Chapter XLVII (2)

_Constantinus Manasses_ lived under the emperor Manuel Comnenus
in the middle of the twelfth century, and composed several
works in both rhyme and prose. His history, curiously written
in a kind of rhythmical prose (“political verse”), is a
chronicle from the Creation to the accession of Alexis I in
1081. The edition of Meurius was dedicated to Gustavus Adolphus.

=Menander Protector=, Ἱστορία, edited by Angelo Mai, in his Scriptorum Veterum nova collectio, vol. II, Rome, 1825-1838, 10 vols.; edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicum Græcorum, vol. IV, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Menander Protector_ was born at Byzantium in the middle of
the sixth century. As a historian, he wrote a continuation of
Agathias, from 558 to 582, and in his turn he was continued by
Theophylactus Simocatta. Menander is often quoted by Suidas and
is one of the best sources for the history of the sixth century.

=Michael Panaretus=, Περὶ τῶν τῆς Τραπεζοῦντος βασιλέων, τῶν Μεγάλων Κομνῃνῶν, ὅπως καὶ πότς καὶ πόσον ἕκαστος ἐβασιλευσεν, edited by L. F. Tafel, in his Eustathii Metropolitæ Thessalonicensis opuscula etc., Frankfort, 1832; and by Ph. Fallmerayer, in the Abhandlungen of the Academy of Bavaria, 1844.

_Michael Panaretus_ lived in the first half of the fifteenth
century and gives a chronicle of the empire of Trebizond from
1204 to 1426. He was an eye-witness of many of the events
described, and is particularly valuable on this account.

* * * * *

=Neophytus=, Νεοφύτου πρεσβυτέρου μοναχοῦ καὶ ἐγκλειστοῦ περὶ τῶν κατὰ τὴν χώραν Κύπρον σκαιῶν (Neophyti Presbyteri Monachi et Inclusi, De Calamitatibus Cypri), edited by J. B. Cotelier, in his Ecclesiæ Græcæ Monumenta, Paris, 1677-1686, 3 vols.

_Neophytus_ was born in 1134 and lived as priest and monk
in his native Cyprus. His epistle, as named above, gives an
account of the usurpation of Cyprus by Isaac Comnenus and of
the imprisonment of Isaac by Richard Cœur-de-Lion.

=Nicephorus Callistus Xantoupulus=, Historia Ecclesiastica, Latin version, edited by Joh. Lang, Basel, 1553; reprinted with scholia, 1560 (61); Antwerp, 1560; Paris, 1562, 1566, 1573; Frankfort, 1588; Greek text, with Lang’s translation, Paris, 1630, 2 vols.

_Nicephorus Callistus Xantoupulus_ died about 1350, and the
date of his birth has been inferred as about 1290. There
are now extant eighteen of the twenty-three books of his
ecclesiastical history, which was compiled from Eusebius,
Evagrius, and other writers, and covers the period from the
time of Christ to the death of Phocas in 610. The work is
characterised by its elegant style, which is far above that
of his contemporaries. The author’s credulity and lack of
judgment, however, cause the book to abound in fables.

=Nicephorus, Patriarcha=, Κωνσταντινουπόλεως Ἱστορία σύντομος (Breviarum Historicum), edited, with Latin version, by D. Patavius, Paris, 1616; translated into French by Monterole, Paris, 1618, and by F. Morel, Paris, 1634; Χρονογραφικὸν σύντομον, edited by Jos. Scaliger, in his Thesaurus Temporum, Leyden, 1606; by J. Camerarius, in a Latin version, Basel, 1561.

_Nicephorus_, patriarch of Constantinople from 806 to 815, when
he was deposed by Leo Armenus, was born in 758, and held the
office of notary to the emperor Constantine VI. His _Breviarum_
begins with the murder of Maurice in 602 and is continued to
the marriage of Leo IV in 770. The Chronology begins with Adam
and is brought down to the death-year of the author, 828.
Nicephorus is sometimes styled “Confessor” on account of his
firm opposition to the iconoclasts.

=Nicetas Acominatus=, Ἱστορία, edited by H. Wolf, with a Latin version, Basel, 1457, and by Simon Goulartius, Geneva, 1593.

_Nicetas Acominatus_, was born at Chonæ, Phrygia, in the middle
of the twelfth century, and died at Nicæa, Bithynia, about
1216. He held high offices under Isaac II Angelus; and was at
the taking of Constantinople in 1204, of which he relates an
impressive account. His history in continuation of Zonares
is in ten corollaries of 21 books and deals with the Eastern
emperors from 1180 to 1206. In style at times bombastic,
Nicetas is deeply incensed against the Latin conquerors, but he
is impartial as to his facts.

=Nonnosus=, Ἱστορία, edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Nonnosus_, who wrote a history of an embassy he undertook to
the Saracens in 533, lived under Justinian I. His original work
has perished, and exists only as an abridgment preserved by
Photius.

* * * * *

=Pachymeres=, Georgius, Historia Byzantina, edited by P. Possimus, Greek and Latin text, Rome, 1666-1669, 7 vols.

_Georgius Pachymeres_ was born about 1242 at Nicæa, whither his
father had fled after the capture of Constantinople in 1204.
After the recapture of the city, Pachymeres went there to study
divinity and law, and became advocate general of the Eastern
Church and chief justice. He was also employed diplomatically,
and died either in 1310 or 1340. His portrait in wood-cut,
alleged to be derived from an old manuscript is in Wolf’s
edition of Nicephorus Gregoras, Basel, 1562. Pachymeres wrote a
number of works, mainly philosophical, but the most important
is his history, continuing that of Acropolita, in thirteen
books, comprising the histories of the emperors Michael
Palæologus and Andronicus Palæologus. It is written with
calmness, dignity, and a fair amount of impartiality; but the
work is often marred by the introduction of dogmatic theology
in which the author seemed to take a keen delight. He was
indeed the first Byzantine historian to deal with the history
of a highly dogmatic age. Pachymeres was continued by Gregoras
Nicephorus.

=Petrus Patricius=, Ἱστορίαι, edited by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Petrus Patricius_, was born at Thessalonica, in the year 500.
He was employed in the diplomatic service by Justinian I, and
died about 562 A.D. His history is supposed to include the
period from the second Triumvirate to a little later than the
time of Constantine the Great, although only the part extending
to the reign of Julian is expressly attributed to him. The
rest is from an excerpt _De sententiis_ the conclusion of
which is usually called Anonymus post Dionem. Only extracts
from it are preserved. Petrus also wrote a work entitled, περὶ
πολιτικῆς καταστάσεως, i.e. on state organisation.

=Photius=, Μυριποβιβλου ἤ Βιβλιοθήκη, edited by David Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1601; Latin version by A. Schottus, Augsburg, 1606; Greek and Latin reprints, Geneva, 1612, and Rouen, 1653; revised Greek text by L. Bekker, Berlin, 1821-1825.

_Photius_ was related by marriage to the emperor Theophilus,
and in 858 was irregularly elected to the patriarchate of
Constantinople, a circumstance which ultimately led to the
separation of the Eastern and Western churches. These events
will be fully detailed in volume VIII, in our account of the
Papacy. Photius was a man of remarkable intellectual endowment,
and held many high offices. His writings for these reasons are
extremely valuable. His Βιβλιοθήκα is a comprehensive review of
the then existent Greek literature, including historians, civil
and ecclesiastical, biographers, philosophers, orators, poets,
and story writers. Photius has thus preserved accounts of many
writers and works that have otherwise been lost, including
portions of the writings of such men as Demosthenes, Diodorus
Siculus, Hyperides, and Lycurgus. Photius also wrote a number
of theological and ecclesiastical works, a lexicon, and a great
number of letters, all valuable for their pictures of the
mentality of the age.

=Phranzes=, Georgios, Χρονικόν Γεωργίου Φραντζῆ τοῦ προτοβεστιαρίου … Νῦν προῶτον ἐκδοθὲν ἐπιμελείᾳ φραγκίστου Καρόλου Αλτερ (Alter), Vienna, 1796; Latin translation by Jacob Pontanus, Ingolstadt, 1604.

_Georgius Phranzes_, the last of the Byzantine historians lived
during the fifteenth century and held high official position
under Constantine XIII. After the capture of Constantinople
by the Turks he entered a monastery, where he composed his
Chronikon, which is a valuable authority for the details of the
capture of Constantinople, and extends from 1259 to 1477. He is
trustworthy when dealing with contemporary events, but indulges
in long digressions. Professor Alter’s edition is the standard;
the translation of Pontanus was characterised by Gibbon as
“deficient in accuracy and elegance.”

=Priscus=, Ἱστορία Βυζαντικὴ καὶ κατὰ Ἀττήλαν, fragments edited by D. Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1603, Latin translations by C. Cantoclarus, Paris, 1609; both reprinted by Fabrot in his Excerpta de Legationibus, Paris, 1648; and in Labbé’s Protrephticon, Paris, 1648.

_Priscus_, an early Byzantine historian, was born in Thrace. We
know hardly anything of his life, except for the years 445-447,
when he was at the court of Attila as ambassador for Theodosius
the Younger. His account of Attila was therefore first hand,
but unfortunately only fragments of it have been preserved.

=Procopius=, Ἱστορικὸν ἐν βιβλίοις ὀκτώ, edited by Petrus Pithœus, in his Codex Legum Wisigothorum, Paris, 1559; edited by D. Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1676; edited by B. Vulcanius, in his Scriptores Gothicarum, Leyden, 1597, 1617; Latin version (claimed as original work by Leonardo Aretino), De bello Italico adversus Gothos gesto, Foligno, 1470, Venice, 1471; translated into English by H. Holcroft, London, 1653; Ἀνέκδοτα (Historia Arcana), edited by N. Allemannus, with a Latin version, Lyons, 1623; Cologne, 1669; edited by Joh. Eichelius, Helmstadt, 1654; translated into English, London, 1674; Κτίσματα (Libri VI de Ædificus conditis vel restoratis auspicio Justiniani), edited by J. Hervagius, Basel, 1531, Paris, 1543; with a Latin translation by F. Craneveld, Paris, 1537.

_Procopius_, the most important late Greek-Byzantine historian,
was born at Cæsarea, in the beginning of the sixth century.
After studying at Constantinople, his natural gifts gained
him, in 527, a position as secretary to Belisarius, whom
he accompanied in his several wars. He also served with
distinction under Justinian, who created him prefect of
Constantinople in 562. His literary work was extensive, and
much dispute has centred around his name, some claiming, for
instance, that he was a physician on account of his minute
description of the plague. His _History_, is by far his
most important work, dealing with the period 408-554, his
description of his own times being written in a faithful and
masterly manner. Indeed, he is said to have kept a diary when
he accompanied Belisarius upon his expeditions against the
Vandals. His history was continued by Agathias. The Κτίσματα
is an interesting account of the architectural endeavours of
Justinian, somewhat flattering to the emperor’s memory, but
written with a full knowledge of the architectural art. The
Ἀνέκδοτα is a collection of witty and curious stories--court
scandal mostly--the authorship of which is generally ascribed
to Procopius, though some have doubted that it could be the
work of a grave statesman and historian.

* * * * *

=Scylitzes=, Joannes, Σύνοψις ἱστοριῶν συγγραφεῖσα παρὰ Ἰωάννου κουροπαλάτου καὶ μεγάλου δρουγγαρίου τῆς Βίγλας τοῦ Σκυλίτζη (Synopsis Historiarum Scripta a Joanne Scylitze Curopalata et Magno Drungario Vigiliæ), translated into Latin by J. B. Gabius, Venice, 1570.

_Joannes Scylitzes_, surnamed _Curopalates_, held high official
positions at the Byzantine court as late as 1081. The history
now attributed to him, and of which the complete Greek text has
never been published, resembles that of Cedrenus in several
ways, and his claim to original authorship used to be hotly
disputed. It is, however, now generally conceded that Cedrenus
was the copyist. The chronicle includes the period from
811-1079.

=Sicilian History=, edited by F. Batiffol with a Latin translation, in the Comtes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris, 1890.

This work, by an unknown Greek, gives events in Sicily from 827
to 965. The Greek text is preserved in two manuscripts,--Cod.
Vatic. 1912 and Cod. Paris, suppl. gr. 920. An old Arabic
manuscript at Cambridge has been recently proved to be a
translation of this history.

=Symeon Metaphrastes=, Χρονογραφία (Annales), in the Paris, Venice, and Bonn “Corpora.”

_Symeon Metaphrastes_, also called _Magister_ and _Logotheta_,
lived in the second half of the tenth century, and served as
chief secretary of state under Leo VI and Constantine VII.
He was a voluminous writer and compiler, and his _Sanctorum
Vitæ_ gives the biographies of nearly seven hundred saints.
His _Annals_ cover the period from Leo V, 813 A.D., to Romanus
II, 960. His _Chronicle_, a work somewhat different from the
_Annals_, has never been published, and is contained in a
number of manuscripts with varying titles.

* * * * *

=Themistius=, Πολιτικοὶ λόγοι, edited by Aldus, Venice, 1534, and by Dindorf, Leipsic, 1832; Latin version by Hermolaus Barbarus, Venice, 1481, and often reprinted.

_Themistius_, philosopher and rhetorician, lived at
Constantinople and Rome in the reigns of Constantius, Julian,
Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius, all of whom regarded
him with favour. He became a senator, and in the reign of
Theodosius was appointed prefect of Constantinople. He was
frequently employed on embassies and in other public business.
Besides various philosophical works, thirty-five of his
orations survive, several being congratulatory addresses to the
emperors Constantius, Valentinianus, and Valens. He died about
the year 390 A.D.

=Theodorus Anagnostes (Lector)=, Ἐκκλησιαστική ἱστορία, edited by R. Stephens, in his Excerpta, Paris, 1544; by Christopherson, with a Latin version, Geneva, 1612; by H. Valesius, Paris, 1673; reprinted, Cambridge, 1720; Turin, 1748.

_Theodorus Anagnostes (Lector)_ lived probably in the reign
of Justin I or Justinian I, and wrote a compendium of
church histories from Constantine the Great to the death
of Constantius II. His _Historia_ covers the period from
Theodosius the Younger to Justin I or Justinian I, but it
survives only in extracts by Nicephorus Callistus (fourteenth
century), by Joannes Damascenus, and others. He is the chief
authority for the reign of the emperors Zeno and Anastasius.

=Theodorus=, bishop of Cyzicus, Χρονικόν.

_Theodorus of Cyzicus_ was supposed to be the author of
a chronicle of the world from Adam to the reconquest of
Constantinople in 1261, but very little is known of his
personality, and his work exists only in fragments, which have
never been published.

=Theodosius of Syracuse=, Θεοδοσίου μοναχοῦ τοῦ καὶ γραμματικοῦ ἐπιστολὴ πρὸς Λέοντα διάκονον περὶ τῆς ἁλώσεως Συρακούσης, edited by B. Hase (with Leo Diaconus), Paris, 1819.

_Theodosius_ was a monk of Syracuse, taken away as a captive
to Panormo when the Saracens took Syracuse in 880. While
the events of the catastrophe were fresh in his memory, he
committed them to writing in the form of a letter to Leo
Diaconus.

=Theophanes= of Byzantium, Ἱστορικῶν λόγοι δέκα, fragments edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmentorum Historicorum Græecorum, vol. IV, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition, 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Theophanes_ of Byzantium lived probably in the sixth century.
His history deals with the Persian War under Justin II, from
the breaking of the truce with Chosroes in 567, and going
down to the tenth year of the war. Theophanes preserved the
record of the bringing of the silkworm to Italy, the Romans not
knowing previously that silk was the product of an insect.

=Theophanes Isaurus=, Χρονικόν, edited by J. Goar, Paris, 1655.

_Theophanes Isaurus_, named also the Confessor, was born of
noble parentage during the reign of Constantine V (741-775),
and while a youth married the daughter of Leo the Patrician.
After discharging sundry public offices he retired from the
world and founded a monastery, his wife going into a convent.
He attended the Council of Nicæa in 787, where he vehemently
defended image worship, and when, in 813, he was called upon to
recant his views, he preferred imprisonment and banishment. His
history begins with Diocletian, 284 A.D., at the point where
Georgius Syncellus stopped, and continues to 813, the time of
his imprisonment, his death occurring in 818. The work is of no
high order, but is valuable in the absence of better sources of
information. His accounts of the affairs of the Eastern Empire
are far more trustworthy than those relating to the Western
Empire, in regard to which he makes the most extraordinary
mistakes. A continuation of Theophanes’ _Chronicle_ was
prepared at the command of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, and
has come down to us under the title of Χρονογραφία συγγραφεῖσα
ἐκ προστάγματος Κωνσταντίνου τοῦ φιλοχρλιστου δεσπότου καὶ
αὐτοράτορος … ἀρχομένη ὅπου ἔληξε Θεοφάνης … τω βασιλεῖ Μιχαὴλ
υἱοῦ Θεοφίλου τοῦ κουροπαλάτου, ἤγουν ἀπο τῆς βασιλεάς Λέοντος
τοῦ Ἀρμενίου (Scriptores post Theophanen), edited by Leo
Allatius, in his Σύμμικτα, Cologne, 1653; and by Combesius, in
the Paris “Corpus.” The period dealt with is 813-961, and the
compilation is by sundry anonymous writers. Georgius Monachus
and Leo Grammaticus also took up his history from 813.

=Theophilus Abbas=, Life of Justinian, edited by James Bryce, in the Archivio Storico of the Società Romana de Storia Patria, Rome, 1887.

_Theophilus Abbas_ was cited by N. Allemannus, in his
_Anecdota_, published in 1623, as the author of a life of
Justinian. Nothing, however, was known of the work or of the
author until 1887, when Mr. Bryce discovered the work in
manuscript in the Barberini Library, Rome. The manuscript
purports to be extracted from an original Slavonic manuscript,
but the work appears to be of such a legendary character as
not to be of much historical value. This Theophilus is not at
all to be identified with the jurist Theophilus, who aided
Justinian in the drawing up of his Code.

=Theophylactus Simocatta=, Ἱστορία οἰκουμενή, edited by B. Vulcanius, Leyden, 1596; by Jacob Pontanus, with a Latin version, Ingolstadt, 1604; translated into French by F. Morel, Paris, 1603, 1608.

_Theophylactus Simocatta_ was of Egyptian descent, but was
born in Locria. He is known to have held public office under
Heraclius about 610-629 A.D. His history, in continuation of
Menander’s, deals with the life of the emperor Maurice, who
reigned from 582 to 602, and is the oldest and best authority
on the period. It is related that when the author read a
passage from his work after the death of the emperor, the
audience was moved to tears.

* * * * *

=Xiphilinus=, Joannes, Ἐπιτωμή, edited by Leunclavius, Frankfort, 1592; (see also Dion-Cassius, whose works were abridged by Xiphilinus).

_Xiphilinus_ of Trapezus, the historian, was a nephew of the
patriarch of the same name, and lived in the second half of
the 11th century. He made, at the command of Michael VII Ducas
(1071-1078), an epitome of Dion-Cassius, which unfortunately
includes only books 61-80, because the earlier ones were
lacking in the copy of Dion used by Xiphilinus. His copy was
incomplete in other places also. The work is of value as
preserving the main facts of the original, the greater part of
which is lost, for from book 61-80 of the History of Rome of
Dion-Cassius we have only the abridgment made by Xiphilinus,
and some other epitomes which were probably made by the same
person who epitomised the portion from the 55th to the 60th
book.

* * * * *

=Zonaras=, Joannes, Χρονικόν (Annales), edited by H. Wolf, Basel, 1557, 3 vols.

_Joannes Zonaras_ lived in the twelfth century under the
emperors Alexis I Comnenus and Calo-Joannes. His _Chronicle_
is in eighteen books, and extends from the creation of the
world to the death of Alexis in A.D. 1118. It is compiled from
various Greek authors, such as Josephus and Dion-Cassius. Of
the first twenty books of Dion-Cassius we have nothing but the
abstract of Zonaras. In the latter part of his work Zonaras
wrote as an eye-witness of the events which he describes.
Zonaras, who also wrote a lexicon and other works, was
continued by Nicetas Acominatus.

=Zosimus=, Ἱστορία νεα, edited by F. Sylberg, in his Scriptores Historiæ Romanæ Minores, Frankfort, 1590; by Ludwig Mendelssohn Dorpat, 1887; Latin translation by Leunclavius, Basel, 1756; English translation, The History of Count Zosimus, London, 1814.

_Zosimus_ lived in the age of Theodosius the Younger (408-450),
and probably resided at Constantinople. His history of the
Roman empire, in six books, must have been written after the
year 425, as appears from a record of that year, although
the period actually covered by the history is from the death
of Commodus (192 A.D.) to 410. It is mainly a compilation
from previous historians, but when giving judgment he is
strongly biased in favour of Paganism and against Constantine,
Theodosius, and other champions of Christianity. He has a great
love of the marvellous and his chronology is confused.

_C. Modern Works_

=Abel=, Sigurd, Der Untergang des Langobardenreichs in Italien, Göttingen, 1859.--=Adams=, W. H. D., Remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum, London, 1868; 2nd edition, 1878.--=Allcroft=, A. H., The Making of the Monarchy, London, 1893; (in collaboration with W. F. Masom), Rome under the Oligarchs, London, 1892; Tutorial History of Rome to 14 A.D., London, 1895.--=Aly=, F., Cicero, sein Leben und seine Schriften, Berlin, 1891.--=Alzog=, J. B., Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche, Mayence, 1840.--=Ampère=, J. J. A., L’histoire romaine à Rome, Paris, 1861-1864; L’empire romaine à Rome, Paris, 1867, 4 vols.

_Jean Jacques Antoine Ampère_, French historian, born at Lyons,
August 12th, 1800, died at Pau, March 27th, 1864. He was
professor in the College of France and a member of the French
Academy. In his book Ampère has tried to reconstruct Roman
history from Roman monuments, and the first half is given up
to the period of the kings. The work is rather ingenious than
convincing, being based largely on conjecture, but it is full
of scholarship and artistic enthusiasm.

=Arnold=, Thomas, History of Rome, London, 1840-1843; 1882; History of the Later Roman Commonwealth, London, 1882, 2 vols.; The Second Punic War, edited by W. T. Arnold, London, 1886.

_Thomas Arnold_, born at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13th,
1795, was educated at Winchester and Oxford, being elected
fellow of Oriel in 1815. He resided at Oxford until 1819,
devoting himself to historical and theological studies. Upon
leaving the university he settled in Laleham, where his spare
time was occupied with the study of Thucydides and the new
light which had been thrown on Roman history and historical
method generally by the researches of Niebuhr. In August, 1828,
he entered upon his duties as head-master of Rugby. Under his
superintendence this school became a sphere of intellectual,
moral, and religious discipline, where healthy character was
formed and men fitted for the duties and responsibilities of
life. In 1841 he was appointed to the chair of modern history
at Oxford, where he had delivered eight lectures, when he died
very suddenly June 12th, 1842.

Owing to the author’s death his _History of Rome_ was not
completed beyond the Spanish campaign in the Second Punic War
(to B.C. 241). Based on Niebuhr, whose theories on early Roman
history have now been abandoned, the book is thus superseded by
several more recent ones, though its account of the Punic wars
is as satisfactory as any in the English language. The memory
of Arnold has been idealised in _Tom Brown’s Schooldays_, a
novel by Thomas Hughes (1822-1896), who was educated under
Arnold at Rugby.

=Arnold=, W. T., The Roman System of Provincial Administration, London, 1879.

This work well shows the greatness of the Romans in the
administration of provincial affairs. The author was a grandson
of Thomas Arnold.

=Aschbach=, Jos., Geschichte der Westgothen, Frankfort, 1827.--=Assemann=, W., Handbuch der allgemeinen Geschichte, Brunswick, 1853-1864, 6 vols.--=Aube=, Barthélemy, Histoire des persécutions de l’Église, Paris, 1875, 2 vols.--=Aube=, Benjamin, Les chrétiens dans l’empire romain de la fin des Antonins jusqu’au milieu du IIIᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1881.

* * * * *

=Babelon=, E. C. F., Description historique et chronologique des monnaies de la république romaine, Paris, 1885-1886, 2 vols.--=Bähr=, J. C. F., Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, Carlsruhe, 1828; 4th edition, 1868-1873, 3 vols.--=Baring-Gould=, S., The Tragedy of the Cæsars, London, 1892.--=Beaufort=, Louis de, Dissertation sur l’incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de l’histoire romaine, Paris and Utrecht, 1738; 2nd edition, 1866; English translation, London, 1738; Histoire de la république romaine, Paris, 1766.--=Becker=, W. A., Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1843-1846, 2 vols. (continued by Marquardt, which see); Gallus, oder römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augustus, Berlin, 1880-1882, 3 vols.; English translation, Gallus: Roman Scenes in the Time of Augustus, London, 1882 (in Becker’s _Gallus_ Roman life is represented much in the same way as Greek life is pictured in his _Charicles_).

_Wilhelm Adolf Becker_ was born at Dresden, 1796, and died at
Meissen, September 30th, 1846. His handbook satisfied a need
which was keenly felt towards the middle of the last century.
The activity in the investigation of old Roman antiquities
called forth by Niebuhr demanded a work giving a general survey
of the certified results of previous investigation. This is
precisely what the _Handbuch_ did. Single items were carefully
examined and placed in their proper position, and the whole
was accompanied by valuable notes giving the most important
sources, a study of which had led the author to his positions,
and giving also opinions differing from his, so that the book
served as a guide to further independent study. The work was
long considered indispensable to specialists, though it has of
late years been superseded somewhat by the works of Mommsen.
For biographical purposes it is still of great value.

=Beesly=, A. H., The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla, London, 1877.--=Beesly=, Edward S., Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius, London, 1878.--=Bekker=, A., Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ; see Byzantine History.--=Beloch=, Julius, Campanien, Geschichte und Topographie des antiken Neapel und seiner Umgebung, Berlin, 1879; Breslau, 1890.--=Bergk=, Theodor, Kritische Bearbeitung des _Monumentum Ancyranum_, Göttingen, 1873.--=Bethmann-Hollweg=, M. A., Gerichtsverfassung und Prozess des sinkenden römischen Reiches, Bonn, 1834.--=Bickersteth=, A., Outlines of Roman History, London, 1891.--=Binding=, Karl, Geschichte des burgundisch-romanischen Königreichs, Leipsic, 1868.--=Block=, G., Les origines du sénat romain, Paris, 1883.--=Blondel=, J. E., Histoire économique de la conjuration de Catilina, Paris, 1893.--=Bluhme=, Friedrich, Die Gens Langobardorum und ihre Herkunft, Bonn, 1868-1874, 2 vols.--=Boissier=, M. L. G., Cicéron et les amis, Paris, 1866; 1872; La religion romaine, d’Auguste aux Antonins, Paris, 1874, 2 vols.; 2nd edition, 1878; L’opposition sous les Césars, Paris, 1878; 2nd edition, 1885; La fin du paganisme, Paris, 1891, 2 vols.

_Marie Louis Gaston Boissier_, born at Nîmes, August 15th,
1825, became professor of rhetoric at Nîmes and Paris, and,
in 1861, of Latin eloquence in the College of France. He is a
member of the Academy, and Commander of the Legion of Honour
since 1888. All of Boissier’s works are of interest, presenting
often a wholly new point of view. The work on Roman religion
deals with the religious revolution which took place between
the time of Cicero and of Marcus Aurelius. The change was
from a state of general scepticism to a period when even the
philosophers were religious, and the author traces the causes
of this change. The picture showing the condition of the
inferior classes is particularly interesting. Also in his book
on Cicero the author gives a delightful picture of the society
in which the great orator moved.

=Borsari=, L., Topografia di Roma antica, Milan.--=Botsford=, George Willis, A History of Rome, London and New York, 1901; The Story of Rome as Greeks and Romans tell it, London and New York, 1903.--=Bouche-Leclercq=, A., Histoire de la divination dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1879-1882, 4 vols.; Manuel des institutions romaines, Paris, 1886.--=Bradley=, Henry, The Goths, London, 1888, Article in the Academy, London, May 15th, 1886.--=Brandis=, C. G., Studien zur römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, in Hermes, vol. 31.--=Breal=, Michael, Les tables Eugubines, texte, traduction et commentaire, avec une grammaire et une introduction historique, Paris, 1875.--=Breysig=, K., Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit, Berlin, 1901, 2 vols.--=Breysig=, Theodor, Die Zeit Karl Martels, in Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte, Leipsic, 1869.--=Brosien=, Hermann, Karl der Grosse, Berlin, 1885.--=Browne=, R. W., History of Roman Classical Literature, London, 1884.--=Brunengo=, G., Il Patriziato romano di Carlomagno, Prabo, 1893.--=Bryce=, James, The Holy Roman Empire, London, 1862.

Bryce’s book shows the mutual relations of Rome and Germany
during the Middle Ages, and is invaluable in throwing clear
light on their intricacies. The author shows that the Roman
Empire continued to exist throughout the Middle Ages, which is
the key to an understanding of the whole period.

=Budinger=, Max, Untersuchungen zur römischen Kaisergeschichte, Leipsic, 1868-1871, 3 vols. (contains a good account of the Augustan history).--=Bunbury=, S. H., A History of Ancient Geography, 1879, 2 vols.--=Burger=, C. P., Neue Forschungen zur alten Geschichte Roms, Amsterdam, 1894.--=Burn=, R., Rome and the Campagna, London, 1870; 2nd edition, 1875; Old Rome: a handbook to the ruins of the City and the Campagna, London, 1880.--=Bury=, J. B., History of the Later Roman Empire, from Arcadius to Irene, London, 1889, 2 vols.; A History of the Roman Empire, London, 1893. (A biographical notice of this writer has been given in vol. I, page 295.)

* * * * *

=Canina=, Luigi, Gli edifizi di Roma antica, Rome, 1848-1856, 6 vols.--=Capes=, W. W., The Roman Empire of the Second Century; or the Age of the Antonines, London, 1876; The Early Empire: from the Assassination of Cæsar to that of Domitian, London, 1876.--=Capponi=, Gino, Sulla dominazione dei Longobardi in Italia, in Scritti editi ed inediti, Florence, 1877, 2 vols.--=Champagny=, F. J. R., Les Césars: Tableau du monde romain sous les premiers empereurs, Paris, 1841-1853; Les Césars du IIIᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1870.--=Chapot=, V., La classis prætoris Misenansis, Paris, 1896.--=Charlemagne=, Capitularies of, in Migne’s Patrologiæ latinæ, Paris, 1844-1855, 221 vols.--=Church=, A. J., Carthage (Stories of the Nations), London, 1886; Pictures from Roman Life, London, 1893.--=Church=, R. W., The Beginnings of the Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1000, London, 1877.

This is a good introduction to a study of the Middle Ages,
being one of the best short histories of the time from the fall
of Rome to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. The book
shows the paths leading up to the union of church and empire
under Otto the Great.

=Clinton=, H. Fynes, Fasti Romani, Oxford, 1845-1850, 2 vols.; An Epitome of the Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople, from the Death of Augustus to the Death of Heraclius, edited by H. Fynes Clinton, London, 1853.

_Clinton’s_ works are standards on the civil and literary
chronology of Greece, Rome, and Constantinople and are
indispensable to students of ancient history.

=Closset=, Leon de, Essai sur l’historiographie des romains, Brussels, 1850.--=Comyn=, Robert, History of the Western Empire, London, 1851, 2 vols.--=Coulton=, J. J., Inquiry into the meaning of the name “Roma,” London, 1893.--=Creighton=, M., Rome, London, 1875.--=Crivellucci=, Amadeo, Papers on Lombard History, in Studi Storici, Pisa, 1892.--=Cruchon=, G., Les banques dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1879.--=Cruttwell=, C. T., A History of Roman Literature, from the earliest period to the death of Marcus Aurelius, London and New York, 1877.--=Cumont=, F., Textes et monuments figurés, relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Brussels, 1895, 1896, 2 vols.--=Curios=, J. G., Vorgeschichte Roms, Leipsic, 1878.--=Curteis=, A. M., History of the Roman Empire from the death of Theodosius to Charlemagne, London, 1875.

This book covers the portion of mediæval history about which
we have the least information. Curteis has based his work
principally upon Gibbon, Milman, and Thierry and gives perhaps
the most acceptable account of the period.

* * * * *

=Dahn=, Felix, Die Könige der Germanen. Wesen und Geschichte des ältesten Königtums der germanischen Stämme, Würzburg, 1861-1871, vols. 1-6; vol. 7, Leipsic, 1895; Prokopius von Cäserea, Berlin, 1865; Longobardische Studien, Leipsic, 1876; Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker, Berlin, 1881-1890, 4 vols.--=Davidson=, J. L. S., Cicero and the Fall of the Republic, in Heroes of the Nations, London and New York, 1898.--=Deguignes=, Jos., Histoire Générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongols, et des autres Tartares Occidentaux, avant et depuis Jesus Christ jusqu’à présent, Paris, 1756-1758, 3 vols.--=Denis=, Jacques François, Histoire des Théories et des idées morales de l’antiquité, Paris, 1856, 2 vols.--=Dennis=, George, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, London, 1848, 2 vols.--=Desjardin=, E., Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule, Paris, 1876-1893, 4 vols.--=Dindorf=, Ludwig August, Historici Græci minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.--=Dirksen=, H. E., Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ, Leipsic, 1842.--=Dodge=, Theodore A., Hannibal: Cæsar (Great Captains), Boston, 1892.--=Doesburg=, J. J., Geschiedenis der Romenien, Amsterdam, 1890.--=Döllinger=, J. J. von, Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen und seiner Nachfolger, in Akademische Vorträge, vol. III.; The First Age of Christianity and the Church, London, 1877.--=Domaszewski=, A. von, Die Heere der Bürgerkriege in den Jahren 49-42, v. Chr., Neue Heidelberger Jahrbücher, 1894; 1895.--=Dreyfus=, R., Essai sur les lois agraires sous la république romaine, Paris, 1894.--=Drumann=, W., Geschichte Roms in seinem Übergange von der republikanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung, 2nd edition, Berlin, 1899-1902, 2 vols, (contains an excellent account of Sulla).--=Du Cange=, Charles du F., Histoire de l’empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs français, Paris, 1657.

_Charles du Fresne Du Cange_, a French lexicographer, was
born at Amiens in 1610. His life was devoted to research into
antiquity and the Middle Ages, and he merited the surname of
the French Varro. His works are very valuable to the student of
ancient or mediæval history.

=Dümmler=, Ernst, Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches, Leipsic, 1887-1888, 3 vols.--=Dunham=, S. Astley, History of Europe in the Middle Ages, London, 1837.--=Duruy=, Jean-Victor, Histoire romaine depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu’à la mort de Théodose, Paris, 1879-1885, 7 vols.; Histoire romaine, Paris, 1889-1891; Histoire romaine jusqu’à l’invasion des barbares, Paris, 1899.--=Dyer=, T. H., A History of the City of Rome, its structures and monuments, from its foundation to the end of the Middle Ages, London, 1865; History of the Kings of Rome, London, 1868.

_Thomas Henry Dyer_, born at London, May 4th, 1804; died
at Bath, Jan. 30, 1888. He was for some time employed as a
clerk in the West India House, but eventually devoted himself
entirely to literature. In his history he finds fault with the
scepticism of writers like Niebuhr, being himself inclined
to accept early Roman history as definite. When he deals
with later historic times, however, he becomes judicious and
trustworthy, but the book has to do with antiquities rather
than institutions and is not so much political as archæological.

* * * * *

=Ebert=, A., Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1874-1880, 2 vols.; French translation of vol. II by Aymeric and Condamin, Paris, 1882, 2 vols.--=Eichhorn=, Karl Friedrich, Deutsche Staats- und Rechts-Geschichte, Göttingen, 1843-1845, 4 vols.--=Enmann=, A., Zur römischen Königsgeschichte, St. Petersburg, 1892.--=Esmein=, J. P. H. E. A., Mélanges d’histoire, du droit et de critique, Paris, 1887.

* * * * *

=Fabia=, P., Les sources de Tacite dans les histoires et les annales, Paris, 1893.--=Farrer=, T., Paganism and Christianity, London, 1891.--=Favé=, Ildephonse, L’ancienne Rome, Paris, 1880; L’empire des Francs depuis sa fondation jusqu’à son démembrement, Paris, 1889.--=Finlay=, George, Greece under the Romans, London, 1857; The History of Greece from its conquest by the Crusaders to its conquest by the Turks, and of the Empire of Trebizond, London, 1851; History of the Byzantine and the Greek Empires from 716-1453, Edinburgh and London, 1853-1854, 2 vols.; History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to the present time, edited by H. F. Tozer, Oxford, 1877, 7 vols.--=Fisher=, G. P., The Beginnings of Christianity, New York, 1877.--=Fiske=, George Converse, The Politics of the Patrician Claudii, in the Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. XII, Cambridge, Mass., 1902.--=Flasch=, F. M., Constantin der Grosse, Würzburg, 1891.--=Förstemann=, Ernst Wilhelm, Geschichte des deutschen Sprachstamms, Nordhausen, 1874-1875, 2 vols.--=Forsyth=, William, Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero, London, 1867.--=Fountain=, F. O., Defence of Nero, Chiswick, 1892.--=Freeman=, E. A., General Sketch of European History, London, 1872; Cornelius, Sulla, and Flavian Cæsars (in Essays, ser. II), London, 1872; Illyrian Emperors (Essays, ser. III), London, 1880; History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy, edited by J. B. Bury, London, 1893.--=Friedländer=, Ludwig, Über den Kunstsinn der Römer in der Kaiserzeit, Königsberg, 1852; Über die Spiele der alten Römer, in Marquardt’s Römische Staatsverwaltung, Leipsic, 1873-1878; Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms, Leipsic, 1888-1890, 3 vols.

_Ludwig Friedländer’s_ works represent the cultural side of
Roman life rather than the political. His _Darstellungen aus
der Sittengeschichte Roms_ is one of the most important books
on the subject. In it we get a lifelike picture of the more
important aspects of Roman civilisation during the first two
centuries of the empire.

=Froude=, J. A., Cæsar, London and New York, 1866.--=Fuchs=, J., Der zweite punische Krieg und seine Quellen, Polybius und Livius, Wiener-Neustadt, 1894.--=Furchheim=, Fr., Bibliografia di Pompei, Ercolano e Stabia, Naples, 1892.--=Fustel de Coulanges=, N. D., La cité antique, Paris, 1864.

* * * * *

=Gaillard=, Gabriel H., Histoire de Charlemagne, Paris, 1782, 4 vols.--=Gardner=, A., Julian and the last Struggle of Paganism, London and New York, 1895.--=Gardthausen=, Victor, Augustus und seine Zeit, Leipsic, 1891, 2 vols.--=Geffcken=, H., Staat und Kirche in ihrem Verhältniss geschichtlich entwickelt, Berlin, 1875; English translation, Church and State, their relations historically considered, London, 1877.--=Gell=, William (in collaboration with John P. Gandy), Pompeiana: the Topography, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii, London, 1821.--=Gelzer=, H., Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte, in Karl Krumbacher’s _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_, Munich, 1897.--=Gerard=, Histoire des Francs d’Austrasie, Brussels, 1865, 2 vols.--=Gerdes=, Heinrich, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Leipsic, 1891-1898, 2 vols.--=Gerlach=, F. D., Die Geschichtsschreiber der Römer bis auf Orosius, Stuttgart, 1855.--=Gfrörer=, August Friedrich, Geschichte der ost- und westfränkischen Karolinger, Freiburg, 1848, 2 vols.; Byzantinische Geschichten, edited by Weiss, Gratz, 1872-1874, 2 vols.--=Gibbon=, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1776-1788, 6 vols.; edited by H. H. Milman, London, 1838-1839, 12 vols.; edited by an English Churchman, London, 1853, 7 vols.; edited by W. Smith, London, 1854-1855, 8 vols.; edited by J. B. Bury, London, 1896-1900, 7 vols. (see Prolegomena).

_Edward Gibbon_, the most eminent of English historians, was
born at Putney, 1737. His delicate constitution interfered
with his early studies, but at fifteen he entered Magdalen
College, Oxford. In his autobiography he speaks of the fourteen
months he spent there as “the most idle and unprofitable of
his whole life.” Becoming at this time a convert to Romanism,
his father sent him to Lausanne, Switzerland, where he studied
for five years under a Calvinist minister, who won him back
to Protestantism. He returned to England in 1758, and in 1761
published his first work, _Essay on the Study of Literature_,
in French, with which language he was at the time, as he
himself says in his autobiography, more familiar than with
English. His visit to Rome about 1763 first suggested to him
the idea of writing his famous history. The work was finished
in 1787, after the author had spent eighteen years of labour
upon it. It covers the whole period from Trajan to the
conquest of Constantinople, relating not only the political
events and situation, but representing all phases of life in
a wonderfully attractive, frequently dramatic, manner. His
strong bias against Christianity is the only point upon which
he has been attacked. Otherwise, so thorough and exact were
his investigations that although the book was completed over a
century ago, few errors have been brought to light in it by the
steady researches of a century. In 1783 he retired to Lausanne,
where he lived for the remainder of his life. He died in London
in 1794, on one of his visits to England.

=Giesebrecht=, F. W. B. von, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Brunswick, 1855-1888, 5 vols.--=Gilbert=, Otto, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, Leipsic, 1883, 3 vols.--=Gilman=, A., General History of Rome (Story of the Nations), London and New York, 1886.--=Goldsmith=, Oliver, The History of Rome, from the Foundation of the City of Rome to the Destruction of the Western Empire, London, 1769; 1825, 2 vols. (A biographical notice of this author has been given in vol. IV, page 631.)--=Gray=, Elizabeth C. Hamilton, Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria, London, 1840.--=Greenidge=, A. H. J., Roman Public Life, London, 1901.--=Gregorovius=, Ferdinand, Die Geschichte des römischen Kaisers Hadrian und seiner Zeit, Königsberg, 1851, reprinted under the title, Der Kaiser Hadrian, Gemälde der römisch-hellenischen Welt zu seiner Zeit, Stuttgart, 1884; Die Grabdenkmäler der Päbste, Leipsic, 1857; Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1859-1873, 8 vols.; 4th edition, 1886-1895; English translation, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, London, 1894, 6 vols.; Italian translation ordered by municipal authorities of Rome, Storia della città di Roma nel medio evo, Venice, 1874-1876, 8 vols.

_Ferdinand Gregorovius_ was born at Neidenburg, Prussia,
January 19th, 1821. He studied theology at Königsberg, but a
journey to Italy, in 1852, caused him to devote his future life
to historical research. For his _History of Rome in the Middle
Ages_, Gregorovius was granted the honorary citizenship of that
city. He died at Munich, May 1st, 1891.

=Grimm=, J., Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, Göttingen, 1828.--=Grindle=, G. E. A., The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1892.--=Gueldenpenning=, A., Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches, Halle, 1885.--=Guillot=, C., Droit public romain, Mayenne, 1895.--=Guirand=, P., La différence entre César et le sénat, Paris, 1878.

* * * * *

=Hadley=, J., Introduction to Roman Law, New York and London, 1874.--=Hagenback=, K. R., Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum 19ten Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1885, 7 vols.--=Hahn=, H., Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches 741-752, in Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte, Berlin, 1863.--=Hallam=, H., The View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, London, 1818.--=Hammer-Purgstall=, J. von, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, Vienna, 1827-1834, 10 vols.--=Hardie=, W. R., Character and Genius of the Roman People, London, 1895.--=Harnack=, A., Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus, Leipsic, 1873; Die Zeit des Ignatius und die Chronologie der antiochenischen Bischöfe, Leipsic, 1878; Das Mönchtum, Seine Ideale und Geschichte, Giessen, 1881; 4th edition, 1895; Geschichte der altschriftlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, Leipsic, 1893; Das Christentum und die Geschichte, Leipsic, 1896; =Hauréau=, J. B., Charlemagne et sa cour, Paris, 1852-1855.--=Hegel=, G. W. F., Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte, Berlin, 1833, 8 vols.; English translation by J. Sibree, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, London, 1857.--=Hegel=, R., Geschichte der Städteverfassung von Italien, Leipsic, 1847, 2 vols.--=Hemans=, C., Historical and Monumental Rome, London, 1874.--=Herbert=, W., Attila, King of the Huns, London, 1838. (An epic poem in twelve books, containing also an historical treatise on Attila and his predecessors.)--=Hertzberg=, G. F., Geschichte Griechenlands unter der Herrschaft der Römer, Berlin, 1875; Geschichte des römischen Kaiserreiches, Berlin, 1880-1882; Geschichte der Byzantiner und des osmanischen Reiches, Berlin, 1882-1884; Geschichte der Römer im Alterthum, Berlin, 1885.--=Herzog=, E. von, Geschichte und System der römischen Staatsverfassung, Tübingen, 1884-1891, 2 vols.--=Heyd=, Wilhelm von, Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1885-1886.--=Heyne=, C. G., Antiquitates Byzantinæ, 1808-1811.--=Hirsch=, F., Das Herzogtum Benevent bis zum Untergang des Langobardenreiches, Leipsic, 1847.--=Hirschfeld=, H. O., Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, Berlin, 1877; Zur Geschichte des lateinischen Rechts, Berlin, 1879; Inscriptiones Galliæ Narbonensis Latinæ, Berlin, 1888; Timagones und die gallische Wanderung, in the Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Akademie, Berlin, 1894.

_Otto Hirschfeld_, a distinguished German historian and
epigraphist, was born March 16, 1843, at Königsberg, Prussia.
After pursuing philological and historical studies at the
universities of Bonn and Berlin, he was engaged in epigraphical
and historical research in Italy from 1865 to 1867. He was
successively professor at Prague, Vienna, and Berlin, and has
for many years been director of the Institute of Archæology at
Berlin. In addition to several important historical works of
his own production, he has collaborated with Mommsen in the
_Ephemeris epigraphica_, and has contributed largely to the
_Corpus inscriptionum latinarum_ and the _Inscriptiones Gallicæ
Narbonensis latinæ_.

=Hodgkin=, Thomas, Vandals, article in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica; The Dynasty of Theodosius, Oxford, 1889; Italy and her Invaders, Oxford, 1880-1889, 7 vols.; 1899, 8 vols.; Life of Theodoric, Oxford, 1891; Charles the Great, London, 1899.--=Hœck=, K., Römische Geschichte vom Verfall der Republik bis zur Vollendung der Monarchie unter Constantin, Göttingen, 1841.--=How=, W. W. (in collaboration with H. D. Leigh), A History of Rome to the Death of Cæsar, London.--=Howorth=, H. H., The Westerly Drifting of Nomads, article in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. V, London, 1874.--=Hullman=, K. D., Geschichte des byzantinischen Handels, Frankfort, 1808.

* * * * *

=Ihne=, W., Römische Geschichte, Leipsic, 1868-1890, 8 vols.; English translation by the author, The History of Rome, London, 1871-1882, 5 vols.; Rome: to its Capture by the Gauls, London, 1878.

_Wilhelm Ihne_, German philologist and classical historian,
was born February 2nd, 1821, at Fürth. He spent several years
in England as a teacher and has, since 1863, been professor at
Heidelberg. Ihne’s history deals with the early period of Rome
up to the time when Augustus became sole ruler. It is addressed
to a general audience, and consequently the author attempts to
establish his position in a generally comprehensible manner. He
succeeds better in his undertaking when he reaches the ground
of more reliable tradition where he is not obliged to clothe
difficult critical analysis in popular garb. The author takes a
wholly unprejudiced stand, examining all evidence, separating
fact from conjecture, and leaving the reader to form his own
judgment. The work is marked by sound common sense.

=Ihne=, W. R., Society in Rome under the Cæsars, London, 1888. (A good popular account of the daily life of the period.)

* * * * *

=Jacobi=, R., Die Quellen der Langobardengeschichte des Paulus Diaconus, Halle, 1877; =Jaffé=, Philip, Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar dem Sachsen, Berlin, 1843; (see also classical section).--=Jäger=, O., Geschichte der Römer, Gütersloh, 1861.--=Jahn=, A., Die Geschichte der Burgundionen, und Burgundiens, 1874, 2 vols.--=Jay=, B., Synopsis of Roman History, London, 1894.--=Jonson=, Ben, Tragedy of Catiline, London, 1611.--=Jordan=, H., Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum, Berlin, 1871, 1878, 1885, 2 vols.--=Jung=, J., Geographie und politische Geschichte des klassischen Altertums, in Ivan Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 3, Nördlingen 1889.

* * * * *

=Kärst=, F., Kritische Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des zweiten Samniten-krieges, in Neues Jahrbuch für Philologie, Luppe, vol. 13.--=Kaufmann=, G. H., Deutsche Geschichte bis auf Karl den Grossen, Leipsic, 1880-1881, 2 vols.--=Keightley=, Thomas, The History of Rome to the End of the Republic, London, 1842.--=Kiepert=, H., Handbuch der alten Geographie, Berlin, 1878.--=Kingsley=, Charles, The Roman and the Teuton, London, 1875; 1889.--=Klein=, J., Die Verwaltungsbeamten der Provinzen des römischen Reiches, Berlin, 1878.--=Köpke=, Der Anfang des Königthums bei den Gothen, Berlin, 1854.--=Kornemann=, E., Zur Stadtentstehung in den ehemals keltischen und germanischen Gebieten des Römerreiches, Giessen, 1898.--=Körte=, G., Ein Wandgemälde von Vulci als Dokument der römischen Königsgeschichte.--=Kraschenimkow=, M., Die Augustalen und das Sacral-magisterium, St. Petersburg, 1895.--=Krumbacher=, K., Byzantinische Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1892 (in collaboration with A. Ehrhard and H. Gerzer); Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, in I. Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaften, vol. 9, Munich, 1897.--=Kuhn=, E., Verfassung der Städte des römischen Reiches, Leipsic, 1864.

* * * * *

=La Barte=, J., History of the Arts of the Middle Ages, London, 1855.--=Lanciani=, Rodolfo, Le Acque e gli acquedotti di Roma antica, Rome, 1880; Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, London, 1889; Pagan and Christian Rome, London and Boston, 1892; Forma urbis Romæ, Milan and New York, 1893-1901; A Manual of Roman Antiquities, London, 1894; New Tales of Old Rome, Boston, 1901.--=Lange=, L., Römische Alterthümer, Berlin, 1876-1879, 2 vols.--=Lau=, G. J. T., Gregor I der Grosse, nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert, Leipsic, 1845.--=Laurent=, F., Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité, Paris, 1880.--=Lavisse=, E. (in collaboration with Alfred Rambaud), Histoire générale du IVᵐᵉ siècle à nos jours, Paris, 1893, etc., 8 vols. in progress.--=Le Beau=, Charles, Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin, Paris, 1757-1779, 22 vols.--=Lecky=, W. E. H., History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, London, 1870.--=Lecointe=, Charles, Annales ecclésiastiques de la France, Paris, 1665-1680, 8 vols.--=Lehmann=, C. F., Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, 1902.--=Leighton=, R. F., A History of Rome, New York, 1880.--=Lemonnier=, H., Étude historique sur la condition privée des Affranchis, Paris, 1887.--=Lenormant=, F., La grande Grèce, Paris, 1881-1884, 3 vols.; (a biographical notice of this writer is given in vol. I, p. 588).--=Lewis=, George Cornewall, An Inquiry into the Credibility of the Early Roman History, London, 1855, 2 vols.

_George Cornewall Lewis_, a statesman and man of letters,
was born in London, April 21, 1806. Educated at Eton and
Oxford, he was called to the bar in 1831. Although almost
constantly engaged in public life, he devoted much attention
to literature, writing numerous essays and contributions to
reviews, besides publishing several translations from the
German. All of his writings are distinguished for clear, sober,
and original thought. He died in April, 1863. In his inquiry
into the credibility of early Roman history Lewis submits early
Roman history to the same tests that are applied in determining
credibility in judicial investigation. In applying these tests
to Niebuhr’s positions he decides that many of them are based
on insufficient foundations, and comes to the conclusion that
all efforts to clear up early Roman history are thrown away
since there is no contemporary evidence.

=Lézardière=, Marie Pauline de, Théorie des lois politiques de la monarchie française, Paris, 1844, 4 vols.--=Liddell=, H. G., A History of Rome from the earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire, London and New York, 1865.

_Henry George Liddell_ was born at Binchester, February 6th,
1811. Educated at Oxford, he became a college tutor and in
1846 was made head-master of Westminster School. In 1834, he
began, in collaboration with Robert Scott, the preparation of
the _Greek-English Lexicon_, which was his life-work. In 1855
he was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, which position
he retained until 1891. Liddell’s history is a most valuable
work, being as Mr. Adams says of it, “a storehouse of accurate
information.”

=Liebenau=, W., Städteverwaltung im römischen Kaiserreich, Leipsic, 1900.--=Lilly=, W. S., Ancient Religion and Modern Thought, London, 1884.--=Lindner=, Theodor, Die sogenannten Schenkungen Pippins, Karls des Grossen und Ottos I, Stuttgart, 1896.--=Lippert=, Julius, Die Religionen der europäischen Kulturvölker, Berlin, 1881.--=Lockhart=, J. G., Velerius, a Roman Story, Edinburgh, 1821.--=Long=, G., The Decline of the Roman Republic, London, 1864-1874, 5 vols. This book covers the period from the destruction of Carthage to the death of Julius Cæsar.--=Lorenz=, F., Karls des Grossen Privat- und Hofleben, in Von Raumer’s Historisches Taschenbuch, Leipsic, 1832.

* * * * *

=Macaulay=, T. B., Lays of Ancient Rome, London, 1812.--=Macdermot=, T. B., Outline of Roman History, Dublin, 1892.--=Mackenzie=, Lord, Studies of the Roman Law, with Comparative Views of the Laws of France, England, and Scotland, 5th edition, edited by John Kirkpatrick, London, 1880.--=Maclear=, G. F., Apostles of Mediæval Europe, London, 1868.--=Madvig=, J. N., Die Verfassung und Verwaltung des römischen Staats, Leipsic, 1881-1882, 2 vols.--=Mahaffy=, J. P., The Greek World under Roman Sway, London, 1890.--=Mahon=, Philip Henry Stanhope, Life of Belisarius, London, 1848.--=Manso=, J. K. F., Geschichte des ostgothischen Reiches in Italien, Breslau, 1824.--=Marioni=, G., I Papiri Diplomatici, Rome, 1805 (a collection of documents, papal bulls, legal documents of transactions between Byzantine merchants, officials, clergy, etc.).--=Marlot=, E., Précis des institutions politiques de Rome, Paris, 1886.--=Marquardt=, K. J., vols. 3 to 5 of Becker’s Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1849-1868; second edition of complete work (in collaboration with Th. Mommsen), Leipsic, 1881-1886, 7 vols.; Römische Staatsverwaltung, forming vols. 4 to 6 of Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1873-1878; 1881-1885; Privatleben der Römer, forming vol. 7 of Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1879-1882; 2nd edition, 1886.--=Marrast=, A., Esquisses Byzantines, Paris, 1874.--=Martens=, W., Politische Geschichte des Langobardenreiches unter König Luitbrand, Heidelberg, 1880.--=Martin=, H., Histoire de France, Paris, 1838-1853; 1855-1860, 18 vols.--=Marx=, F., Die Beziehungen der klassischen Völker des Altertums zu dem keltisch-germanischen Norden, Beilage der Allgemeinen Zeitung, 1897, No. 162, 163.--=Mascov=, J. J., Geschichte der Deutschen bis zum Abgang der merovingischen Könige, Leipsic, 1726-1737, 2 vols.--=Masom=, W. F., The Struggle for Empire, 287-202 B.C., London, 1894 (in collaboration with F. G. Plaistowe); Synopsis of Roman History, London, 1891.--=Mason=, A. J., The Persecution of Diocletian, Cambridge, 1876.--=Mayor=, J. E. B., Bibliographie Clue to Latin Literature, London, 1875.--=Meitzen=, A., Siedelung und Agrarwesen der Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Römer, Finnen und Slaven, Berlin, 1895, 3 vols.--=Meltzer=, O., Geschichte der Karthager, Berlin, 2 vols.--=Menzel=, W., Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung von der ältesten bis auf die neueste Zeit, Leipsic, 1875, 2nd edition, 3 vols.; English translation by Horrocks, History of Germany from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, London, 1848, 3 vols.--=Merivale=, Charles, A History of the Romans under the Empire, London, 1850-1862, 7 vols.; The Fall of the Roman Republic, London, 1853; A General History of Rome, London, 1875; The Roman Triumvirates, London, 1876.

_Charles Merivale_ was born March 8th, 1808, and educated at
Harrow, Haileybury, and Cambridge. In 1833 he was elected
fellow of St. Johns. In addition to gaining distinction as a
student he was prominent in athletic sports, rowing in the
first inter-university boat-race in 1829. He was ordained in
1833, appointed chaplain to the speaker of the House of Commons
in 1863, and in 1869 became dean of Ely. He died December 27th,
1893. Merivale’s _History of the Romans under the Empire_ did
much to foster the study of Roman history during the empire.
Beginning with Sulla’s death, it follows the intellectual and
social life of the period, up to the death of Marcus Aurelius,
with a certain degree of completeness, although the author does
not touch any of the deeper problems in connection with the
history of the imperial period.