Chapter XIII: Farewell to Nemi (9)

M121 The external soul in stories told by the North American Indians. The
ogress whose life was in a hemlock branch.

407 J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western Slavs, and
Magyars_ (London, 1891), p. 551. The writer does not mention his
authorities.

408 G. B. Grinnell, _Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_ (New York,
1889), pp. 121 _sqq._, “The Bear Man.”

409 Washington Matthews, “The Mountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony,” _Fifth
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp.
406 _sq._

410 Franz Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the
Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States National Museum for
1895_ (Washington, 1897), p. 373.

M122 The external soul in folk-custom.
M123 The soul removed from the body as a precaution in seasons of danger.
Souls of people collected in a bag at a house-warming. Soul of a
woman put in a chopping-knife at childbirth.

_ 411 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 63 _sq._

412 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The
Hague, 1875), p. 54.

413 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 23 _sq._;
_id._, “Van Paloppo naar Posso,” _Mededeelingen van wege het
Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 72. As to the
_lamoa_ in general, see A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ xl. (1896) pp. 10
_sq._

414 A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes,
en zijne beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke
Akademie der Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii.
(Amsterdam, 1899) pp. 201 _sq._; _id._, “Het ijzer in
Midden-Celebes,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch- Indië_, liii. (1901) pp. 156 _sq._ Both the
interpretations in the text appear to be inferences drawn by Mr.
Kruijt from the statement of the natives, that, if they did not hang
up these wooden models in the smithy, “the iron would flow away and
be unworkable” (“_zou het ijzer vervloeien en onbewerkbaar
worden_”).

M124 Soul of a child put for safety in an empty coco-nut or a bag. Souls
of people in ornaments, horns, a column, and so forth. The souls of
Egyptian kings in portrait statues. A man’s life bound up with the
fire in his lodge.

415 A. H. B. Agerbeek, “Enkele gebruiken van de Dajaksche bevolking der
Pinoehlanden,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, li. (1909) pp. 447 _sq._

416 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin,
1896), p. 199.

417 In a long list of female ornaments the prophet Isaiah mentions (iii.
20) “houses of the soul” (בת הנפש) or (שפנה תב), which modern
scholars suppose to have been perfume boxes, as the Revised English
Version translates the phrase. The name, literally translated
“houses of the soul,” suggests that these trinkets were amulets of
the kind mentioned in the text. See my article, “Folk-lore in the
Old Testament,” _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_
(Oxford, 1907), pp. 148 _sqq._ In ancient Egyptian tombs there are
often found plaques or palettes of schist bearing traces of paint;
some of them are decorated with engravings of animals or historical
scenes, others are modelled in the shape of animals of various
sorts, such as antelopes, hippopotamuses, birds, tortoises, and
fish. As a rule only one such plaque is found in a tomb, and it lies
near the hands of the mummy. It has been conjectured by M. Jean
Capart that these plaques are amulets or soul-boxes, in which the
external souls of the dead were supposed to be preserved. See Jean
Capart, _Les Palettes en schiste de L’Égypte primitive_ (Brussels,
1908), pp. 5 _sqq._, 19 _sqq._ (separate reprint from the _Revue des
Questions Scientifiques_, avril, 1908). For a full description of
these plaques or palettes, see Jean Capart, _Les Débuts de l’Art en
Égypte_ (Brussels, 1904), pp. 76 _sqq._, 221 _sqq._

418 Miss Alice Werner, in a letter to the author, dated 25th September
1899. Miss Werner knew the old woman. Compare _Contemporary Review_,
lxx. (July-December 1896), p. 389, where Miss Werner describes the
ornament as a rounded peg, tapering to a point, with a neck or notch
at the top.

419 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 190.
Compare Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 83:
“The natives occasionally fix ox-horns in their roofs and say that
the spirit of the chief lives in these horns and protects the hut;
these horns also protect the hut from lightning, though not in
virtue of their spiritual connections. (They are also used simply as
ornaments.)” No doubt amulets often degenerate into ornaments.

420 R. Thurnwald, “Im Bismarckarchipel und auf den Salomo-inseln,”
_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlii. (1910) p. 136. As to the
Ingniet, Ingiet, or Iniet Society see P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die
Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei Münster, N.D.),
pp. 354 _sqq._; R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_
(Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 598 _sqq._

421 G. Cedrenus, _Historiarum Compendium_, p. 625B, vol. ii. p. 308, ed.
Im. Bekker (Bonn, 1838-1839).

422 Alexandre Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la Royauté Pharaonique_
(Paris, 1902), pp. 224 _sqq._ As to the Egyptian doctrine of the
spiritual double or soul (_ka_), see A. Wiedemann, _The Ancient
Egyptian Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul_ (London, 1895),
pp. 10 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905),
p. 88; A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 199 _sqq._

423 F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” _Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, Part ii. No. 1, p. 9.

_ 424 A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, during
Thirty Years’ Residence among the Indians_, prepared for the press
by Edwin James, M.D. (London, 1830), pp. 155 _sq._ The passage has
been already quoted by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) in his
_Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 241.

M125 Strength of people supposed to reside in their hair.

425 François Valentijn, _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and
Amsterdam, 1724-1726), ii. 143 _sq._; G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,”
_De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, pp. 15 _sq._ (of the separate reprint);
_id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 569 _sq._

426 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 137.

M126 Witches and wizards shaved to deprive them of their power.

427 J. G. Dalyell, _The darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
1834), pp. 637-639; C. de Mensignac, _Recherches ethnographiques sur
la Salive et le Crachat_ (Bordeaux, 1892), p. 49 note.

428 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 281.

429 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 281 _sq._

430 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_,
traduite par D. Journdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), p. 274.

M127 Life of a person supposed to be bound up with that of a tree or
plant. Birth-trees in Africa.

431 Above, pp. 102, 110, 117 _sq._, 135, 136.

432 Walter E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin, No. 5,
Superstition, Magic, and Medicine_ (Brisbane, 1903), p. 27.

433 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 202.

434 G. Duloup, “Huit jours chez les M’Bengas,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_,
ii. (1883), p. 223; compare P. Barret, _L’Afrique Occidentale_
(Paris, 1888), ii. 173.

435 Fr. Kunstmann, “Valentin Ferdinand’s Beschreibung der Serra Leoa,”
_Abhandlungen der histor. Classe der könig. Bayer. Akad. der
Wissenschaften_, ix. (1866) pp. 131 _sq._

436 Bruno Gutmann, “Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,”
_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913), p. 496.

437 C. Velten, _Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli_ (Göttingen, 1903), pp.
8 _sq._ In Java it is customary to plant a tree, for example, a
coco-nut palm, at the birth of a child, and when he grows up he
reckons his age by the age of the tree. See _Annales de la
Propagation de la Foi_, iii. (Lyons and Paris, 1830) pp. 400 _sq._

438 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena,
1874-1875), i. 165.

439 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 178.

440 H. Trilles, _Le Totémisme chez les Fân_ (Münster i. W., 1912), p.
570.

441 Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 295.

442 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 52, 54 _sq._
Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 295 _sq._;
and for other examples of burying the afterbirth or navel-string at
the foot of a tree or planting a young tree over these remains, see
_id._, pp. 182 _sqq._ In Kiziba, a district to the west of Lake
Victoria Nyanza, the afterbirth is similarly regarded as a sort of
human being. Hence when twins are born the people speak of four
children instead of two, reckoning the two afterbirths as two
children. See H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910),
p. 117. The conception of the afterbirth and navel-string as
spiritual doubles of the child with whom they are born is held very
firmly by the Kooboos, a primitive tribe of Sumatra. We are told
that among these people “a great vital power is ascribed to the
navel-string and afterbirth; because they are looked upon as brother
or sister of the infant, and though their bodies have not come to
perfection, yet their soul and spirit are just as normal as those of
the child and indeed have even reached a much higher stage of
development. The navel-string (_oeri_) and afterbirth (_tĕm-boeni_)
visit the man who was born with them thrice a day and thrice by
night till his death, or they hover near him (‘_zweven voorbij hem
heen_’). They are the good spirits, a sort of guardian angels of the
man who came into the world with them and who lives on earth; they
are said to guard him from all evil. Hence it is that the Kooboo
always thinks of his navel-string and afterbirth (_oeri-tĕmboeni_)
before he goes to sleep or to work, or undertakes a journey, and so
on. Merely to think of them is enough; there is no need to invoke
them, or to ask them anything, or to entreat them. By not thinking
of them a man deprives himself of their good care.” Immediately
after the birth the navel-string and afterbirth are buried in the
ground close by the spot where the birth took place; and a ceremony
is performed over it, for were the ceremony omitted, the
navel-string and afterbirth, “instead of being a good spirit for the
newly born child, might become an evil spirit for him and visit him
with all sorts of calamities out of spite for this neglect.” The
nature of the ceremony performed over the spot is not described by
our authority. The navel-string and afterbirth are often regarded by
the Kooboos as one; their names are always mentioned together. See
G. J. van Dongen, “De Koeboe in de Onderafdeeling Koeboe-streken der
Residentie Palembang,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde
van Nederlandsch-Indië_, lxiii. (1910) pp. 229 _sq._

443 Franz Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin,
1894), p. 653.

M128 Birth-trees among the Papuans, Maoris, Fijians, Dyaks, and others.

444 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 103
_sq._; _id._, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), iii.
193.

445 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_2
(London, 1870), p. 184; Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et
à la recherche de La Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_, ii. 444.

446 W. T. L. Travers, “Notes of the traditions and manners and customs
of the Mori-oris,” _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand
Institute_, ix. (1876) p. 22.

447 The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to me dated May 29th, 1901.
Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 184.

448 N. Annandale, “Customs of the Malayo-Siamese,” _Fasciculi
Malayenses_, Anthropology, part ii. (a) (May, 1904), p. 5.

449 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The
Hague, 1875), p. 59.

450 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., ix. (1880) pp. 417 _sq._

451 G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, p. 26 (of the
separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague,
1912), iii. 562.

452 M. C. Schadee, “Het familieleven en familierecht der Dajaks van
Landak en Tajan,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, lxiii. (1910) p. 416.

453 F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogenie der Dajaken auf Borneo,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, v. (1892) p. 133.

454 J. Perham, “Manangism in Borneo,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), p. 97; _id._,
in H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_
(London, 1896), i. 278.

M129 Birth-trees in Europe. Marriage oaks. Trees with which the fate of
families or individuals is thought to be bound up. The Edgewell oak.
The old tree at Howth Castle. The oak of the Guelphs.

455 Angelo de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),
i. pp. xxviii. _sq._

456 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 50; H. Ploss, _Das Kind_2 (Leipsic,
1884), i. 79.

457 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,
1879-1880), ii. p. 43, § 63.

458 F. S. Krauss, “Haarschurgodschaft bei den Südslaven,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 193.

459 Karl Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 129,
No. 207.

460 “Heilige Haine und Bäume der Finnen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 350.
Compare K. Rhamm, “Der heidenische Gottesdienst des finnischen
Stammes,” _Globus_, lxvii. (1891) p. 344.

461 Thomas Moore, _Life of Lord Byron_, i. 101 (i. 148, in the collected
edition of Byron’s works, London, 1832-1833).

462 J. G. Lockhart, _Life of Sir Walter Scott_ (First Edition), vi. 283
(viii. 317, Second Edition, Edinburgh, 1839).

463 Sir Walter Scott’s _Journal_ (First Edition, Edinburgh, 1890), ii.
282, with the editor’s note.

464 Letter of Miss A. H. Singleton to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey
Leix, Ireland, 24th February, 1904.

465 P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891)
pp. 85 _sq._

M130 The Life-tree of the Manchu dynasty.

_ 466 Die Woche_, Berlin, 31 August, 1901, p. 3, with an illustration
shewing the garden and the tree.

M131 The myrtle-trees of the patricians and plebeians at Rome. The oak of
the Vespasian family.

467 Pliny, _Natur. Hist._ xv. 120 _sq._

468 Suetonius, _Divus Vespasianus_, 5.

M132 Life of persons supposed to be bound up with that of the cleft trees
through which in their youth they were passed as a cure for rupture.
In England ruptured children are passed through cleft ash-trees.

_ 469 The Gentleman’s Magazine_, 1804, p. 909; John Brand, _Popular
Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 289.

470 Gilbert White, _The Natural History of Selborne_, Part II. Letter 28
(Edinburgh, 1829), pp. 239 _sq._; Francis Grose, _A Provincial
Glossary_ (London, 1811), p. 290; J. Brand, _op. cit._ iii. 287-292;
R. Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_3 (London, 1881),
pp. 415, 421; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), pp. 67
_sq._; W. Wollaston Groome, “Suffolk Leechcraft,” _Folk-lore_, vi.
(1895) pp. 123 _sq._; E. S. Hartland, in _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896)
pp. 303-306; _County Folk-lore, Suffolk_, edited by Lady E. C.
Gurdon (London, 1893) pp. 26-28; Beatrix A. Wherry, “Miscellaneous
Notes from Monmouthshire,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 65; Marie
Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p.
320. Sometimes the tree was an oak instead of an ash (M. Trevelyan,
_l.c._). To ensure the success of the cure various additional
precautions are sometimes recommended, as that the ash should be a
maiden, that is a tree that has never been topped or cut; that the
split should be made east and west; that the child should be passed
into the tree by a maiden and taken out on the other side by a boy;
that the child should always be passed through head foremost (but
according to others feet foremost), and so forth. In Surrey we hear
of a holly-tree being used instead of an ash (_Notes and Queries_,
Sixth Series, xi. Jan.-Jun. 1885, p. 46).

M133 The practice in Sussex.

471 “Some West Sussex superstitions lingering in 1868, collected by
Charlotte Latham, at Fittleworth,” _Folk-lore Record_, i. (1878) pp.
40 _sq._

M134 Sick children passed through cleft trees, especially oaks, as a cure
in Germany, France, Denmark, Sweden, and Greece.

472 For the custom in Germany and Austria, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche
Mythologie_,4 ii. 975 _sq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 317, § 503; A. Kuhn und W.
Schwartz, _Nord-deutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic,
1848), pp. 443 _sq._; J. F. L. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der
Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 54; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen,
Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 390, § 56;
F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
ii. 301; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_,
ii. (Munich, 1863) p. 255; J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch,
Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_
(Leipsic, 1867), pp. 415 _sq._; L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und
Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72 _sq._,
§ 88; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_
(Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 290 _sq._, § 1447; J. Haltrich, _Zur
Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 264; P.
Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp.
21-23. As to the custom in France, see Marcellus, _De medicamentis_,
xxxiii. 26 (where the tree is a cherry); J. B. Thiers, _Traité des
Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 333 _sq._; A. de Nore, _Coutumes,
Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons,
1846), p. 231; L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, in _Bullétins de la Société
d’Anthropologie de Paris_, iv. série, i. (1890) pp. 895-902; _id._,
_Superstitions et Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 523 _sqq._ As to
the custom in Denmark and Sweden, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche
Mythologie_,4 ii. 976; H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst
verwandtem Aberglauben in Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins
für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 42 _sqq._ In Mecklenburg it is
sometimes required that the tree should have been split by lightning
(K. Bartsch, _l.c._). The whole subject of passing sick people
through narrow apertures as a mode of cure has been well handled in
an elegant little monograph (_Un Vieux Rite médical_, Paris, 1892)
by Monsieur H. Gaidoz, who rightly rejects the theory that all such
passages are symbols of a new birth. But I cannot agree with him in
thinking that the essence of the rite consists in the transference
of the disease from the person to the tree; rather, it seems to me,
the primary idea is that of interposing an impassable barrier
between a fugitive and his pursuing foe, though no doubt the enemy
thus left behind is apparently supposed to adhere to the further
side of the obstacle (whether tree, stone, or what not) through
which he cannot pass. However, the sympathetic relation supposed to
exist between the sufferer and the tree through which he has been
passed certainly favours the view that he has left some portion of
himself attached to the tree. But in this as in many similar cases,
the ideas in the minds of the persons who practise the custom are
probably vague, confused, and inconsistent; and we need not attempt
to define them precisely. Compare also R. Andree, _Ethnographische
Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 31 _sq._; E. S.
Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1894-1896), ii. 146
_sq._; L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, _Superstitions et Survivances_
(Paris, 1896), i. 523-540.

473 L. Strackerjan, _l.c._; K. Bartsch, _l.c._

474 E. Meier, _l.c._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs
Bayern_, ii. 255; A. Wuttke, _l.c._

475 H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in
Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897)
p. 44.

476 J. Theodore Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), pp. 457 _sq._

M135 Sympathetic relation thought to exist between the child and the tree
through which it has been passed. The disease is apparently thought
to be left behind on the farther side of the cleft tree.

477 H. Ploss, _Das Kind_2 (Leipsic, 1884), ii. 221.

478 R. Baier, “Beiträge von der Insel Rügen,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche
Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, ii. (1855) p. 141.

M136 Creeping through cleft trees to get rid of spirits in Armenia and
Nias. Among the Bella Coola Indians mourners creep through cleft
trees to get rid of the ghost.

479 Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. 58.

480 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 478-480; H.
Sundermann, _Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst_ (Barmen,
1905), pp. 81-83. According to the latter writer the intention of
passing through the cleft stick is “to strip off from himself (_von
zich abzustreifen_) the last spirit that may have followed him.” The
notion that the sun causes death by drawing away the souls of the
living is Indian. See _The Satapatha Brâhmana_, ii. 3. 3. 7-8,
translated by Julius Eggeling, Part I. (Oxford, 1882) p. 343
(_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.): “Now yonder burning (sun)
doubtless is no other than Death; and because he is Death, therefore
the creatures that are on this side of him die. But those that are
on the other side of him are the gods, and they are therefore
immortal.... And the breath of whomsoever he (the sun) wishes he
takes and rises, and that one dies.”

481 Fr. Boas, in _Seventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,
p. 13 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British
Association_, Cardiff meeting, 1891). The Shuswap Indians of the
same region also fence their beds against ghosts with a hedge of
thorn bushes. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 142.

M137 The Madangs of Borneo creep through a cleft stick after a funeral in
order to rid themselves of the ghost.

482 C. Hose, “In the heart of Borneo,” _The Geographical Journal_, xvi.
(1900) pp. 45 _sq._ Compare C. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan
Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 36 _sq._, where, after
describing the ceremony of passing through the cloven stick, the
writers add: “In this way the Kayans symbolically prevent any of the
uncanny influences of the graveyard following the party back to the
house; though they do not seem to be clear as to whether it is the
ghosts of the dead, or the _Toh_ of the neighbourhood, or those
which may have contributed to his death, against whom these
precautions are taken.”

M138 The cleft stick or tree through which a person passes is a barrier
to part him from a dangerous foe; the closing of the cleft is like
shutting the door in the face of a pursuer. But combined with this
in the case of ruptured patients seems to be the idea that the
rupture heals sympathetically as the cleft in the tree closes.
Analogous Roman cure for dislocation.

483 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 159 (pp. 106 sq. ed. H. Keil, Leipsic,
1884): “_Luxum siquod est, hac cantione sanum fiet. Harundinem
prende tibi viridem P. III. aut quinque longam, mediam diffinde, et
duo homines teneant ad coxendices. Incipe cantare in alio s. f.
moetas vaeta daries dardaries asiadarides una petes, usque dum
coeant. Motas vaeta daries dardares astataries dissunapiter, usque
dum coeant. Ferrum insuper jactato. Ubi coierint et altera alteram
tetigerint, id manu prehende et dextera sinistra praecide, ad luxum
aut ad fracturam alliga, sanum fiet._” The passage is obscure and
perhaps corrupt. It is not clear whether “_usque dum coeant_” and
“_ubi coierint_” refer to the drawing together of the bones or of
the split portions of the reed, but apparently the reference is to
the reed. The charm is referred to by Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, xvii.
267: “_Quippe cum averti grandines carmine credant plerique, cujus
verba inserere non equidem serio ausim, quamquam a Catone proditis
contra luxata membra jungenda harundinum fissurae._” Compare J.
Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 186, ii. 1031 _sq._

M139 Other examples of creeping through narrow openings after a death.

484 Pinabel, “Notes sur quelques peuplades dépendant du Tong-King,”
_Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, Septième Série, v. (Paris,
1884) p. 430; A. Bourlet, “Funérailles chez les Thay,” _Anthropos_,
viii. (1913) p. 45.

485 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
1766), pp. 268, 282.

486 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en
Lindoe,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 502. The poles are of a
certain plant or tree called _bomba_.

487 Alb. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 223.

M140 The intention of the custom probably is to escape from the ghost of
the dead.

488 For examples of these ceremonies I may refer to my article, “On
certain burial customs as illustrative of the primitive theory of
the soul,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886)
pp. 64 _sqq._

M141 Passing through an archway in order to escape from demons. Crawling
under an arch of bramble as a cure for various maladies. Crawling
under arches of various sorts as a cure or preventive of sickness.

489 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
1766), pp. 277 _sq._

490 W. H. Furness, _Folk-lore in Borneo, a Sketch_, p. 28 (Wallingford,
Pennsylvania, 1899, privately printed). Compare _id._, _The
Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 28: “Here
a halt for final purification was made. An arch of boughs about five
feet high was erected on the beach, and beneath it a fire was
kindled, and then Tama Bulan, holding a young chicken, which he
waved and brushed over every portion of the arch, invoked all evil
spirits which had been accompanying us, and forbade them to follow
us further through the fire. The fowl was then killed, its blood
smeared all over the archway and sprinkled in the fire; then, led by
Tama Bulan, the whole party filed under the arch, and as they
stepped over the fire each one spat in it vociferously and
immediately took his place in the boats.”

491 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _English Folk-lore_ (London, 1884), pp. 171
_sq._; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), p. 70; R. Hunt,
_Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third Edition (London,
1881), pp. 412, 415; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of
Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 320.

492 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 152; H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_
(Paris, 1892), pp. 7 _sq._

493 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 414.

494 A. Strausz, _op. cit._ p. 404. As to the Bulgarian custom of
creeping through a tunnel in a time of epidemic, see above, vol. i.
pp. 282-284.

_ 495 Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_ (London,
1874), i. 60.

M142 Custom in Uganda of causing a sick man to pass through a cleft stick
or a narrow opening in the doorway.

496 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 343. Compare _id._,
“Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 126; id., “Further Notes
on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 42 _sq._

M143 Similar custom practised by the Kai of New Guinea and the Looboos of
Sumatra for the purpose of giving the slip to spiritual pursuers.

497 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch
Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 141 _sq._

498 J. Kreemer, “De Loeboes in Mandailing,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal-
Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lxvi. (1912) p. 327.

M144 Passing through cleft sticks in connexion with puberty and
circumcision.

499 Hermann Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911),
pp. 139 _sq._ The writer was unable to ascertain the meaning of the
rite; the natives would only say that it was their custom.

500 A. Karasek, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Waschambo,”
_Baessler-Archiv_, i. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1911) p. 192.

M145 Crawling through a ring or hoop as a cure or preventive of disease.
Passing sheep through a hoop of rowan. Milking a cow through a
natural wooden ring or a “witch’s nest.” Passing sick persons or
animals through a ring of yarn. Passing diseased children through a
coil. Passing through a hemlock ring during an epidemic. Passing
through a ring of red-hot iron to escape an evil spirit.

501 H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in
Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897)
pp. 49 _sq._

502 H. F. Feilberg, _op. cit._ p. 44.

503 J. G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
1834), p. 121; Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
1884-1886), iii. 239.

504 John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth
Century_, edited by A. Allardyce, (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii.
454. Immediately after mentioning this custom the writer adds: “And
in Breadalbane it is the custom for the dairymaid to drive the
cattle to the sheals with a wand of that tree [the rowan] cut upon
the day of removal, which is laid above the door until the cattle be
going back again to the winter-town. This was reckoned a
preservative against witchcraft.” As to the activity of witches and
fairies on Hallowe’en and the first of May, see above, vol. i. pp.
226 _sqq._, 295; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52
_sqq._; J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands
of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 18; _id._, _Witchcraft and Second
Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p.
270. As to the power of the rowan-tree to counteract their spells,
see W. Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of
Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 188; J. C. Atkinson, _Forty Years in a
Moorland Parish_ (London, 1891), pp. 97 _sqq._; _The Scapegoat_, pp.
266 _sq._

505 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 364, § 241.

506 L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ i. p. 364, § 240.

507 Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. G. Cole, “The Lushais,” in _Census of
India_, 1911, vol. iii. _Assam_, Part i. _Report_ (Shillong, 1912),
p. 140.

508 Franz Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of
Canada_, pp. 3 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science_, Liverpool
meeting, 1896).

509 Rev. G. E. White, Dean of Anatolia College, _Survivals of Primitive
Religion among the People of Asia Minor_, p. 12 (paper read before
the Victoria Institute or Philosophical Society of Great Britain, 6
Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London).

M146 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Scotland and Cornwall.

510 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_,
edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 451 _sq._

511 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 100.

512 Mr. James S. Greig, in a letter to me dated Lindean, Perth Road,
Dundee, 17th August, 1913.

513 W. Borlase, _Antiquities, historical and monumental, of the County
of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), pp. 177 _sq._

514 Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third
Edition (London, 1881), pp. 176, 415.

M147 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in France.

515 Thomas-de-Saint-Mars, “Fête de Saint Estapin,” _Mémoires de la
Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, i. (1817) pp. 428-430.

516 J. Deniker, “Dolmen et superstitions,” _Bulletins et Mémoires de la
Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, v. série, i. (1900) p. 111.
Compare H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 26
_sq._; G. Fouju, “Légendes et Superstitions préhistoriques,” _Revue
des Traditions Populaires_, xiv. (1899) pp. 477 _sq._

M148 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Bavaria, Austria, and
Greece.

517 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
ii. 48 § 61.

518 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. 431 _sq._

519 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem
bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 1, 9,
with the illustrations on pp. 10, 11.

520 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 431.

521 J. Theodore Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), p. 437.

M149 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Asia Minor. Passing
through various narrow openings as a cure or preventive in India and
Ireland.

522 E. H. Carnoy et J. Nicolaides, _Traditions populaires de l’Asie
Mineure_ (Paris, 1889), p. 338.

523 Rev. George E. White (of Marsovan, Turkey), _Present Day Sacrifices
in Asia Minor_, p. 3 (reprinted from _The Hartford Seminary Record_,
February 1906).

_ 524 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, vii. _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1911), p. 46.

525 So my friend Dr. G. W. Prothero informs me in a letter.

_ 526 Census of India, 1911_, vol. xiv. _Punjab_, Part i. _Report_, by
Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 302.

M150 Crawling through holes in the ground as a cure for disease. Passing
through the yoke of a chariot as a cure for skin disease.

527 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), p. 10.

528 H. Gaidoz, _op. cit._ p. 21.

529 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), p. 21. Compare J.
Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 975 _sq._

530 H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglaube in
Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897)
p. 45.

531 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 22 _sq._,
referring to Nyrop, in _Dania_, i. No. 1 (Copenhagen, 1890), pp. 5
_sqq._

532 Rev. John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_
(London, 1822), ii. 346. Among the same people “when a person is
ill, they bring an ox to the place where he is laid. Two cuts are
then made in one of its legs, extending down the whole length of it.
The skin in the middle of the leg being raised up, the operator
thrusts in his hand, to make way for that of the sick person, whose
whole body is afterwards rubbed over with the blood of the animal.
The ox after enduring this torment is killed, and those who are
married and have children, as in the other case, are the only
partakers of the feast.” (J. Campbell, _op. cit._ ii. 346 _sq._).
Here the intention seems to be not so much to transfer the disease
to the ox, as to transfuse the healthy life of the beast into the
veins of the sick man. The same is perhaps true of the Welsh and
French cure for whooping-cough, which consists in passing the little
sufferer several times under an ass. See J. Brand, _Popular
Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 288; L. J.
B. Bérenger-Féraud, in _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de
Paris_, Quatrième Série, i. (1890) p. 897; _id._, _Superstitions et
Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 526. The same cure for whooping-cough
“is also practised in Ireland; only here the sufferer is passed
round, that is, over and under, the body of an ass” (letter of Miss
A. H. Singleton to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey-Leix, Ireland,
24th February 1904). But perhaps the intention rather is to give the
whooping-cough to the animal; for it might reasonably be thought
that the feeble whoop of the sick child would neither seriously
impair the lungs, nor perceptibly augment the stentorian bray, of
the donkey.

533 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 495.
According to a fuller account, Indra drew her through three holes,
that of a war-chariot, that of a cart, and that of a yoke. See W.
Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 31 note 5.

M151 Passing under a yoke or arch as a rite of initiation.

534 Dr. E. Werner, “Im westlichen Finsterregebirge und an der Nordküste
von Deutsch-Neuginea,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, lv. (1909) pp. 74
_sq._ Among some tribes of South-Eastern Australia it was customary
at the ceremonies of initiation to bend growing saplings into arches
and compel the novices to pass under them; sometimes the youths had
to crawl on the ground to get through. See A. W. Howitt, “On some
Australian ceremonies of Initiation,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 445; _id._, _Native
Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 536.

M152 The ancient Roman custom of passing enemies under a yoke was
probably in origin a ceremony of purification rather than of
degradation.

535 Livy iii. 28, ix. 6, x. 36; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit.
Roman._ iii. 22. 7. The so-called yoke in this case consisted of two
spears or two beams set upright in the ground, with a third spear or
beam laid transversely across them. See Livy iii. 28; Dionysius
Halicarnasensis, _l.c._

536 Livy i. 26: “_Itaque, ut caedes manifesta aliquo tamen piaculo
lueretur, imperatum patri, ut filium expiaret pecunia publica. Is
quibusdam piacularibus sacrificiis factis, quae deinde genti
Horatiae tradita sunt, transmisso per viam tigillo capite adoperto
velut sub jugum misit juvenem. Id hodie quoque publice semper
refectum manet; sororium tigillum vocant_;” Festus, _s.v._ “Sororium
Tigillum,” pp. 297, 307, ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839); Dionysius
Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ iii. 22. The position of the
beam is described exactly by the last of these writers, who had
evidently seen it. According to Festus, the yoke under which
Horatius passed was composed of three beams, two uprights, and a
cross-piece. The similarity of the ceremony to that which was
exacted from conquered foes is noted by Dionysius Halicarnasensis as
well as by Livy. The tradition of the purification has been rightly
explained by Dr. W. H. Roscher with reference to the custom of
passing through cleft trees, holed stones, and so on. See W. H.
Roscher, _Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_,
ii. (Leipsic, 1890-1897) col. 21. Compare G. Wissowa, _Religion und
Kultus der Römer_2 (Munich, 1912), p. 104.

M153 Similarly the passage of a victorious Roman army under a triumphal
arch may have been intended to purify the men from the stain of
bloodshed by interposing a barrier between the slayers and the angry
ghosts of the slain.

_ 537 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 165 _sqq._

538 Pliny, _Natur. Histor._ xv. 135: “_Quia suffimentum sit caedis
hostium et purgatio_.”

539 Cicero, _In Pisonem_, xxiii. 55; Josephus, _Bellum Judaicum_, vii.
5. 4.

540 It was not till after I had given this conjectural explanation of
the “Sister’s Beam” and the triumphal arch at Rome that I read the
article of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, “Passing under the Yoke” (_The
Classical Review_, March 1913, pp. 48-51), in which he quite
independently suggests practically the same explanation of both
these Roman structures. I have left my exposition, except for one or
two trivial verbal changes, exactly as it stood before I was aware
that my friend had anticipated me in both conjectures. The closeness
of the coincidence between our views is a welcome confirmation of
their truth. As to the _Porta Triumphalis_, the exact position of
which is uncertain, Mr. Warde Fowler thinks that it was not a gate
in the walls, but an archway standing by itself in the Campus
Martius outside the city walls. He points out that in the oldest
existing triumphal arch, that of Augustus at Ariminum, the most
striking part of the structure consists of two upright Corinthian
pillars with an architrave laid horizontally across them; and he
ingeniously conjectures that we have here a reminiscence of the two
uprights and the cross-piece, which, if our theory is correct, was
the original form both of the triumphal arch and of the yoke.

M154 Belief in a sympathetic relation between a man and an animal such
that the fate of the one depends on that of the other. The external
souls of Yakut shamans in animals. Sympathetic relation between
witches and hares.

541 Professor V. M. Mikhailoviskij, “Shamanism in Siberia and European
Russia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895)
pp. 133, 134.

542 Th. Parkinson, _Yorkshire Legends and Traditions_, Second Series
(London, 1889), pp. 160 _sq._

543 See above, vol. i. pp. 315 _sqq._

544 B. F. Matthes, _Makassaarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam,
1859), _s.v._ _soemāñgá_, p. 569; G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de
volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De Indische Gids_, June 1884,
p. 933; _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 12.

M155 Melanesian conception of the _tamaniu_, a person’s external soul
lodged in an animal or other object.

545 R. H. Codrington, D.D., _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 250
_sq._ Compare _id._, “Notes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands,”
_Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria_,
xvi. (1880) p. 136.

M156 Sympathetic relation between a man and his _tamaniu_ (external
soul).

546 W. H. R. Rivers, “Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia,” _Journal of
the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) p. 177. Dr.
Rivers cites a recent case of a man who had a large lizard for his
_tamaniu_. The animal lived in the roots of a big banyan-tree; when
the man was ill, the lizard also seemed unwell; and when the man
died, the tree fell, which was deemed a sign that the lizard also
was dead.

M157 Soul of a Melanesian doctor in an eagle-hawk and a rat.

547 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p.
177. The case was known to Dr. Brown, who made notes of it. The part
of Melanesia where it happened was probably the Duke of York Island
or New Britain.

548 “Totemismus auf den Marshall-Inseln (Südsee),” _Anthropos_, viii.
(1913) p. 251.

M158 The theory of an external soul lodged in an animal is very prevalent
in West Africa. The soul of a chief in a hippopotamus or a black
snake. Belief of the Fans that every wizard unites his life to that
of a wild animal by a rite of blood brotherhood.

549 Much of the following evidence has already been cited by me in
_Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 593 _sqq._

550 Herbert Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890),
p. 53.

_ 551 Notes Analytiques sur les Collections ethnographiques du Musée du
Congo_, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) p. 150.

552 Father H. Trilles, “Chez les Fangs,” _Les Missions Catholiques_,
xxx. (1898) p. 322; _id._, _Le Totémisme chez les Fâṅ_ (Münster i.
W. 1912), pp. 473 _sq._

553 Father H. Trilles, _Le Totémisme chez les Fâṅ_ (Münster i. W. 1912),
pp. 167 _sq._, 438 _sq._, 484-489. The description of the rite of
blood-brotherhood contracted with the animal is quoted by Father
Trilles (pp. 486 _sq._) from a work by Mgr. Buléon, _Sous le ciel
d’Afrique, Récits d’un Missionnaire_, pp. 88 _sqq._ Father Trilles’s
own observations and enquiries confirm the account given by Mgr.
Buléon. But the story of an alliance contracted between a man or
woman and a ferocious wild beast and cemented by the blood of the
high contracting parties is no doubt a mere fable devised by wizards
and witches in order to increase their reputation by imposing on the
credulity of the simple.

M159 Belief of the natives of the Cross River that they stand in a vital
relation to certain wild animals, so that when the animal dies the
man dies also.

554 Alfred Mansfeld, _Urwald-Dokumente, vier Jahre unter den
Crossflussnegern Kameruns_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 220 _sq._

M160 Similar belief of the Balong in the Cameroons.

555 J. Keller (missionary), “Ueber das Land und Volk der Balong,”
_Deutsches Kolonialblatt_, 1 Oktober 1895, p. 484; H. Seidel,
“Ethnographisches aus Nordost Kamerun,” _Globus_, lxix. (1896) p.
277.

M161 Belief of the Ibos in external human souls which are lodged in
animals.

556 John Parkinson, “Note on the Asaba People (Ibos) of the Niger,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 314
_sq._

557 Charles Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 225
_sq._

M162 Belief of the negroes of Calabar that every person has an external
or bush soul lodged in a wild beast.

558 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp.
459-461. The lamented authoress was kind enough to give me in
conversation (1st June 1897) some details which do not appear in her
book; among these are the statements, which I have embodied in the
text, that the bush soul is never a domestic animal, and that when a
man knows what kind of creature his bush soul is, he will not kill
an animal of that species and will strongly object to any one else
doing so. Miss Kingsley was not able to say whether persons who have
the same sort of bush soul are allowed or forbidden to marry each
other.

M163 Further particulars as to the Calabar belief in bush souls.

559 John Parkinson, “Notes on the Efik Belief in ‘Bush-soul,’ ” _Man_,
vi. (1906) pp. 121 _sq._, No. 80. Mr. Henshaw is a member of the
highest grade of the secret society of Egbo.

560 Rev. Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition (Edinburgh
and London, 1901), pp. 51 _sq._ Compare Major A. G. Leonard, _The
Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), p. 217: “When Efik or
waterside Ibo see a dead fish floating in the water of the kind
called _Edidim_ by the former and _Elili_ by the latter—a variety of
the electric species—they believe it to be a bad omen, generally
signifying that some one belonging to the house will die, the man
who first sees it becoming the victim according to Ibo belief. The
only reason that is assigned for this lugubrious forecast is the
fact that one of the souls of the departed is in the dead fish—that,
in fact, the relationship or affinity existing between the soul
essence that had animated the fish and that of one of the members of
the household was so intimate that the death of the one was bound to
effect the death of the other.”

M164 Belief of the Ekoi of Southern Nigeria in external souls lodged in
animals. Case of a chief whose external soul was in a buffalo.

561 P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of the Bush_ (London, 1912), pp.
80-87. The Ekoi name for a man who has the power of sending out his
spirit into the form of some animal is _efumi_ (_id._, p. 71 note).
A certain chief named Agbashan, a great elephant hunter, is believed
to have the power of transforming himself into an elephant; and “a
man of considerable intelligence, educated in England, the brother
of a member of the Legislative Council for one of the West African
Colonies, offered to take oath that he had seen Agbashan not only in
his elephant form, but while actually undergoing the metamorphosis”
(_id._, pp. 82 _sq._). In this case, therefore, the man seems to
have felt no scruples at hunting the animals in one of which his own
bush soul might be lodged.

M165 Belief of other tribes of Nigeria in external souls lodged in
animals.

562 Letter of Mr. P. Amaury Talbot to me, dated Eket, North Calabar,
Southern Nigeria, April 3d, 1913.

563 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp.
538 _sq._

564 C. H. Robinson, _Hausaland_ (London, 1896), pp. 36 _sq._

565 J. F. J. Fitzpatrick (Assistant Resident, Northern Nigeria), “Some
Notes on the Kwolla District and its Tribes,” _Journal of the
African Society_, No. 37, October, 1910, p. 30.

566 Extract from a Report by Captain Foulkes to the British Colonial
Office. My thanks are due to Mr. N. W. Thomas for sending me the
extract and to the authorities of the Colonial Office for their
permission to publish it.

_ 567 The Daily Graphic_, Tuesday, October 7th, 1902, p. 3.

M166 The conception of an external soul lodged in an animal appears to be
absent in South Africa.

568 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 300. The
writer adds that he found a similar belief as to the sympathetic
relation between a wounded crocodile and the man who wounded it very
general among the Wanyamwezi, who, in 1882, were living under
Mirambo about two hundred miles south of Lake Victoria Nyanza and a
hundred miles east of Lake Tanganyika.

569 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Africa_ (Hermannsburg,
1876) p. 167. Compare David Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_,
Second Edition (Edinburgh, 1875) pp. 47 _sq._; “The Kaffirs believe
that after death their spirits turn into a snake, which they call
_Ehlose_, and that every living man has two of these familiar
spirits—a good and a bad. When everything they undertake goes wrong
with them, such as hunting, cattle-breeding, etc., they say they
know that it is their enemies who are annoying them, and that they
are only to be appeased by sacrificing an animal; but when
everything prospers, they ascribe it to their good _Ehlose_ being in
the ascendant”; _id._, _op. cit._ p. 148: “When in battle two men
are fighting, their snakes (_Mahloze_) are poetically said to be
twisting and biting each other overhead. One ‘softens’ and goes
down, and the man, whose attendant it is, goes down with it.
Everything is ascribed to _Ehlose_. If he fails in anything, his
_Ehlose_ is bad; if successful, it is good.... It is this thing
which is the inducing cause of everything. In fact, nothing in Zulu
is admitted to arise from natural causes; everything is ascribed to
witchcraft or the _Ehlose_.”

It is not all serpents that are _amadhlozi_ (plural of _idhlozi_),
that is, are the transformed spirits of the dead. Serpents which are
dead men may easily be distinguished from common snakes, for they
frequent huts; they do not eat mice, and they are not afraid of
people. If a man in his life had a scar, his serpent after his death
will also have a scar; if he had only one eye, his serpent will have
only one eye; if he was lame, his serpent will be lame too. That is
how you can recognise So-and-So in his serpent form. Chiefs do not
turn into the same kind of snakes as ordinary people. For common
folk become harmless snakes with green and white bellies and very
small heads; but kings become boa-constrictors or the large and
deadly black _mamba_. See Rev. Henry Callaway, M.D., _The Religions
System of the Amazulu_, Part ii. (Capetown, London, etc., 1869) pp.
134 _sq._, 140, 196-202, 205, 208-211, 231. “The _Ehlose_ of Chaka
and other dead kings is the Boa-constrictor, or the large and deadly
black Mamba, whichever the doctors decide. That of dead Queens is
the tree Iguana” (David Leslie, _op. cit._ p. 213). Compare Rev.
Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
1857), pp. 161 _sq._; W. R. Gordon, “Words about Spirits,” (_South
African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (Cape Town, 1880) pp. 101-103; W.
Grant, “Magato and his Tribe,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 270. A word which is sometimes
confounded with _idhlozi_ is _itongo_ (plural _amatongo_); but the
natives themselves when closely questioned distinguish between the
two. See Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_
(London, 1906), pp. 14 _sq._, 281-286. The notion that the spirits
of the dead appear in the form of serpents is widespread in Africa.
See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 73 _sqq._ Dr. F. B.
Jevons has suggested that the Roman _genius_, the guardian-spirit
which accompanied a man from birth to death (Censorinus, _De die
natali_, 3) and was commonly represented in the form of a snake, may
have been an external soul. See F. B. Jevons, _Plutarch’s Romane
Questions_ (London, 1892) pp. xlvii. _sq._; _id._, _Introduction to
the History of Religion_ (London, 1896), pp. 186 _sq._; L. Preller,
_Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 195 _sqq._; G.
Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_2 (Munich, 1912), pp. 176
_sq._

M167 The conception of an external soul lodged in an animal occurs among
the Indians of Central America, some of whom call such a soul a
_nagual_.

570 H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific Coast_ (London,
1875-1876), i. 661. The words quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, note),
“_Consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida à la
de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere_,”
are not quite accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in
the text. Elsewhere (vol. ii. p. 277) the same writer calls the
“second self” of the Zapotecs a “_nagual_, or tutelary genius,”
adding that the fate of the child was supposed to be so intimately
bound up with the fortune of the animal that the death of the one
involved the death of the other. Compare Daniel G. Brinton,
“Nagualism, a Study in American Folk-lore and History,” _Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia_, vol.
xxxiii. No. 144 (Philadelphia, January, 1894), pp. 11-73. According
to Professor E. Seler the word _nagual_ is akin to the Mexican
_naualli_, “a witch or wizard,” which is derived from a word meaning
“hidden” with reference to the power attributed to sorcerers of
transforming themselves into animals. See E. Seler, “Altmexikanische
Studien, II.” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen Museum für
Völkerkunde_, vi. heft 2/4 (Berlin, 1899), pp. 52-57.

571 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_
(Leyden, 1889), p. 57.

572 Thomas Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, Third Edition
(London, 1677), p. 334. The same writer relates how a certain Indian
named Gonzalez was reported to have the power of turning himself
into a lion or rather a puma. Once when a Spaniard had shot a puma
in the nose, Gonzalez was found with a bruised face and accused the
Spaniard of having shot him. Another Indian chief named Gomez was
said to have transformed himself into a puma, and in that shape to
have fought a terrific battle with a rival chief named Lopez, who
had changed himself into a jaguar. See Gage, _op. cit._ pp. 383-389.