wurzen, N.D., and Berlin,
1891).

301 Strabo, xii. 5.1, p. 567. The name is a compound of _dryu_, “oak,”
and _nemed_, “temple” (H. F. Tozer, _Selections from Strabo_,
Oxford, 1893, p. 284). We know from Jerome (_Commentar. in Epist. ad
Galat._ book ii. praef.) that the Galatians retained their native
Celtic speech as late as the fourth century of our era.

_ 302 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 365.

303 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 55 _sq._, 58 _sq._, ii. 542,
iii. 187 _sq._; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_
(Berlin, 1891), pp. 40 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of
Kings_, ii. 363 _sqq._, 371.

304 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 108.

305 Livy, i. 10. Compare C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_
(Berlin, 1856), pp. 133 _sq._

306 C. Bötticher, _op. cit._ pp. 111 _sqq._; L. Preller, _Griechische
Mythologie_,4 ed. C. Robert, i. (Berlin, 1894) pp. 122 _sqq._; P.
Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2
_sqq._ It is noteworthy that at Olympia the only wood that might be
used in sacrificing to Zeus was the white poplar (Pausanias, v. 14.
2). But it is probable that herein Zeus, who was an intruder at
Olympia, merely accepted an old local custom which, long before his
arrival, had been observed in the worship of Pelops (Pausanias, v.
13. 3).

307 Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the cradle of
the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak
seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. See the
evidence collected in _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,
ii. 349 _sqq._

M76 Hence the tree represented by the human victim who was burnt at the
fire-festivals was probably the oak.

308 However, some exceptions to the rule are recorded. See above, vol.
i. pp. 169, 278 (oak and fir), 220 (plane and birch), 281, 283, 286
(limewood), 282 (poplar and fir), 286 (cornel-tree), 291 (birch or
other hard wood), 278, 280 (nine kinds of wood). According to
Montanus, the need-fire, Easter, and Midsummer fires were kindled by
the friction of oak and limewood. See Montanus, _Die deutschen
Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn,
N.D.), p. 159. But elsewhere (pp. 33 _sq._, 127) the same writer
says that the need-fire and Midsummer fires were produced by the
friction of oak and fir-wood.

309 Above, vol. i. p. 177.

310 M. Prätorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, herausgegeben von Dr. William
Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 _sq._ W. R. S. Ralston says (on what
authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of
the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks
struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand
(_Songs of the Russian People_, London, 1872, p. 88).

311 See above, vol. i. pp. 148, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 281, 289, 294.

312 Above, vol. i. pp. 148, 155.

_ 313 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 186.

_ 314 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 366. However, sacred
fires of other wood than oak are not unknown among Aryan peoples.
Thus at Olympia white poplar was the wood burnt in sacrifices to
Zeus (above, p. 90 _n._1); at Delphi the perpetual fire was fed with
pinewood (Plutarch, _De EI apud Delphos_, 2), and it was over the
glowing embers of pinewood that the Soranian Wolves walked at
Soracte (above, p. 14).

315 Montanus, _Diedeutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher
Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 127, 159. The log is called in
German _Sckarholz_. The custom appears to have prevailed
particularly in Westphalia, about Sieg and Lahn. Compare Montanus,
_op. cit._ p. 12, as to the similar custom at Christmas. The use of
the _Scharholz_ is reported to be found also in Niederlausitz and
among the neighbouring Saxons. See Paul Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter
und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 86 _sq._

316 Above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 260, 263. Elsewhere the
Yule log has been made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or
olive. See above, vol. i. pp. 249, 257, 263.

_ 317 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._

318 A curious use of an oak-wood fire to detect a criminal is reported
from Germany. If a man has been found murdered and his murderer is
unknown, you are recommended to proceed as follows. You kindle a
fire of dry oak-wood, you pour some of the blood from the wounds on
the fire, and you change the poor man’s shoes, putting the right
shoe on the left foot, and _vice versa_. As soon as that is done,
the murderer is struck blind and mad, so that he fancies he is
riding up to the throat in water; labouring under this delusion he
returns to the corpse, when you can apprehend him and deliver him up
to the arm of justice with the greatest ease. See Montanus, _op.
cit._ pp. 159 _sq._

M77 If the human victims burnt at the fire-festival represented the oak,
the reason for pulling the mistletoe may have been a belief that the
life of the oak was in the mistletoe, and that the tree could not
perish either by fire or water so long as the mistletoe remained
intact among its boughs.
M78 Ancient Italian belief that mistletoe could not be destroyed by fire
or water.

319 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiii. 119: “_Alexander Cornelius arborem leonem
appellavit ex qua facta esset Argo, similem robori viscum ferenti,
quae neque aqua neque igni possit corrumpi, sicuti nec viscum, nulli
alii cognitam, quod equidem sciam._” Here the tree out of which the
ship Argo was made is said to have been destructible neither by fire
nor water; and as the tree is compared to a mistletoe-bearing oak,
and the mistletoe itself is said to be indestructible by fire and
water, it seems to follow that the same indestructibility may have
been believed to attach to the oak which bore the mistletoe, so long
at least as the mistletoe remained rooted on the boughs.

M79 Conception of a being whose life is outside himself.
M80 Belief that a man’s soul may be deposited for safety in a secure
place outside his body, and that so long as it remains there intact
he himself is invulnerable and immortal.

_ 320 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 26 _sqq._

M81 This belief is illustrated by folk-tales told by many peoples.

321 A number of the following examples were collected by Mr. E. Clodd in
his paper, “The Philosophy of Punchkin,” _Folk-lore Journal_, ii.
(1884) pp. 288-303; and again in his _Myths and Dreams_ (London,
1885), pp. 188-198. The subject of the external soul, both in
folk-tales and in custom, has been well handled by G. A. Wilken in
his two papers, “De betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en
plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,” _De Indische Gids_, November
1884, pp. 595-612, and “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5. In
“De Simsonsage” Wilken has reproduced, to a great extent in the same
words, most of the evidence cited by him in “De betrekking,” yet
without referring to that paper. When I wrote this book in 1889-1890
I was unacquainted with “De betrekking,” but used with advantage “De
Simsonsage,” a copy of it having been kindly sent me by the author.
I am the more anxious to express my obligations to “De Simsonsage,”
because I have had little occasion to refer to it, most of the
original authorities cited by the author being either in my own
library or easily accessible to me in Cambridge. It would be a
convenience to anthropologists if Wilken’s valuable papers,
dispersed as they are in various Dutch periodicals which are seldom
to be met with in England, were collected and published together.
After the appearance of my first anthropological essay in 1885,
Professor Wilken entered into correspondence with me, and
thenceforward sent me copies of his papers as they appeared; but of
his papers published before that date I have not a complete set.
(Note to the Second Edition.) The wish expressed in the foregoing
note has now been happily fulfilled. Wilken’s many scattered papers
have been collected and published in a form which leaves nothing to
be desired (_De verspreide Geschriften van Prof. Dr. G. A. Wilken_,
verzameld door Mr. F. D. E. van Ossenbruggen, in four volumes, The
Hague, 1912). The two papers “De betrekking” and “De Simsonsage” are
reprinted in the third volume, pp. 289-309 and pp. 551-579. The
subject of the external soul in relation to Balder has been fully
illustrated and discussed by Professor F. Kauffmann in his _Balder,
Mythus und Sage_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 136 _sqq._ Amongst the first
to collect examples of the external soul in folk-tales was the
learned Dr. Reinhold Köhler (in _Orient und Occident_, ii.,
Göttingen, 1864, pp. 100-103; reprinted with additional references
in the writer’s _Kleinere Schriften_, i., Weimar, 1898, pp.
158-161). Many versions of the tale were also cited by W. R. S.
Ralston (_Russian Folk-tales_, London, 1873, pp. 109 _sqq._). (Note
to the Third Edition.)

M82 Stories of an external soul common among Aryan peoples. The external
soul in Hindoo stories. Punchkin and the parrot. The ogre whose soul
was in a bird.

322 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp.
12-16.

323 Maive Stokes, _Indian Fairy Tales_ (London, 1880), pp. 58-60. For
similar Hindoo stories, see _id._, pp. 187 _sq._; Lai Behari Day,
_Folk-tales of Bengal_ (London, 1883), pp. 121 _sq._; F. A. Steel
and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and London, 1884),
pp. 58-60.

M83 The princess whose soul was in a golden necklace. The prince whose
soul was in a fish.

324 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 239 _sqq._

325 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 1 _sqq._ For similar
stories of necklaces, see Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 233
_sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_, pp. 83
_sqq._

M84 Cashmeer stories of ogres whose lives were in cocks, a pigeon, a
starling, a spinning-wheel, and a pillar. Cashmeer and Bengalee
stories of ogres whose lives were in bees.

326 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, Second Edition (London,
1893), pp. 49 _sq._

327 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 134.

328 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ pp. 382 _sqq._

329 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 85 _sq._; compare _id._,
pp. 253 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) p. 117. For an Indian
story in which a giant’s life is in five black bees, see W. A.
Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (Edinburgh and London, 1887),
i. 350.

_ 330 Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872), p. 171.

M85 The external soul in a Siamese or Cambodian story. Indian stories of
a tree and a barley plant that were life-tokens.

331 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, iv. (Jena, 1868) pp.
304 _sq._

332 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p. 189.

333 F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and
London, 1884), pp. 52, 64. In the Indian _Jataka_ there is a tale
(book ii. No. 208) which relates how Buddha in the form of a monkey
deceived a crocodile by pretending that monkeys kept their hearts in
figs growing on a tree. See _The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha’s
former Births_ translated from the Pali by various hands, vol. ii.
translated by W. H. D. Rouse (Cambridge, 1895), pp. 111 _sq._

334 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_, Third Edition
(Lahore, 1878), p. 9.

M86 The external soul in Greek stories. Meleager and the firebrand.
Nisus and his purple or golden hair. Pterelaus and his golden hair.
Modern Greek parallels. The external soul in doves.

335 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34;
Pausanias, x. 31. 4; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 604 _sqq._; Antoninus
Liberalis, _Transform._ ii.; Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ lxvii. vol. ii.
p. 231, ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857); Hyginus, _Fab._ 171, 174;
Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 445 _sqq._ In his play on this theme Euripides
made the life of Meleager to depend on an olive-leaf which his
mother had given birth to along with the babe. See J. Malalas,
_Chronographia_, vi. pp. 165 _sq._ ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831); J.
Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_, 492 _sq._ (vol. ii. pp. 646 _sq._,
ed. Chr. G. Müller, Leipsic, 1811); G. Knaack, “Zur Meleagersage,”
_Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xlix. (1894) pp. 310-313.

336 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 15. 8; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 612
_sqq._; Pausanias, i. 19. 4; _Ciris_, 116 _sqq._; Ovid, _Metam._
viii. 8 _sqq._ According to J. Tzetzes (_Schol. on Lycophron_, 650)
not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when
it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According
to Hyginus (_Fab._ 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as
he kept the purple lock on his head.

337 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 4. 5 and 7.

338 J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und albanesische Märchen_ (Leipsic,
1864), i. 217; a similar story, _ibid._ ii. 282.

339 B. Schmidt, _Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder_ (Leipsic,
1877), pp. 91 _sq._ The same writer found in the island of Zacynthus
a belief that the whole strength of the ancient Greeks resided in
three hairs on their breasts, and that it vanished whenever these
hairs were cut; but if the hairs were allowed to grow again, their
strength returned (B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_,
Leipsic, 1871, p. 206). The Biblical story of Samson and Delilah
(Judges xvi.) implies a belief of the same sort, as G. A. Wilken
abundantly shewed in his paper, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888,
No. 5 (reprinted in his _Verspreide Geschriften_, The Hague, 1912,
vol. iii. pp. 551-579).

340 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 215 _sq._

_ 341 Ibid._ ii. 275 _sq._ Similar stories, _ibid._ ii. 204, 294 _sq._ In
an Albanian story a monster’s strength is in three pigeons, which
are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the
boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he
can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he
expires. See Aug. Dozon, _Contes albanais_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 132
_sq._

342 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 260 _sqq._

_ 343 Ibid._ i. 187.

_ 344 Ibid._ ii. 23 _sq._

345 Émile Legrand, _Contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 191
_sqq._

M87 The external soul in Italian stories. Silvia’s son. The dragon twin.
The soul in a gem.

346 Plutarch, _Parallela_, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the
subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar,
which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles
took from her.

347 G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von Felix Liebrecht (Breslau,
1846), ii. 60 _sq._

348 R. H. Busk, _Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), pp. 164 _sqq._

M88 Italian story of a wicked fairy whose death was in an egg. A
sorcerer Body-without-Soul whose death was in an egg.

349 T. F. Crane, _Italian Popular Tales_ (London, 1885), pp. 31-34. The
hero had acquired the power of turning himself into an eagle, a
lion, and an ant from three creatures of these sorts whose quarrel
about their shares in a dead ass he had composed. This incident
occurs in other tales of the same type. See below, note 2 and pp.
120 with note 2, 132, 133 with note 1.

350 J. B. Andrews, _Contes Ligures_ (Paris, 1892), No. 46, pp. 213
_sqq._ In a parallel Sicilian story the hero Beppino slays a
sorcerer in the same manner after he had received from an eagle, a
lion, and an ant the same gift of transformation in return for the
same service. See G. Pitrè, _Fiabe, Novelle e Racconti popolari
Siciliani_, ii. (Palermo, 1875) p. 215; and for another Sicilian
parallel, Laura Gonzenbach, _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1870),
No. 6, pp. 34-38.

M89 The external soul in Slavonic stories. Russian story of Koshchei the
Deathless, whose death was in an egg.

351 Anton Dietrich, _Russian Popular Tales_ (London, 1857), pp. 21-24.

M90 Other versions of the story of Koshchei the Deathless. Death in the
blue rose-tree.

352 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western
Slavs, and Magyars_ (London, 1891), pp. 119-122. Compare W. R. S.
Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_ (London, 1873), pp. 100-105.

353 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 109.

354 W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, pp. 113 _sq._

_ 355 Id._, p. 114.

M91 The external soul in Bohemian and Servian stories. True Steel, whose
strength was in a bird.

_ 356 Id._, p. 110.

357 Madam Csedomille Mijatovies, _Serbian Folk-lore_, edited by the Rev.
W. Denton (London, 1874), pp. 167-172; F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und
Märchen der Südslaven_ (Leipsic, 1883-1884), i. 164-169.

M92 Servian story of the dragon of the water-mill whose strength was in
a pigeon. The fight with the dragon.

358 A. H. Wratislaw, _Sixty Folk-tales from exclusively Slavonic
Sources_ (London, 1889), pp. 224-231.

M93 The external soul in a Lithuanian story. The Soulless King whose
soul was in a duck’s egg. The Soulless King. The water of life. The
soul in the duck’s egg.

359 A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_
(Strasburg, 1882), pp. 423-430; compare _id._, pp. 569-571.

M94 The external soul in Teutonic stories. Transylvanian story of a
witch whose life was in a light. German story of Soulless the
cannibal, whose soul was in a box. The helpful animals.

360 Josef Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in
Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna, 1885), No. 34 (No. 33 of the first edition),
pp. 149 _sq._

361 J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche Märchen und Sagen_ (Leipsic, 1845), No. 20,
pp. 87-93.

M95 German story of flowers that were life-tokens.

362 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 306-308, § 622. In this story the flowers are
rather life-tokens than external souls. The life-token has been
carefully studied by Mr. E. S. Hartland in the second volume of his
learned work _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1895).

M96 The warlock in the wood, whose heart was in a bird.

363 K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig
Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel, 1845), pp. 404 _sqq._

M97 The external soul in Norse stories. The giant whose heart was in a
duck’s egg.

364 P. Chr. Asbjörnsen og J. Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_ (Christiania,
N.D.), No. 36, pp. 174-180; G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the
Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 55 _sqq._

365 P. Chr. Asbjörnsen, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, Ny Samling (Christiania,
1871), No. 70, pp. 35-40; G. W. Dasent, _Tales from the Fjeld_
(London, 1874), pp. 223-230 (“Boots and the Beasts”). As in other
tales of this type, it is said that the hero found three animals (a
lion, a falcon, and an ant) quarrelling over a dead horse, and
received from them the power of transforming himself into animals of
these species as a reward for dividing the carcase fairly among
them.

M98 The external soul in Danish stories. The warlock whose heart was in
a duck’s egg. The helpful animals.

366 Svend Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von A.
Strodtmann, Zweite Sammlung (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 194-218.

M99 Danish story of the magician whose heart was in a fish. The
magician’s heart.

367 Svend Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von Willibald
Leo (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 29-45.

M100 The external soul in Icelandic stories. The king’s son in the cave
of the giantesses whose life was in an egg. The swans’ song. The
life-egg. An Icelandic parallel to Meleager.

368 J. C. Poestion, _Isländische Märchen_ (Vienna, 1884), No. vii. pp.
49-55. The same story is told with minor variations by Konrad Maurer
in his _Isländische Volkssagen der Gegenwart_ (Leipsic, 1860), pp.
277-280. In his version a giant and giantess, brother and sister,
have their life in one stone, which they throw backwards and
forwards to each other; when the stone is caught and broken by the
heroine, the giant and giantess at once expire. The tale was told to
Maurer when he was crossing an arm of the sea in a small boat; and
the waves ran so high and broke into the boat so that he could not
write the story down at the time but had to trust to his memory in
recording it afterwards.

369 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), p. 592; John
Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New
Edition, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley,
1879-1882), iv. 869, _s.v._ “Yule.”

M101 The external soul in Celtic stories. The giant whose soul was in a
duck’s egg.

370 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition
(Paisley and London, 1890), i. 7-11.

371 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition,
i. 80 _sqq._

M102 The herdsman of Cruachan and the helpful animals. The simple giant
and the wily woman.

372 Compare _Taboo and the Perils of Soul_, p. 12.

373 Rev. D. MacInnes, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1890), pp. 103-121.

M103 Argyleshire story of the Bare-Stripping Hangman whose soul was in a
duck’s egg.

374 Rev. J. Macdougall, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1891), pp. 76
_sqq._ (_Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition_, No. iii.).

M104 Highland story of Headless Hugh.

375 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 187
_sq._ The writer tells us that in his youth a certain old Betty
Miles used to terrify him with this tale. For the tradition of
Headless Hugh, who seems to have been the only son of Hector, first
chief of Lochbuy, in the fourteenth century, see J. G. Campbell,
_Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. III _sqq._ India also has its stories
of headless horsemen. See W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore
of Northern India_ (London, 1896), i. 256 _sqq._

M105 The Mackays the descendants of the seal.

376 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_, pp. 191 _sq._, from
information furnished by the Rev. A. Mackay. In North Uist there is
a sept known as “the MacCodrums of the seals.” and a precisely
similar legend is told to explain their descent from seals. See J.
G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 284.

M106 The external soul in Irish and Breton stories. The giant and the
egg. The helpful animals. Body-without-Soul. The helpful animals.
The giant whose life was in a box-tree.

377 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of Ireland_ (London, N.D.),
pp. 71 _sqq._

378 P. Sébillot, _Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885),
pp. 63 _sqq._

379 F. M. Luzel, _Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1887), i.
435-449. Compare _id._, _Veillées Bretonnes_ (Morlaix, 1879), pp.
133 _sq._ For two other French stories of the same type, taken down
in Lorraine, see E. Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris,
N.D.), Nos. 15 and 50 (vol. i. pp. 166 _sqq._, vol. ii. pp. 128
_sqq._). In both of them there figures a miraculous beast which can
only be slain by breaking a certain egg against its head; but we are
not told that the life of the beast was in the egg. In both of them
also the hero receives from three animals, whose dispute about the
carcase of a dead beast he has settled, the power of changing
himself into animals of the same sort. See the remarks and
comparisons of the learned editor, Monsieur E. Cosquin, _op. cit._
i. 170 _sqq._

380 F. M. Luzel, _Veillées Bretonnes_ pp. 127 _sqq._

M107 The external soul in stories of non-Aryan peoples. The ancient
Egyptian story of the Two Brothers. The heart in the flower of the
Acacia.
M108 Bata in the Valley of the Acacia. How Bata died and was brought to
life again.

381 (Sir) Gaston Maspero, _Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne_3
(Paris, N.D.), pp. 1 _sqq._; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian
Tales_, Second Series (London, 1895), pp. 36 _sqq._; Alfred
Wiedemann, _Altägyptische Sagen und Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp.
58-77. Compare W. Mannhardt, “Das älteste Märchen,” _Zeitschrift für
deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 232-259. The
manuscript of the story, which is now in the British Museum,
belonged to an Egyptian prince, who was afterwards King Seti II. and
reigned about the year 1300 B.C. It is beautifully written and in
almost perfect condition.

M109 The external soul in Arabian stories. The jinnee and the sparrow.
The ogress and the bottle.

_ 382 The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called, in England, The
Arabian Nights’ Entertainments_, translated by E. W. Lane (London,
1839-1841), iii. 339-345.

383 G. Spitta-Bey, _Contes arabes modernes_ (Leyden and Paris, 1883),
No. 2, pp. 12 _sqq._ The story in its main outlines is identical
with the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles,
_Folk-tales of Kashmir_, pp. 42 _sqq._) and the Bengalee story of
“The Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of
Bengal_, pp. 117 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. 170 _sqq._). In
another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial;
when it is broken, she dies (W. A. Clouston, _A Group of Eastern
Romances and Stories_, Privately printed, 1889, p. 30). A similar
incident occurs in a Cashmeer story (J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p.
73). In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a
genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an
ogress’s breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. The same
incident occurs in Kabyle and Berber tales. See J. Rivière, _Contes
populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris, 1882), p. 239; R.
Basset, _Nouveaux Contes Berbères_ (Paris, 1897), p. 128, with the
editor’s note, pp. 339 _sqq._ In a Mongolian story a king refuses to
kill a lad because he has unwittingly partaken of a cake kneaded
with the milk of the lad’s mother (B. Jülg, _Mongolische
Märchen-Sammlung, die neun Märchen des Siddhi-Kür_, Innsbruck, 1868,
p. 183). Compare W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia_, New Edition (London, 1903), p. 176; and for the same mode
of creating kinship among other races, see A. d’Abbadie, _Douze ans
dans la Haute Ethiopie_ (Paris, 1868), pp. 272 _sq._; Tausch,
“Notices of the Circassians,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society_, i. (1834) p. 104; J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo
Koosh_ (London, 1880), pp. 77, 83 (compare G. W. Leitner, _Languages
and Races of Dardistan_, Lahore, 1878, p. 34); Denzil C. J.
Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal
Parganah of the Karnal District_ (Allahabad, 1883), p. 101; J.
Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 427; F. S. Krauss,
_Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 14; J. H. Weeks,
_Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 132. When the Masai of
East Africa make peace with an enemy, each tribe brings a cow with a
calf and a woman with a baby. The two cows are exchanged, and the
enemy’s child is suckled at the breast of the Masai woman, and the
Masai baby is suckled at the breast of the woman belonging to the
enemy. See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 321 _sq._

M110 The external soul in Basque, Kabyle, and Magyar stories.

384 W. Webster, _Basque Legends_ (London, 1877), pp. 80 _sqq._; J.
Vinson, _Le folk-lore du pays Basque_ (Paris, 1883), pp. 84 _sqq._
As so often in tales of this type, the hero is said to have received
his wonderful powers of metamorphosis from animals whom he found
quarrelling about their shares in a dead beast.

385 J. Rivière, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris,
1882), p. 191.

386 W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, _The Folk-tales of the Magyar_ (London,
1889), pp. 205 _sq._

387 R. H. Busk, _The Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), p. 168.

M111 The external soul in a Lapp story. The giant whose life was in a
hen’s egg. The helpful animals.

388 F. Liebrecht, “Lappländische Märchen,” _Germania_, N.R., iii. (1870)
pp. 174 _sq._; F. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_ (Vienna,
1886), No. 20, pp. 81 _sqq._

M112 The external soul in Samoyed and Kalmuck stories.

389 A. Castren, _Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die altaischen Völker_
(St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 173 _sqq._

390 B. Jülg, _Kalmückische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1866), No. 12, pp. 58
_sqq._

M113 The external soul in Tartar poems.

391 Anton Schiefner, _Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren_ (St.
Petersburg, 1859), pp. 172-176.

392 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 108-112.

393 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 360-364; A. Castren, _Vorlesungen über
die finnische Mythologie_ (St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 186 _sq._

394 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem
(Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 390 _sq._) a boy’s soul is shut up by his
enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead;
when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p.
384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is
feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on
earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in
the text.

M114 The external soul in a Mongolian story and Tartar poems.

395 Schott, “Ueber die Sage von Geser-Chan,” _Abhandlungen der
königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, p. 269.

396 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme
Süd-Sibiriens_, ii. (St. Petersburg, 1868), pp. 237 _sq._

397 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ ii. 531 _sqq._

398 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ iv. (St. Petersburg, 1872) pp. 88 _sq._

399 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ i. (St. Petersburg, 1866) pp. 345 _sq._

M115 The external soul in a Chinese story.

400 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden,
1901) pp. 105 _sq._

M116 The external soul in a story told by the Khasis of Assam.

401 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 181-184.

M117 The external soul in a Malay poem. Bidasari and the golden fish.

402 G. A. Wilken, “De betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en
plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,” _De Indische Gids_, November
1884, pp. 600-602; _id._, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5,
pp. 6 _sqq._ (of the separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide
Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 296-298, 559-561. Compare L. de
Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 144-149. The Malay
text of the long poem was published with a Dutch translation and
notes by W. R. van Hoëvell (“Sjaïr Bidasari, een oorspronkelijk
Maleisch Gedicht, uitgegeven en van eene Vertaling en Aanteekeningen
voorzien,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van
Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xix. (Batavia, 1843) pp. 1-421).

M118 The external soul in a story told in Nias.

403 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van
Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 111; H.
Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xi.
(1884) p. 453; _id._, _Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst_
(Barmen, 1905), p. 71. Compare E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_
(Milan, 1890), p. 339.

M119 The external soul in a Hausa story. The king whose life was in a
box. The helpful animals.

404 Major A. J. N. Tremearne, _Hausa Superstitions and Customs_ (London,
1913), pp. 131 _sq._ The original Hausa text of the story appears to
be printed in Major Edgar’s _Litafi na Tatsuniyoyi na Hausa_ (ii.
27), to which Major Tremearne refers (p. 9).

M120 The external soul in a South Nigerian story. The external soul in a
story told by the Ba-Ronga of South Africa. The Clan of the Cat.

405 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London,
1906), pp. 319-321.

406 Henri A. Junod, _Les Chants et les Contes des Ba-ronga_ (Lausanne,
N.D.), pp. 253-256; _id._, _The Life of a South African Tribe_
(Neuchatel, 1912-1913), i. 338 _sq._