Chapter XIII: Farewell to Nemi (10)

573 Antonio de Herrera, _General History of the Vast Continent and
Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London,
1725-1726), iv. 138 _sq._ The Spanish original of Herrera’s history,
a work based on excellent authorities, was first published at Madrid
in 1601-1615. The Indians of Santa Catalina Istlavacan still receive
at birth the name of some animal, which is commonly regarded as
their guardian spirit for the rest of their life. The name is
bestowed by the heathen priest, who usually hears of a birth in the
village sooner than his Catholic colleague. See K. Scherzer, “Die
Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlávacana (Frauenfuss), ein Beitrag
zur Culturgeschichte der Urbewohner Central-Amerikas,”
_Sitzungsberichte der philos. histor. Classe der kais. Akademie der
Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), xviii. (1856) p. 235.

574 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_
(Leyden, 1889), pp. 57 _sq._; _id._, _Suggestion und Hypnotism_2
(Leipsic, 1904), p. 170.

M168 In some tribes of South-Eastern Australia the lives of the two sexes
are thought to be bound up with the lives of two different kinds of
animals, as bats and owls.

575 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 57
_sq._ Compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_
(London, 1904), pp. 148, 150. It is very remarkable that among the
Kurnai these fights had a special connexion with marriage. When
young men were backward of taking wives, the women used to go out
into the forest and kill an emu-wren, which was the men’s “brother”;
then returning to the camp they shewed the dead bird to the men. The
result was a fight between the young men and the young women, in
which, however, lads who were not yet marriageable might not take
part. Next day the marriageable young men went out and killed a
superb warbler, which was the women’s “sister,” and this led to a
worse fight than before. Some days afterwards, when the wounds and
bruises were healed, one of the marriageable young men met one of
the marriageable young women, and said, “Superb warbler!” She
answered, “Emu-wren! What does the emu-wren eat?” To which the young
man answered, “He eats so-and-so,” naming kangaroo, opossum, emu, or
some other game. Then they laughed, and she ran off with him without
telling any one. See L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and
Kurnai_ (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane, 1880), pp. 201
_sq._; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp.
149, 273 _sq._ Perhaps this killing of the sex-totem before marriage
may be related to the pretence of killing young men and bringing
them to life again at puberty. See below, pp. 225 _sqq._

576 Gerard Krefft, “Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower
Murray and Darling,” _Transactions of the Philosophical Society of
New South Wales_, 1862-65, pp. 359 _sq._

577 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 56
_sq._

578 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 57; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, p. 150.

579 A. W. Howitt, “On the Migrations of the Kurnai Ancestors,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 416.

580 C. W. Schürmann, “The Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln,” in _Native
Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, 1879), p. 241. Compare G. F.
Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_
(London, 1847), i. 109.

581 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 58.
Compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), pp. 148-151.

582 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and
Adelaide, 1881), p. 52.

M169 Bats regarded as the brothers of men, and owls as the sisters of
women.

583 See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 47 _sq._ It is at least remarkable
that both the creatures thus assigned to the two sexes should be
nocturnal in their habits. Perhaps the choice of such creatures is
connected with the belief that the soul is absent from the body in
slumber. On this hypothesis bats and owls would be regarded by these
savages as the wandering souls of sleepers. Such a belief would
fully account for the reluctance of the natives to kill them. The
Kiowa Indians of North America think that owls and other night birds
are animated by the souls of the dead. See James Mooney, “Calendar
History of the Kiowa Indians,” _Seventeenth Annual Report of the
Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1898) p. 237.

584 A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 350 note
1; A. W. Howitt, “On the Migrations of the Kurnai Ancestors,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 416;
_id._, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 57.

585 L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, pp. 194, 201,
_sq._, 215; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. 416,
xviii. 56 _sq._; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 148-151.

586 The following suggestion as to the origin of totemism was made in
the first edition of this book (published in 1890) and is here
reprinted without any substantial change. In the meantime much
additional evidence as to the nature and prevalence of totemism has
come to light, and with the new evidence my opinions, or rather
conjectures, as to the origin of the institution have repeatedly
changed. If I here reprint my earliest conjecture, it is partly
because I still think it may contain an element of truth, and partly
because it serves as a convenient peg on which to hang a collection
of facts which are much more valuable than any theories of mine. The
reader who desires to acquaint himself more fully with the facts of
totemism and with the theories that have been broached on the
subject, will find them stated at length in my _Totemism and
Exogamy_ (London, 1910). Here I will only call attention to the
Arunta legend that the ancestors of the tribe kept their spirits in
certain sacred sticks and stones (_churinga_), which bear a close
resemblance to the well-known bull-roarers, and that when they went
out hunting they hung these sticks or stones on certain sacred poles
(_nurtunjas_) which represented their totems. See Baldwin Spencer
and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London,
1899), pp. 137 _sq._, 629. This tradition appears to point to a
custom of transferring a man’s soul or spirit temporarily to his
totem. Conversely when an Arunta is sick he scrapes his _churinga_
and swallows the scrapings, as if to restore to himself the
spiritual substance deposited in the instrument. See Baldwin Spencer
and F. J. Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 135 note 1.

M170 Sex totems and clan totems may both be based on the notion that men
and women keep their external souls in their totems, whether these
are animals, plants, or what not.

587 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in
North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 228 _sq._

588 L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 169. According
to Dr. Howitt, it is a serious offence to kill the totem of another
person “with intent to injure him” (_Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 53). Such an intention seems to imply a
belief in a sympathetic connexion between the man and the animal.
Similarly the Siena of the Ivory Coast, in West Africa, who have
totemism, believe that if a man kills one of his totemic animals, a
member of his totemic clan dies instantaneously. See Maurice
Delafosse, “Le peuple Siéna ou Sénoufo,” _Revue des Études
Ethnographiques et Sociologiques_, i. (1908) p. 452.

M171 The savage may imagine his life to be bound up with that of more
animals than one at the same time; for many savages think that every
person has more souls than one.

589 According to Plato, the different parts of the soul were lodged in
different parts of the body (_Timaeus_, pp. 69C-72D), and as only
one part, on his theory, was immortal, Lucian seems not unnaturally
to have interpreted the Platonic doctrine to mean that every man had
more than one soul (_Demonax_, 33).

590 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden,
1901) pp. 3 _sq._, 70-75.

591 Le sieur de la Borde, “Relation de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes,
Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes sauvages des Isles
Antilles de l’Amerique,” p. 15, in _Recueil de divers Voyages faits
en Afrique et en l’Amerique_ (Paris, 1684).

592 Washington Matthews, _The Hidatsa Indians_ (Washington, 1877), p.
50.

593 H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117; W. W. Skeat, _Malay
Magic_ (London, 1900), p. 50.

594 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 3 _sq._

595 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) p.
248.

596 In some tribes, chiefly of North American Indians, every man has an
individual or personal totem in addition to the totem of his clan.
This personal totem is usually the animal of which he dreamed during
a long and solitary fast at puberty. See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i.
49-52, iii. 370-456, where the relation of the individual or
personal totem (if we may call it so) to the clan totem is
discussed. It is quite possible that, as some good authorities
incline to believe, the clan totem has been developed out of the
personal totem by inheritance. See Miss Alice C. Fletcher, _The
Import of the Totem_, pp. 3 _sqq._ (paper read before the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1887, separate
reprint); Fr. Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret
Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States
National Museum for 1895_ (Washington, 1897), pp. 323 _sq._,
336-338, 393. In the bush souls of the Calabar negroes (see above,
pp. 204 _sqq._) we seem to have something like the personal totem on
its way to become hereditary and so to grow into the totem of a
clan.

M172 The Battas of Sumatra, who have totemism, believe that every person
has a soul which is always outside of his body.

597 J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland
Sumatra,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig
Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide
artikelen, No. 2 (1886), pp. 311 _sq._; _id._, dl. iv. No. 1 (1887),
pp. 8 _sq._; Van Hoëvell, “Iets over ’t oorlogvoeren der Batta’s,”
_Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., vii. (1878) p. 434; G.
A. Wilken, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), i. 296, 306
_sq._, 309, 325 _sq._; L. de Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_ (Paris,
1874), p. 470; Col. Yule, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, ix. (1880) p. 295; Joachim Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch
bei den Kannibalen Sumatras_ (Würzburg, 1894), pp. 197 _sqq._; P. A.
L. E. van Dijk, “Eenige aanteekeningen omtrent de verschillenden
stammen (_Margas_) en de stamverdeling bij de Battaks,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 296
_sq._; M. Joustra, “Naar het landschap Goenoeng,” _Mededeelingen van
wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlv. (1901) pp. 80
_sq._; _id._, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) pp. 387 _sqq._; J. E. Neumann, “Kemali, Pantang, en
Rĕboe bij de Karo-Bataks,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xlviii. (1906) p. 512. See further _Totemism and
Exogamy_, ii. 185 _sqq._

598 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 514. J.
B. Neumann (_op. cit._ dl. iii. No. 2, pp. 299) is the authority for
the seven souls. According to another writer, six out of the seven
souls reside outside of the body; one of them dwells in heaven, the
remaining five have no definite place of abode, but are so closely
related to the man that were they to abandon him his health would
suffer. See J. Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen
Sumatras_, pp. 239 _sq._ A different account of Batta psychology is
given by Mr. Westenberg. According to him, each Batta has only one
_tendi_ (not three or seven of them); and the _tendi_ is something
between a soul and a guardian spirit. It always resides outside of
the body, and on its position near, before, behind, above, or below,
the welfare of its owner is supposed in great measure to depend. But
in addition each man has two invisible guardian spirits (his _kaka_
and _agi_) whose help he invokes in great danger; one is the seed by
which he was begotten, the other is the afterbirth, and these he
calls respectively his elder and his younger brother. Mr.
Westenberg’s account refers specially to the Karo-Battas. See C. J.
Westenberg, “Aanteekeningen omtrent de godsdienstige begrippen der
Karo-Bataks,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch Indië_, xli. (1892) pp. 228 _sq._

M173 If a totem is the receptacle in which a man keeps his external soul,
it is no wonder that savages should conceal the secret from
strangers.

599 Compare Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_
(London, 1912), ii. 90 _sqq._: “An important institution among some
of the Ibans, which occurs but in rare instances among the other
peoples, is the _ngarong_ or secret helper. The _ngarong_ is one of
the very few topics in regard to which the Ibans display any
reluctance to speak freely. So great is their reserve in this
connection that one of us lived for fourteen years on friendly terms
with Ibans of various districts without ascertaining the meaning of
the word _ngarong_, or suspecting the great importance of the part
played by the notion in the lives of some of these people. The
_ngarong_ seems to be usually the spirit of some ancestor or dead
relative, but not always so, and it is not clear that it is always
conceived as the spirit of a deceased human being. This spirit
becomes the special protector of some individual Iban, to whom in a
dream he manifests himself, in the first place in human form, and
announces that he will be his secret helper.... When, as is most
commonly the case, the secret helper takes on the form of some
animal, all individuals of that species become objects of especial
regard to the fortunate Iban; he will not kill or eat any such
animal, and he will as far as possible restrain others from doing
so.” Thus the _ngarong_ or secret helper of the Ibans closely
resembles what I have called the individual or personal totem.

600 It is not merely the personal name which is often shrouded in
mystery (see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 318 _sqq._);
the names of the clans and their subdivisions are objects of
mysterious reverence among many, if not all, of the Siouan tribes of
North America, and are never used in ordinary conversation. See J.
Owen Dorsey, “Osage Traditions,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 396. Among the Yuin of
South-Eastern Australia “the totem name was called _Budjan_, and it
was said to be more like _Joïa_, or magic, than a name; and it was
in one sense a secret name, for with it an enemy might cause injury
to its bearer by magic. Thus very few people knew the totem names of
others, the name being told to a youth by his father at his
initiation” (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_,
London, 1904, p. 133).

M174 This view of totemism may help to explain the rite of death and
resurrection which forms part of many initiatory ceremonies among
savages.

601 Theodor Benfey, _Pantschatantra_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 128 _sq._
Similarly a man of the Kulin tribe in Victoria was called Kurburu,
that is, “native bear,” because the spirit of a native bear was
supposed to have entered into him when he killed the animal, and to
have endowed him with its wonderful cleverness. This I learn from
Miss E. B. Howitt’s _Folklore and Legends of some Victorian Tribes_
(chapter vi.), which I have been privileged to see in manuscript.
Among the Chiquites Indians of Paraguay sickness was sometimes
accounted for by supposing that the soul of a deer or a turtle had
entered into the patient. See _Lettres Édifiantes et Curieuses_,
Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339. We have seen (pp. 213
_sq._) that the Indians of Honduras made an alliance with the animal
that was to be their _nagual_ by offering some of their own blood to
it. Conversely the North American Indian kills the animal which is
to be his personal totem, and thenceforth wears some part of the
creature as an amulet (_Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 50). These facts
seem to point to the establishment of a blood covenant, involving an
interchange of life between a man and his personal totem or
_nagual_; and among the Fans of West Africa, as we saw (above, p.
201), such a covenant is actually supposed to exist between a
sorcerer and his _elangela_.

M175 The rite of death and resurrection among the Wonghi of New South
Wales.

602 A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) pp. 357
_sq._ Compare A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_
(London, 1904), pp. 588 _sq._

M176 Use of the bull-roarer at initiatory ceremonies in Australia. The
sound of the bull-roarer compared to thunder. Belief of the Dieri
that by sounding a bull-roarer a newly initiated young man produces
a supply of edible snakes and lizards.

603 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 213, 453.

604 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), p. 538. As to Daramulun (of whose name Thuremlin is no doubt
only a dialectical variation) see _id._, pp. 407, 493, 494 _sq._,
497, 499, 500, 507, 523 _sq._, 526, 528, 529 _sq._, 535, 540, 541,
585 _sq._, 587; _id._, “On some Australian Ceremonies of
Initiation,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii.
(1884) pp. 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 450, 451, 452, 455, 456, 459. On
the bull-roarer see Andrew Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884),
pp. 29-44; J. D. E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_ (Hamburg, 1896); A.
C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), pp.
277-327; J. G. Frazer, “On some Ceremonies of the Central Australian
Aborigines,” _Proceedings of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science for the Year 1900_ (Melbourne, 1901), pp.
317-322. The religious or magical use of the bull-roarer is best
known in Australia. See, for example, L. Fison and A. W. Howitt,
_Kamilaroi and Kurnai_ (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane,
1880), pp. 267-269; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, pp. 354, 509 _sq._, 514, 515, 517, 569, 571, 575, 578,
579, 582, 583, 584, 589, 592, 594, 595, 606, 659 _sq._, 670, 672,
696, 715; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of
Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 246, 344, 347; W. Baldwin
Spencer, _Introduction to the Study of Certain Native Tribes of the
Northern Territory_ (_Bulletin of the Northern Territory_, No. 2)
(Melbourne, 1912), pp. 19 _sq._, 23, 24, 31 _sq._, 37 _sqq._; A. R.
Brown, “Three Tribes of Western Australia,” _Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute_, xliii. (1913) pp. 168, 174; R.
Pettazzoni, “Mythologie Australienne du Rhombe,” _Revue de
l’Histoire des Religions_, lxv. (1912) pp. 149-170. But in the essay
just referred to Mr. Andrew Lang shewed that the instrument has been
similarly employed not only by savages in various parts of the
world, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries.
In the Torres Straits Islands it is used both at the initiation of
young men and as a magical instrument. See _Reports of the Cambridge
Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904)
pp. 217, 218, 219, 328, 330-333, 346, 352. In various parts of New
Guinea it is sounded at the initiation of young men and is carefully
concealed from women; the sound is thought to be the voice of a
spirit. See Rev. J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London,
1887), p. 85; _id._, “Toaripi,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 329; Rev. J. Holmes, “Initiation
Ceremonies of Natives of the Papuan Gulf,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 420, 424 _sq._; O.
Schellong, “Das Barlum-fest der Gegend Finsch-hafens,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 150 _sq._,
154 _sq._; F. Grabowsky, “Der Bezirk von Hatzfeldthafen und seine
Bewohner,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xli. (1895) p. 189; B. Hagen,
_Unter den Papua’s_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), pp. 188 _sq._; Max Krieger,
_Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, preface dated 1899), pp. 168 _sqq._; J.
Vetter, in _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_,
xi. (1892) p. 105; K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser
Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel, 1897_ (Berlin), p. 93; R.
Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 36, 297, 403, 406
_sq._, 410-412, 494 _sqq._; Otto Reche, _Der Kaiserin-Augusta-Fluss_
(Hamburg, 1913), pp. 349 _sqq._ (_Ergebnisse der Südsee-Expedition
1908-1910_, herausgegeben von G. Thilenius). It is similarly used at
the circumcision-festivals in the French Islands, to the west of New
Britain (R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_, Stuttgart,
1907, pp. 640 _sq._), and it is employed at mysteries or mourning
ceremonies in Bougainville and other Melanesian Islands. See R.
Parkinson, _op. cit._ pp. 658 _sq._; _id._, _Zur Ethnographie der
Nordwestlichen Salomo Inseln_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 11; R. H.
Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 98 _sq._, 342.
Among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra the bull-roarer (_gasiĕng_) is
used by a rejected lover to induce the demons to carry off the soul
of the jilt and so drive her mad. It is made of the frontal bone of
a brave or skilful man, and some of the intended victim’s hair is
attached to it. See J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den
Minangkabauer in der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de
Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890)
pp. 55 _sq._ Among the Yoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast in
West Africa, particularly at Abeokuta, the sound of the bull-roarer
is supposed to be the voice of a great bogey named Oro, whose
votaries compose a secret society under the name of Ogboni. When the
sound of the bull-roarer is heard in the streets, every woman must
shut herself up in her house and not look out of the window under
pain of death. See R. F. Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons
Mountains_ (London, 1863), i. 197 _sq._;, Missionary Chautard, in
_Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lv. (Lyons, 1883) pp.
192-198; Missionary Baudin, “Le Fétichisme,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 257; P. Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves
et le Dahomey_ (Paris, 1885), p. 124; Mrs. R. B. Batty and Governor
Moloney, “Notes on the Yoruba Country,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) pp. 160-164; A. B. Ellis,
_The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_
(London, 1894), pp. 110 _sq._; R. H. Stone, _In Afric’s Forest and
Jungle_ (Edinburgh and London, 1900), p. 88; L. Frobenius, _Die
Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 95 _sqq._ (_Nova
Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der
Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1). Among the Nandi of British East
Africa and the Bushongo of the Congo region bull-roarers are sounded
by men to frighten novices at initiation. See A. C. Hollis, _The
Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 40, 56; E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, _Les
Bushongo_ (Brussels, 1910), p. 82. Among the Caffres of South Africa
and the Boloki of the Upper Congo the bull-roarer is a child’s toy,
but yet is thought to be endowed with magical virtue. See below, p.
232 note 3. Among the Koskimo Indians of British Columbia the sound
of the bull-roarers is supposed to be the voice of a spirit who
comes to fetch away the novices. See Franz Boas, “The Social
Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,”
_Report of the United States National Museum_ (Washington, 1897), p.
610. The bull-roarer is used as a sacred or magical instrument for
the making of rain by the Zuñi and other Pueblo Indians of Arizona
and New Mexico, also by the Navajos and Apaches of the same region,
and by the Utes of Nevada and Utah. See Dr. Washington Matthews,
“The Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony,” _Fifth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 435, 436; Captain J. G.
Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” _Ninth Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), pp. 476-479; Mrs.
Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-third Report of
the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 115, 117,
128 _sq._, 175, 177, 355. The Guatusos of Costa Rica ascertain the
will of the deity by listening to the humming sound of the
bull-roarer. See Dr. C. Sapper, “Ein Besuch bei den Guatusos in
Costarica,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 352; _id._, “Beiträge zur
Ethnographie des südlichen Mittelamerika,” _Petermanns
Mitteilungen_, xlvii. (1901) p. 36. The Caripunas Indians of the
Madeira River, in Brazil, sound bull-roarers in lamentations for the
dead. See Franz Keller, _The Amazon and Madeira Rivers_ (London,
1874), p. 124. The Bororo of Brazil also swing bull-roarers at their
festivals of the dead; the sound of them is the signal for the women
to hide themselves; it is believed that women and children would die
if they saw a bull-roarer. See K. von den Steinen, _Unter den
Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasilien’s_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 497-499. The
Nahuqua and other Brazilian tribes use bull-roarers in their masked
dances, but make no mystery of them. See K. von den Steinen, _op.
cit._ pp. 327 _sq._ As to the magical use of the bull-roarer, see
pp. 230 _sqq._

605 A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and other Kindred Tribes of Central
Australia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891)
p. 83; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 660. In
the latter passage Dr. Howitt omits the not unimportant particular
that the bull-roarer is swung for this purpose by the young man
_before his wounds are healed_.

606 On the desert nature of Central Australia and the magical-like
change wrought in its fauna and flora by heavy rain, see Baldwin
Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_
(London, 1899), pp. 4 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 170 _sqq._,
316 _sqq._, 341 _sq._; J. G. Frazer, “Howitt and Fison,”
_Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 160, 162 _sq._, 164.

M177 The bull-roarer used by the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona to
procure rain. The bull-roarer used in Torres Straits Islands to
produce wind and good crops.

607 Captain J. G. Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” _Ninth
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), pp.
476 _sq._

608 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-third
Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington,
1904), pp. 115, 355.

609 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, _op. cit._ p. 175; compare _id._, pp.
128 _sq._, 177.

610 Dr. Washington Matthews, “The Navajo Chant,” _Fifth Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), p. 436; compare _id._,
p. 435, where the sound of the bull-roarer is said to be “like that
of a rain storm.”

611 Karl von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 328.

_ 612 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres
Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 352.

613 G. McCall Theal, _Kaffir Folk-lore_ (London, 1886), pp. 222 _sq._;
_id._, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p. 456; Dudley
Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 333. For an analogous
reason among the Boloki of the Upper Congo the elders do not like
when boys play with bull-roarers, because the sound resembles the
growl of a leopard and will attract these ferocious animals. See
Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 157.

614 A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London,
1901), p. 104; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition
to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219; Rev. J.
Chalmers, “Notes on the Natives of Kiwai Island,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 119.

615 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin,
1911), iii. 333.

M178 The whirling of bull-roarers by young men with bleeding backs in
Australia seems to have been a rain-making ceremony.

_ 616 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 256-258.

617 This appears to be the view also of Professor K. von den Steinen
(_Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, pp. 327 _sq._), who is
probably right in thinking that the primary intention of the
instrument is to make thunder, and that the idea of making rain is
secondary.

M179 The sound of the bull-roarer at initiation is believed by Australian
women and children to be the voice of a spirit, who carries away the
novices.

618 A. W. Howitt, “On Australian Medicine Men,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xvi. (1887) pp. 47 _sq._; compare _id._,
_Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 596.

619 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 246 note 1; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 497. According to the classificatory
system of relationship, which prevails among all the aborigines of
Australia, a man may have, and generally has, a number of women who
stand to him in the relation of mother as well as of sister, though
there need not be a drop of blood in common between them, as we
count kin. This explains the reference in the text to a boy’s
“mothers.”

M180 In some Australian tribes the women believe that lads at initiation
are killed and brought to life again by a spirit, whose voice is
heard in the sound of the bull-roarer.

620 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_,
pp. 342 _sq._, 498.

621 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 498.

622 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 366 _sq._, 501.

623 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 373, 501.

M181 A drama of resurrection from the dead used to be shewn to novices at
initiation in some tribes of New South Wales. Dr. Howitt’s
description of the scene. The seeming dead man in the grave. The
resurrection from the grave.

624 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 554-556.
Compare _id._, “On some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 453
_sq._

M182 In some Australian tribes a medicine-man at his initiation is
thought to be killed and raised again from the dead.

625 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_,
pp. 523-525; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, 480
_sq._, 484, 485, 487, 488; _id._, _Across Australia_ (London, 1912),
ii. 334 _sqq._

626 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 480
_sq._

627 F. J. Gillen, “Notes on some Manners and Customs of the Aborigines
of the McDonnel Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe,” in _Report on
the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_,
Part iv. _Anthropology_ (London and Melbourne, 1896), pp. 180 _sq._;
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_
(London, 1899), pp. 523 _sq._; _id._, _Across Australia_ (London,
1912), ii. 335.

M183 Notable features in the initiation of Australian medicine-men.

628 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_,
pp. 487, 488; _id._, _Across Australia_, ii. 481 _sq._

M184 Rites of initiation in some tribes of German New Guinea. The novices
thought to be swallowed and disgorged by a monster, whose voice is
heard in the hum of the bull-roarers.
M185 The return of the novices after initiation.

629 As to the initiatory rites among the Yabim, see K. Vetter, in
_Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel_,
1897, pp. 92 _sq._; _id._, in _Mitteilungen der Geographischen
Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xi. (1892) p. 105; _id._, _Komm herüber und
hilf uns!_ ii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 18; _id._, cited by M. Krieger,
_Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, preface dated 1899), pp. 167-170; O.
Schellong, “Das Barlum-fest der Gegend Finschhafens,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 145-162;
H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin,
1911), iii. 296-298. As to the initiatory rites among the Bukaua,
see S. Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
402-410; among the Kai, see Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Kai-Leute,”
_ibid._ pp. 34-40; among the Tami, see G. Bamler, “Tami,” _ibid._
pp. 493-507. I have described the rites of the various tribes more
in detail in _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the
Dead_, i. 250-255, 260 _sq._, 290 _sq._, 301 _sq._ In the Bukaua and
Tami tribes the initiation ceremonies are performed not in the
forest but in a special house built for the purpose in the village,
which the women are obliged to vacate till the rites are over.

M186 The monster who is supposed to swallow the novices is apparently
conceived as a ghost or ancestral spirit.

_ 630 The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 250,
251, 255, 261, 290 _sq._, 301. Among the Bukaua not only does the
bull-roarer bear the general name for a ghost (_balum_), but each
particular bull-roarer bears in addition the name of a particular
dead man, and varies in dignity and importance with the dignity and
importance of the deceased person whom it represents. And besides
the big bull-roarers with gruff voices there are little bull-roarers
with shrill voices, which represent the shrill-voiced wives of the
ancient heroes. See S. Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_, iii. 410-412.

631 R. Pöch, “Vierter Bericht über meine Reise nach Neu-Guinea,”
_Sitzungsberichte der mathematischen-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse
der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), cxv. (1906)
Abteilung i. pp. 901, 902.

M187 The drama of death and resurrection used to be enacted before young
men at initiation in some parts of Fiji.

632 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The _Nanga_ or Sacred Stone Enclosure of
Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv.
(1885) p. 27. The _Nanga_ or sacred enclosure of stones, with its
sacred rites, was known only to certain tribes of Fiji (the Nuyaloa,
Vatusila, Mbatiwai, and Mdavutukia), who inhabited a comparatively
small area, barely a third, of the island of Viti Levu. As to the
institution in general, see Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp.
14-31; A. B. Joske, “The Nanga of Viti-levu,” _Internationales
Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 254-266; Basil Thomson,
_The Fijians_ (London, 1908), pp. 146-157. Compare _The Belief in
Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 427-438.

633 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ p. 26; Basil Thomson, _op. cit._ 147.

634 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 27 _sq._ The phrase “the
ancestral gods” is used by Mr. Fison, one of our best authorities on
Fijian religion. Mr. Basil Thomson (_op. cit._ p. 157) questions the
accuracy of Mr. Fison’s account of this vicarious sacrifice on the
ground that every youth was regularly circumcised as a matter of
course. But there seems to be no inconsistency between the two
statements. While custom required that every youth should be
circumcised, the exact time for performing the ceremony need not
have been rigidly prescribed; and if a saving or atoning virtue was
attributed to the sacrifice of foreskins, it might be thought
desirable in cases of emergency, such as serious illness, to
anticipate it for the benefit of the sufferer.

635 According to Mr. Fison, the enclosure was divided into three
compartments; Mr. Basil Thomson describes only two, though by
speaking of one of them as the “Middle Nanga” he seems to imply that
there were three. The structure was a rough parallelogram lying east
and west, about a hundred feet long by fifty feet broad, enclosed by
walls or rows of stone slabs embedded endwise in the earth. See
Basil Thomson, _op. cit._ pp. 147 _sq._

M188 Description of the rite. The mimic death. The mimic resurrection.
The sacramental meal. The intention of the rite.

636 A. B. Joske, “The Nanga of Vitilevu,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) p. 259; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_, pp.
150 _sq._ According to Mr. Fison (_op. cit._ p. 19) the initiatory
ceremonies were held as a rule only every second year; but he adds:
“This period, however, is not necessarily restricted to two years.
There are always a number of youths who are growing to the proper
age, and the length of the interval depends upon the decision of the
elders.” Perhaps the seeming discrepancy between our authorities on
this point may be explained by Mr. Joske’s statement (p. 259) that
the rites are held in alternate years by two different sets of men,
the Kai Vesina and the Kai Rukuruku, both of whom claim to be
descended from the original founders of the rites. The custom of
dating the New Year by observation of the Pleiades was apparently
universal among the Polynesians. See _The Spirits of the Corn and of
the Wild_, i. 312 _sq._

637 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 20-23; A. B. Joske, _op. cit._
pp. 264 _sq._; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_, pp. 150-153. The
sacramental character of the meal is recognized by Mr. Fison, who
says (p. 23) that after the performance of the rites the novices
“are now _Vīlavóu_, accepted members of the _Nanga_, qualified to
take their place among the men of the community, though still only
on probation. As children—their childhood being indicated by their
shaven heads—they were presented to the ancestors, and their
acceptance was notified by what (looking at the matter from the
natives’ standpoint) we might, without irreverance, almost call the
_sacrament_ of food and water, too sacred even for the elders’ hands
to touch.”

M189 Initiatory rite in the island of Rook: pretence that the novices are
swallowed by the devil. Secret society of the Duk-duk in New
Britain. Novices supposed to be killed. The new birth.

638 Paul Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., iv. (1858) pp. 356 _sq._

639 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1887), pp. 129-134;
_id._ _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 567
_sqq._; Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New
Britain, and New Ireland,” _Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society_, xlvii. (1878) pp. 148 _sq._; H. H. Romilly, “The Islands
of the New Britain Group,” _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society_, N.S., ix. (1887) pp. 11 _sq._; Rev. G. Brown, _ibid._ p.
17; _id._, _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 60
_sqq._; W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883),
pp. 60-66; C. Hager, _Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land und der Bismarck
Archipel_ (Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 115-128; Hubner, quoted by W. H.
Dall, “On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs,” _Third
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p.
100; P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_
(Hiltrup bei Münster, N.D.), pp. 350 _sqq._; H. Schurtz,
_Altersklassen und Männerbünde_ (Berlin, 1902), pp. 369-377. The
inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes,
which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems.
One of the insects is the _mantis religiosus_; the other is an
insect that mimics the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely.
See Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage Customs of the New Britain Group,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 281
_sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 118 _sqq._

M190 Initiatory rite in Halmahera: pretence of begetting the novices
anew.

640 J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” _Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) pp. 81 _sq._

M191 The Kakian association in Ceram. The rite of initiation: pretence of
killing the novices.

641 The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been
described. See François Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_
(Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 3 _sq._; Von Schmid, “Het
Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,” _Tijdschrift voor Neérlands
Indië_ (Batavia, 1843), dl. ii. pp. 25-38; A. van Ekris, “Het
Ceramsche Kakianverbond,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, ix. (1865) pp. 205-226 (repeated with slight
changes in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
xvi. (1867) pp. 290-315); P. Fournier, “De Zuidkust van Ceram,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi. (1867)
pp. 154-156; W. A. van Rees, _Die Pionniers der Beschaving in
Neêrlands Indië_ (Arnheim, 1867), pp. 92-106; G. W. W. C. Baron van
Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht,
1875), pp. 153 _sqq._; Schulze, “Ueber Ceram und seine Bewohner,”
_Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie,
Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_ (1877), p. 117; W. Joest, “Beiträge
zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der Insel Formosa und Ceram,” _ibid._
(1882) p. 64; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic,
1878), p. 318; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. (Berlin, 1884) pp.
145-148; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen
Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 107-111; O. D. Tauern,
“Ceram,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913) pp. 167 _sq._ The
best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van
Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in the text.

M192 The resurrection of the novices. M193 The secret society of _Ndembo_ in the valley of the Lowe Congo.

642 No reason is assigned for this curious choice of a president. Can it
have been that, because negro children are born pale or nearly
white, an albino was deemed a proper president for a society, all
the initiated members of which claimed to have been born again?
Speaking of the people of the Lower Congo the old English traveller
Andrew Battel observes that “the children of this country are born
white, but change their colour in two days’ time to a perfect black”
(“Adventures of Andrew Battel,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and
Travels_, xvi. London, 1814, p. 331).

M194 Pretence of death as a preliminary to resurrection. M195 Seclusion of the novices. M196 Resurrection of the novices. Pretence of the novices that they have forgotten everything.

643 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,”
_Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 189-198; Rev. W. H. Bentley, _Life on
the Congo_ (London, 1887), pp. 78 _sq._; _id._, _Pioneering on the
Congo_ (London, 1900), i. 284-287. Mr. Weeks’s description of the
institution is the fullest and I have followed it in the text. The
custom was in vogue down to recent years, but seems to have been
suppressed chiefly by the exertions of the missionaries. Besides the
_ndembo_ guild there is, or was, in these regions another secret
society known as the _nkimba_, which some writers have confused with
the _ndembo_. The _nkimba_ was of a more harmless character than the
other; indeed it seems even to have served some useful purposes,
partly as a kind of freemasonry which encouraged mutual help among
its members, partly as a system of police for the repression of
crime, its professed object being to put down witchcraft and punish
witches. Only males were admitted to it. Candidates for initiation
were stupefied by a drug, but there was apparently no pretence of
killing them and bringing them to life again. Members of the society
had a home in the jungle away from the town, where the novices lived
together for a period varying from six months to two years. They
learned a secret language, and received new names; it was afterwards
an offence to call a man by the name of his childhood. Instead of
the red dye affected by members of the _ndembo_ guild, members of
the _nkimba_ guild whitened their bodies with pipe clay and wore
crinolines of palm frondlets. See Rev. W. H. Bentley, _Life on the
Congo_, pp. 80-83; _id._, _Pioneering on the Congo_, i. 282-284;
Rev. J. H. Weeks, _op. cit._ pp. 198-201; (Sir) H. H. Johnston, “A
Visit to Mr. Stanley’s Stations on the River Congo,” _Proceedings of
the Royal Geographical Society_, N. S. v. (1883) pp. 572 _sq._; E.
Delmar Morgan, “Notes on the Lower Congo,” _id._, N.S. vi. (1884) p.
193. As to these two secret societies on the Lower Congo, see
further (Sir) H. H. Johnston, “On the Races of the Congo,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 472 sq.; É.
Dupont, _Lettres sur le Congo_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 96-100; Herbert
Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890), pp. 54
_sq._; _id._ “Ethnographical Notes relating to the Congo Tribes,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 288
_sq._; E. J. Glave, _Six Years of Adventure in Congo Land_ (London,
1893), pp. 80-83; L. Frobenius, _Die Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas_
(Halle, 1898), pp. 43-54 (_Nova Acta. Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop. Carol.
Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1); H.
Schurtz, _Altersklassen und Männerbünde_ (Berlin, 1902), pp.
433-437; _Notes Annalytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du
Musée du Congo_ (Brussels, 1902-1906), pp. 199-206; Ed. de Jonghe,
_Les Sociétés Secrètes au Bas-Congo_ (Brussels, 1907), pp. 15 _sqq._
(extract from the _Revue des Questions Scientifiques_, October
1907). Some of these writers do not discriminate between the two
societies, the _ndembo_ and the _nkimba_. According to our best
authorities (Messrs. Bentley and Weeks) the two societies are quite
distinct and neither of them has anything to do with circumcision,
which is, however, prevalent in the region. See Rev. J. H. Weeks,
“Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” _Folk-lore_, xx.
(1909) pp. 304 _sqq._ A secret society of the Lower Congo which
Adolf Bastian has described under the name of _quimba_ is probably
identical with the _nkimba_. He speaks of a “Secret Order of those
who have been born again,” and tells us that the candidates “are
thrown into a death-like state and buried in the fetish house. When
they are wakened to life again, they have (as in the Belliparo) lost
their memory of everything that is past, even of their father and
mother, and they can no longer remember their own name. Hence new
names are given them according to the titles or ranks to which they
are advanced.” See A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der
Loango-Küste_ (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 15 _sqq._

M197 Bastian’s account of the ritual of death and resurrection in West
Africa.

644 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 82
_sq._

M198 Acquisition of a patron animal or guardian spirit in a dream.

645 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 183.
Elsewhere Bastian says that about San Salvador lads at puberty are
secluded in the forest and circumcised, and during their seclusion
“each of them is mystically united to the fetish by which his life
is henceforth determined, as the Brahman whispers the secret charm
in the ear of him who has been born again.” See A. Bastian, _Ein
Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 85 _sq._

646 H. Trilles, _Le Totémisme chez les Fâṅ_ (Münster i. W., 1912), pp.
479 _sq._ The writer speaks of the guardian spirit as the individual
totem of the young warrior.

M199 Dapper’s account of the ritual of death and resurrection in the
Belli-Paaro society.

647 O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), pp. 268
_sq._ Dapper’s account has been abridged in the text.

M200 Miss Kingsley on the rites of initiation into secret societies in
West Africa.

648 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1867), p.
531. Perhaps the smearing with clay may be intended to indicate that
the novices have undergone the new birth; for the negro child,
though born reddish-brown, soon turns slaty-grey (E. B. Tylor,
_Anthropology_, London, 1881, p. 67), which would answer well enough
to the hue of the clay-bedaubed novices.

M201 The _purra_ or _poro_, a secret society of Sierra Leone. The new
birth. The _semo_, a secret society of Senegambia. Death and
resurrection at initiation.

649 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the
Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 135 _sq._ Compare
John Matthews, _A Voyage to the River Sierra-Leone_ (London, 1791),
pp. 82-85; J. B. L. Durand, _Voyage au Sénégal_ (Paris, 1802), pp.
183 _sq._ (whose account is copied without acknowledgment from
Matthews). The _purra_ or _poro_ society also exists among the
Timmes of Sierra Leone; in this tribe the novices are sometimes
secluded from their families for ten years in the wood, they are
tattooed on their backs and arms, and they learn a language which
consists chiefly of names of plants and animals used in special
senses. Women are not admitted to the society. See Zweifel et
Moustier, “Voyage aux sources du Niger,” _Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie_ (Paris), VI. Série, xv. (1878) pp. 108 _sq._

650 T. J. Alldridge, _The Sherbro and its Hinterland_ (London, 1901), p.
130. This work contains a comparatively full account of the _purra_
or _poro_ society (pp. 124-131) and of the other secret societies of
the country (pp. 131-149, 153-159). Compare L. Frobenius, _Die
Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 138-144 (_Nova
Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der
Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1).

651 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the
Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 137-139. As to
the _semo_ or _simo_ society see further L. Frobenius, _op. cit._
pp. 130-138.

M202 Ritual of the new birth among the Akikuyu of British East Africa.

652 Extract from a letter of Mr. A. C. Hollis to me. Mr. Hollis’s
authority is Dr. T. W. W. Crawford of the Kenia Medical Mission.

653 W. Scoresby Routledge and Katherine Routledge, _With a Prehistoric
People, the Akikuyu of British East Africa_ (London, 1910), p. 152.
Compare C. W. Hobley, “Kikuyu Customs and Beliefs,” _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 441.

654 Mr. A. W. McGregor, of the Church Missionary Society, quoted by W.
S. Routledge and K. Routledge, _With a Prehistoric People_, p. 151,
note. 1. Mr. McGregor “has resided amongst the Akikuyu since 1901.
He has by his tact and kindness won the confidence of the natives,
and is the greatest authority on their language” (_id._, p. xxi).

655 W. S. Routledge and K. Routledge, _op. cit._ p. 151.

M203 Rites of initiation among the Bondeis of East Africa. Rites of
initiation among the Bushongo of the Congo. The first ordeal. The
second ordeal. The last ordeal: the descent from the tree.

656 Rev. G. Dale, “An Account of the principal Customs and Habits of the
Natives inhabiting the Bondei Country,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 189.

657 E. Torday et T. A. Joyce, _Les Bushongo_ (Brussels, 1910), pp.
82-85. As for the title “God on Earth,” applied to the principal
chief or king, see _id._, p. 53.

M204 Rites of initiation among the Indians of Virginia: pretence of the
novices that they have forgotten their former life.

658 (Beverley’s) _History of Virginia_ (London, 1722), pp. 177 _sq._
Compare J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North Carolina_
(Dublin, 1737), pp. 405 _sq._

M205 Ritual of death and resurrection at initiation into the secret
societies of North America. The medicine-bag as an instrument of
death and resurrection. Ritual of death and resurrection at
initiation among the Dacotas.

659 J. Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_,
Third Edition (London, 1781), pp. 271-275. The thing thrown at the
man and afterwards vomited by him was probably not a bean but a
small white sea-shell (_Cypraea moneta_). See H. R. Schoolcraft,
_Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii.
287; J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), i. 71; _Seventh
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp.
191, 215; _Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_
(Washington, 1896), p. 101.

660 J. Carver, _op. cit._ pp. 277 _sq._; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian
Tribes of the United States_, iii. 287 (as to the Winnebagoes), v.
430 _sqq._ (as to the Chippeways and Sioux); J. G. Kohl,
_Kitschi-Gami_, i. 64-70 (as to the Ojebways). For a very detailed
account of the Ojebway ceremonies, see W. J. Hoffman, “The Midewiwin
or Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa,” _Seventh Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), especially pp. 215
_sq._, 234 _sq._, 248, 265. For similar ceremonies among the
Menomini, see _id._, “The Menomini Indians,” _Fourteenth Annual
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1896), pp. 99-102;
and among the Omahas, see J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp.
342-346. I have dealt more fully with the ritual in _Totemism and
Exogamy_, iii. 462 _sqq._ Compare also P. Radin, “Ritual and
Significance of the Winnebago Medicine Dance,” _Journal of American
Folk-lore_, xxiv. (1911) pp. 149-208.

661 G. H. Pond, “Dakota superstitions,” _Collections of the Minnesota
Historical Society for the year 1867_ (Saint Paul, 1867), pp. 35,
37-40. A similar but abridged account of the Dakota tradition and
usage is given by S. R. Riggs in his _Dakota Grammar, Texts, and
Ethnography_ (Washington, 1893), pp. 227-229 (_Contributions to
North American Ethnology_, vol. ix.).

M206 Ritual of mimic death among the Indians of Nootka Sound.

_ 662 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_
(Middletown, 1820), p. 119.

_ 663 Id._, p. 44. For the age of the prince, see _id._, p. 35.

664 H. J. Holmberg, “Ueber die Völker des russischen Amerika,” _Acta
Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292
_sqq._, 328; Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries and
Resources of Alaska_, pp. 165 _sq._; A. Krause, _Die
Tlinkit-Indianer_ (Jena, 1885), p. 112; R. C. Mayne, _Four Years in
British Columbia and Vancouver Island_ (London, 1862), pp. 257
_sq._, 268; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 264 _sqq._

M207 Rite of death and resurrection at initiation into the Nootka society
of human wolves. Novice brought back by an artificial totemic animal
among the Niska Indians.