Chapter XVI: Retrospect—conclusion (1)

The hasty survey which has been made in the preceding chapters, of the drinking habits of our race in various lands and ages, will, we trust, have had the effect of modifying some of our theories, based upon preconceived ideas, concerning the causes of intemperance. That climate is not a permanent source of that evil has, we think, been clearly proved. Nor is the popular theory tenable that barbarism and an aboriginal condition of mankind mean purity and sobriety, but that drunkenness is the invariable concomitant of a high state of civilisation. For, at the time when man is supposed to have been in a state of paradisiacal innocence, the standard of his morality was very low indeed, both as it concerned his indulgence in drink, as well as in other respects; and although purity and simplicity of faith appear at all times to have been accompanied by similar moral qualities, yet religion alone, excepting in one or two cases, has not exercised an important controlling influence upon the passion for drink in the human race. On the other hand, however, the superstitious rites and ceremonies with which religion has been more or less encumbered in all ages have countenanced if not patronised the use of intoxicating beverages.

It is quite true that every phase and form of civilisation has at one time or other been debased by its association with intemperance, and has frequently ministered to man’s self-indulgence. Music and the arts have not disdained to become the handmaids of debauchery; poetry has been degraded by its influence; the artifice of politics and the designs of priestcraft have found it a convenient tool. And as to science, she has consented in a hundred different ways to multiply man’s opportunities for self-debasement or to furnish him with palliatives for mitigating the evil effects of his dissoluteness. But, on the other hand, if we can trust our imperfect knowledge, we see already that the wave of intemperance has invariably reached its highest point, not when nations have been the most highly civilised (if any nation can be said to have attained that condition), but either before it was fairly educated, or during the national decadence.

Nor is the expression “waves of intemperance” purely imaginative, for they have had a real existence in the history of the past. One or more such waves rose high in ancient China, and probably overwhelmed dynasties, and yet modern China is not reckoned amongst inebriate states.

Another reared itself in India, where it broke against the barriers which were opposed to it by Buddha and his disciples. The pure descendants of the Indian and Persian races, the Hindoos and Parsees, who are the best educated, are at the same time amongst the most temperate of the Eastern races. In ancient Rome, on the other hand, the wave of intemperance reached its greatest altitude when the arts were languishing, when her military prestige was waning, and when the barbarians whom she had subdued were becoming in their turn her conquerors. That wave was never broken, but for the time being it helped to wreck the civilisation of a large section of the human race over which it passed. Another smaller wave travelled from Central Asia towards the south-west, and there Islamism was the rock upon which it burst. This is, perhaps, the most conspicuous instance in which religion, aided, however, by the sword, has offered an effective resistance to the spread of drunkenness. The same tide which had submerged the Roman empire rolled on with undiminished force, and nearly overwhelmed the empire of Germany. But there, for the first time, we clearly apprehend the fact that drunkenness does not run side by side with true civilisation, at least if the latter is represented by all that is noble and refined in æsthetic tastes, all that is enlightened in literature, science, and philosophy. For the Germans were the greatest drunkards at the time they were mere fighting men; not, perhaps, when they faced the legions of Germanicus, and certainly not when they stood opposed to those of Napoleon III.; but whilst they were still a nation of uncultivated boors, submissive followers of a band of robber-barons, whose highest conception of human greatness consisted in feats of arms and deeds of chivalry. But with the extension of commerce and intercourse with surrounding peoples came habits of temperance and frugality, in which the nation was soon confirmed by the spread of knowledge, by intellectual culture in the upper classes, and by the education of the great mass of the people.

And so, too, it has been in modern Scandinavia, in England, and in the United States of America. In each of those lands the tide of intemperance rose to its highest before the masses began to be educated, and in all three the ebb appears to have set in with greater or less rapidity. So far, then, it would appear, from a careful study of the history of drink and its influence upon the various races and upon the different classes of society, that barbarism and religious credulity are accompanied by immorality and unbridled intemperance, whilst sobriety, virtue, and self-restraint are the concomitants of pure religion, and of the arts of civilisation.

But we must not content ourselves with the negative proposition that intemperance is not the necessary outcome of civilisation, nor even with the general statement that the latter brings with it self-restraint and sobriety. The most potent check upon immorality, especially in recent and modern times, has been enlightened public opinion, which is the expression of advancing civilisation; and it is upon the conduct of those who have moulded public opinion that the morality of every age has been largely dependent. Evil examples in high places and a disregard of public propriety have done as much to encourage the vice of intemperance as the passion from which it springs. Whilst the priests of the ancient faiths intoxicated themselves at the altar, and portrayed the deities whom they served with tastes similar to their own, it was not likely that the crowd of worshippers would practise sobriety. In those days the priesthood to a large extent represented public opinion, and, as we have seen, they not only countenanced drunkenness, but hallowed its exercise. When the military heroes of ancient Rome gave away a hundred thousand congiaria of wine to the mob, or kept cellars of 10,000 casks, or devoted whole days and nights to drinking bouts, it is no wonder that the ragged plebeians, without shoes or a mantle, spent the hours of the night in obscene taverns and brothels in the indulgence of gross and vulgar sensuality; for it was the great military leaders of that age who moulded public opinion. And so, coming nearer to our time, when, in our own country, the installation of a shepherd in the fold of Christ was commemorated by a feast at which 300 tuns of ale and 100 tuns of wine were swallowed down, and when the ladies of the court of Charles the dissolute “rolled about in a state of intoxication,” it was only a necessary sequence that the lower orders should get drunk upon gin at a penny a head, and whilst in that condition they should herd together upon straw in dark cellars which would have been unfit receptacles for the brutes, below whose state they had fallen. And although in our day the public feeling is expressed rather than created by those who occupy high places, still the utterances of ministers of state such as those we have quoted, and the open countenance and encouragement which is given by influential party-leaders to persons who profit by the intemperance of the ignorant and depraved, cannot fail to produce a very pernicious effect upon public sentiment, and to militate against the exercise of its due influence upon the national morals.

Looking at the other side of the question, we find that all great temperance reformers have appealed to public opinion to aid them in their efforts. Confucius did not say to his disciples, “Be careful not to drink wine to excess, for it will enervate your bodies and debase your intelligence.” He was more practical than that. “The superior man when he is at table does not glut his appetite,” he said; and “when you go abroad be not given to excess in wine.” In other words, “Don’t lower the standard of morality, nor degrade yourselves in public estimation, by setting a pernicious example; for, remember, you are superior men, the leaders of society.” The Buddhist priests were ordered not only themselves to refrain from using strong drink, but they were told that “there is no reward for him who gives intoxicating liquors.” And St. Paul advised abstention from drink lest others should be “made weak” by the example. Pliny, too, denounced the public drinking practices of his age, and the scandalous conduct of the great military leaders, who, as we have already said, moulded public opinion; and Mahomet said of drunkenness, that it diverted the attention of mankind from its highest and noblest occupations, prayer and the remembrance of God.

And if this has been the policy of temperance reformers in past ages, much more conspicuously is it so in the present day, when public opinion is becoming the censor of morals and the approver of merit and virtue. That it is absolutely essential for them to have the popular sentiment on their side has been conclusively shown in connection with every phase of the question. It is futile for earnest men to lecture to drunkards amongst the lower classes, so long as the great mass of the electors, guided by unscrupulous party-leaders, choose publicans to represent them in town councils, and promote them to the aldermanic or civic chair. Equally idle is it for clergymen to preach temperance sermons to decorous congregations whilst those who are enriched by the results of drunkenness are permitted, in consequence of their wealth and influence, to hold a higher rank than the parishioner whose calling is innocuous, and even above him whose profession ministers to that health and comfort which are undermined and uprooted by the gin-palace. Repressive legislation, however wise and however indispensable it may be, is, as we have seen, quite inefficacious unless supported by public opinion. It is in those countries where not only the upper ranks, but the whole mass of the people, enjoy the benefits of education, where, in fact, an enlightened public opinion is a possibility; in Sweden, Norway, and the United States of America, that the interference of the State authorities has proved of any avail in the work of temperance reform. The duty of Englishmen, in what is by many believed to be an important crisis in our history, is therefore very plain. It is because the abuses to which frequent reference has been made are tolerated and sanctioned in our own country, that our people abroad as well as at home are stigmatised as—the words come most reluctantly from the pen of one who is proud of his nationality—as a nation of drinkers; and it is the duty of men in every rank and station to express their disapproval of intemperance and the causes which lead to its prevalence, and so to influence public opinion in favour of sobriety.

And now let us say, in conclusion, that if the perusal of these pages should have removed any misconceptions, or have suggested any important truths, in connection with the subject of which they have treated; if it should induce any who have hitherto been calculating, or timid, or indifferent, to extend a warm and disinterested support to the cause of temperance reform; or if it should afford help and encouragement to those who are already labouring to raise the standard of morality and to ameliorate the condition of the poor and ignorant, their publication will not have been in vain, and we shall certainly have no cause to regret having invited our readers to bear us company in this cursory and imperfect glance over the history of drink in every age.

FOOTNOTES

[1] On the Action of Alcohol on the Mind, pp. 11, 12. W. Tweedie.

[2] Results of Researches on Alcohol, p. 6 (“An Inbred Enemy”). W. Tweedie.

[3] Descent of Man, i. 12.

[4] Brehm, Thierleben, b. i. 1864, a. 75, 86. Also on the Ateles, s. 105, and elsewhere.

[5] Morewood’s Inebriating Liquors, p. 55 and subsequent pages, which contain numerous references. Dublin: W. Curry, jun., & Co. 1838. In referring to this work, we shall in future simply say “Morewood.” An earlier but much less perfect edition was published by Longmans in 1824.

[6] Researches in South Africa, p. 411. Murray.

[7] Researches in South Africa, pp. 186, 630, &c.

[8] The Malay Archipelago, vol. ii. p. 102.

[9] Striking instances will be found in the chapter on America in the present work.

[10] Morewood, p. 65, where Malte Brun, Whittington, and other travellers are referred to as authorities on the same subject.

[11] The Heart of Africa, vol. ii. p. 13. Sampson Low & Co.

[12] Heart of Africa, vol. i. p. 183.

[13] Morewood, who quotes authorities, p. 349.

[14] Ibid., p. 350.

[15] History of Europe, vol. i. 7th ed. p. 21.

[16] This will be further strikingly shown in the chapter which relates to the habits of the tribes on the River Plate.

[17] Herodotus, iii. 20-22.

[18] Keller’s Lake Dwellings, p. 344, Longmans; and Nilsson’s Stone Age, edited by Sir J. Lubbock, pp. xxiii., xxix., Longmans.

[19] For full information, see abstract of the treatise on the plants of the lake-dwellings in Keller’s book (cited), p. 336, where illustrations will be found of a great variety of plants in use at that early age.

[20] Keller’s Lake Dwellings, pp. 41, 342.

[21] One of our leading ethnologists, Mr. J. Crawfurd, F.R.S., expresses the view, in a paper read by him before the Ethnological Society, March 10, 1868, that the discovery and art of manufacturing some kind of intoxicating drink may be said to be coeval with the first dawn of social development, for it has soon been made by barbarians of every race in possession of the requisite raw materials; it is mere wandering savages, he says, that have been found ignorant of it. The same author considers that the vine is indigenous in several parts of Western Asia and Southern Europe.

[22] Confucius et Mencius, par M. G. Pauthier, p. 152. Paris: Charpentier.

[23] Wright’s Homes of Other Days, p. 269. Trübner & Co.

[24] Confucius et Mencius, p. 153, _et seq._: “dejà entrées en putréfaction.”

[25] Confucius et Mencius, p. 108.

[26] Ibid., p. 114.

[27] Ibid., p. 144.

[28] Ibid., p. 148.

[29] Ibid., p. 333.

[30] Ibid., p. 355. This game was made an excuse for gambling, a vice still prevalent in China.

[31] Legge’s Chinese Classics. Trübner & Co.

[32] Legge’s “She-King, or Book of Ancient Chinese Poetry.” Trübner & Co.

[33] Legge’s Chinese Classics, vol. iii. pt. i p. 274.

[34] Other accounts are to be found in the “Shoo-King” of the condition of China at the time, and one (vol. iii. pt. i. p. 274) describes the people as being given up to highway robberies, villainies, and treachery; the nobles as violating the laws; and that there was no certainty of the apprehension of criminals. All this was attributed to the growth of drunkenness.

[35] The She-King, pp. 182, 183.

[36] The She-King, p. 252.

[37] Ibid., p. 308.

[38] Ibid., p. 314.

[39] Ibid., p. 207.

[40] The She-King, p. 375.

[41] Ibid., p. 261.

[42] Ibid., p. 322.

[43] Ibid., p. 195.

[44] The She-King, pp. 266-268.

[45] The great reformer known to us as Buddha was born at the foot of the mountains of Nepaul, and his death took place according to one writer 543 B.C., according to another 477 B.C., consequently about a year before the date assigned for the death of Confucius. See Max Müller’s “Chips from a German Workshop,” vol. i. p. 247.

[46] Hardy’s Eastern Monachism, p. 24. Partridge & Oakey.

[47] Ibid., pp. 80-82.

[48] Morewood, p. 231, and elsewhere. This author gives interesting details of the distilling processes in China.

[49] Social Life of the Chinese, by the Rev. Justus Doolittle, p. 500. Sampson Low & Co.

[50] Ibid., pp. 500-512.

[51] Chinese Sketches, by H. A. Giles, of H.B.M. Consular Service, p. 154. Trübner & Co.

[52] This is explained by Mr. Doolittle, who says that many games are played, in the course of which the loser is compelled repeatedly to empty his cup of wine.

[53] Chinese Sketches, p. 12.

[54] History of the Ancient Sanskrit Literature, pp. 523, 572. Williams & Norgate.

[55] Haug’s Essays on the Religion, &c., of the Parsees, pp. 280-283. Trübner & Co.

[56] The Bases of Temperance Reform, p. 113. Rev. D. Burns, M.A. London: Tweedie & Co.

[57] Rig-Veda, 1. 4. 2. Most of these extracts from the Rig-Veda have been translated for this work from the original Sanskrit by Dr. Myriantheus, an able Sanskrit scholar, and compared by the author where it was possible with Wilson’s and Langlois’ translations of the Rig-Veda. With respect to the foregoing quotation, Dr. Max Müller translates it (in a letter to the author): “The intoxication of a wealthy man bestows wealth;” that is, a wealthy man when intoxicated is generous. Nothing can be more convincing than this rendering that the Aryan conception of the gods was but a reflection of the character of the people themselves.

[58] Rig-Veda, 1. 9. 1.

[59] Ibid., 1. 52. 5.

[60] Ps. cxxxvi., and Rig-Veda, Langlois’ translation, p. 174.

[61] Rig-Veda, 8. 1. 23.

[62] Ibid., 10. 119.

[63] Ibid., 10. 112. 3.

[64] Ibid., 3. 58. 6.

[65] Rig-Veda, 1. 54. 8, and 3. 43. 5.

[66] Ibid., 5. 43. 3.

[67] Aitareya Brahmána, vol. ii. p. 507.

[68] Rig-Veda, 1. 191. 10.

[69] Ibid., 8. 2. 12.

[70] Chips from a German Workshop (R. V. 7. 86. 6).

[71] Manu was a religions and moral lawgiver, whose doctrines united the spirit of Buddhism with that of the Brahmans. One of his translators and commentators, Sir William Jones, believes him to have lived in or before the ninth century B.C. Professor Wilson, one of the translators of the Rig-Veda, places him about the sixth century B.C. Gautama Sâkya (Buddha) is, however, supposed to have lived in the sixth or fifth century B.C. These are discrepancies which we cannot attempt here to reconcile. The extracts in the text are from Sir William Jones’s translation of the “Institutes of Hindoo Law, or the Ordinances of Manu,” chap. xi. Allen & Co.

[72] Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xlii. p. 10 _et seq._

[73] Morewood, p. 162, and Table, p. 717.

[74] Ibid., p. 182.

[75] The Natives of India, by James Kerr, pp. 171-173. Allen & Co.

[76] Wanderings of a Pilgrim, vol. ii. pp. 147, 148. Pelham Richardson.

[77] India and its Native Princes, by Louis Rousselet, p. 173. Chapman & Hall.

[78] In Doran’s Table Traits, p. 300 (Bentley), will be found a drinking-song which was sung in the army not very long since during the prevalence of cholera, when, the author says (not defining the exact period), drinking in India was fearful. We extract two verses to show the callousness that prevailed.

“Not a sigh for the lot that darkles,
Not a tear for the friends who sink,
We’ll fall ’mid the wine cup’s sparkled,
As mute as the wine we drink.
Come, stand to your glasses steady!
’Tis this that the respite buys.
One cup to the dead already;
Hurrah! for the next that dies.

“Who dreads to the dust returning?
Who shrinks from the sable shore,
Where the high and haughty yearning
Of the soul can sting no more?
No, stand to your glasses steady;
This world is a world of lies!
One cup to the dead already;
Hurrah! for the next that dies.”

[79] Avesta, Die heiligen Schriften der Parsen, by Dr. F. Spiegel, vol. i. p. 8. Leipzig: Engelmann.

[80] Haug, Essay on the Religion of the Parsees, p. 282. London: Trübner & Co.

[81] Vendidad, by Dr. Spiegel, vol. i. p. 207.

[82] Vendidad, vol. i. p. 253. See also vol. iii. p. xlix.: “Die Daevas Kunda, Banga und Vibanga als Gegner des Craosha, es sind die Dämonen der Trunkenheit.”

[83] And judging from the Zend-Avesta, to other gross forms of immorality.

[84] Born at Halicarnassus, B.C. 484.

[85] Herodotus, i. 133.

[86] Ibid., i. 126.

[87] Ibid., i. 212.

[88] Ibid., iii. 20-22.

[89] Sale’s Koran, p. 84. F. Warne & Co. “Lots, and images, and divining arrows” are explained to mean “all inebriating liquors and games of chance.” See also sec. v. and chap. ii. p. 23, where it is said that “in lots and wine there is great sin.”

[90] Sale’s Koran, p. 199.

[91] Ibid., pp. 95, 96. Also the present chapter and the chapter on the Egyptians; also Morewood, p. 721, table, from which it will be seen that there were imported into Turkey between the years 1827 and 1834 inclusive, 229,460 gallons of spirits, besides wines, beer, and ale, and that 11,272 gallons of wine were exported from Turkey during the same period.

[92] Morewood, pp. 85-89.

[93] Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft, by Dr. G. Klemm, vol. ii. pp. 338, 339. Leipzig: Romberg.

[94] Fraser’s Persia, p. 332. Oliver & Boyd.

[95] Through Persia by Caravan, by Arthur Arnold, vol. ii. p. 322. Tinsley. See also Klemm’s Culturwissenschaft, p. 323: “Man geniesst den Wein vornehmlich gern des Abends,” he says of all Moslems.

[96] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 20.

[97] Ibid., vol. i. p. 283.

[98] Max Müller’s Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i. p. 161.

[99] The Parsees, by Dosabhoy Framjee. Smith, Elder, & Co.

[100] Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, Art. “Wine.”

[101] Scripture Testimony against Intoxicating Wine, by Rev. W. Ritchie, D.D., p. 224, and elsewhere, Houlston & Wright; and “The Basis of Temperance Reform,” by Rev. D. Burns, chap. v., Pitman; and “Bacchus Dethroned,” by F. Powell, chap. vii. Kempster.

[102] Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, Art. “Wine.”

[103] Scripture Testimony against Intoxicating Wine, p. 68.

[104] Scripture Testimony against Intoxicating Wine, p. 65.

[105] Exod. xxix. 40, 41; Lev. xxiii. 13; Judges ix. 12, 13: “Then said the trees unto the vine, Come thou and reign over us. And the vine said unto them, Should I leave my wine, _which cheereth God and man_, and go to be promoted over the trees?”

[106] The Talmud, by H. Polano, pp. 349, 355. F. Warne.

[107] The Mishna, De Sola and Raphael, pp. 7-9. The author has to thank the Rev. M. Joseph of Liverpool for some of these references.

[108] Babylonian Talmud, Treatise _Berachot_, fol. 35 a.

[109] The Mishna, De Sola and Raphael, p. 48.

[110] Lev. x. 9.

[111] Num. vi. 3, 20.

[112] Jer. xxxv. 7.

[113] Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, Art. “Wine;” also note at end of chapter i. of this treatise.

[114] Polano’s Talmud, p. 261; also Isa. xxii. 14.

[115] Gen. xxvii. 28, 37; Deut. vii. 13, xi. 14, xxvii. 51; 2 Chron. xi. 11; Ps. civ. 15; Song of Solomon v. i.; Lam. ii. 12; and Hosea xiv. 7, where wine is named amongst the blessings to be restored to Israel.

[116] Isa. lv. 1.

[117] Polano’s Talmud, p. 247.

[118] Gen. xiv. 18.

[119] Polano’s Talmud, p. 291.

[120] Gen. xviii. 9-20.

[121] Gen. xix. 35.

[122] Prov. xxiii. 29-32.

[123] Isa. v. 11.

[124] Poland’s Talmud, p. 254.

[125] Joel iii. 3.

[126] Luke i. 15; Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 6.

[127] Luke vii. 33, 34.

[128] John ii. 7 _et seq._

[129] Scripture Testimony against Intoxicating Wine, p. 184.

[130] Tim. v. 23.

[131] 1 Tim. iii. 2, 3, 8.

[132] Rom. xiv. 21.

[133] Rom. xiv. 2-4.

[134] Rom. xiii. 13.

[135] 1 Cor. vi. 10. The early Christian fathers, to whose teachings concerning drunkenness we shall refer hereafter, found the vice to prevail almost wherever they went as missionaries, in Africa, Gaul, Britain, and elsewhere, and they denounced it in the most vehement terms.

[136] See the remarks on Inebriate Asylums in our chapter on America.

[137] Gen. xl. 11. This was, however, the unfermented juice of the grape.

[138] Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians, vol. i. p. 4. Murray.

[139] Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians, vol. i. pp. 45, 46, 52, 53.

[140] Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 127. Bohn.

[141] Pliny’s Natural History, vol. iii. p. 247. Bohn. Those who are disposed to study the conflict of evidence further should refer to Bishop H. Browne on Gen. xl. 9, &c., and Wilkinson’s note to Rawlinson’s Herodotus, ii. 77.

[142] Athenæus, vol. i. p. 55. Bohn.

[143] Athenæus, vol. i. p. 56.

[144] Dionysus is considered by some authors to be the same as the Egyptian Osiris. Diodorus, i. 11. Wilkinson’s Egyptians, i. 285.

[145] Smith’s Larger Dictionary of Antiquities, Art. “Dionysia,” by Dr. L. Schmitz.

[146] Buckley’s Odyssey, Book ix. p. 118 _et seq._ Bohn.

[147] Odyssey, p. 292. Circe, too, intoxicates her admirers with “Pramnian wine” (Ibid., Bk. x.) and drunkenness is a constant theme throughout the book.

[148] Bohn’s Athenæus, vol. ii. p. 682.

[149] Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities, Art. “Helotes,” by Philip Smith.

[150] Athenæus, vol. i. p. 229, and vol. ii. p. 731.

[151] Athenæus, vol. i. p. 59.

[152] Athenæus, vol. i. p. 59.

[153] Pliny was born in the north of Italy, A.D. 23. He served as a soldier in Germany, and practised as a special pleader in Rome. He was killed at the age of fifty-six whilst observing an eruption of Vesuvius, for he was an ardent lover of nature. Our extracts and references are found in his “Natural History.” Bohn.

[154] Natural History, vol. iii. pp. 252, 253, _et seq._

[155] About 220 B.C.

[156] Pliny, p. 252. See also the account of the miracle of Cana, John ii. 10.

[157] A measure of about six pints.

[158] Pliny, p. 255.

[159] Pliny, p. 215.

[160] For farther particulars concerning the process of wine-making in Rome, the reader is referred to Smith’s “Dictionary of Antiquities,” Art. “Vinum,” by W. Ramsay, which contains a large amount of useful and interesting information on the subject.

[161] Pliny, vol. iii. p. 218 (Book xiv.).

[162] Ibid., p. 222 _et seq._

[163] The “Kölnische Zeitang,” Friday, November 23, 1877. “Vermischte Nachrichten.” See also “The Chemistry of Wine,” p. 374, by Mulder. Churchill.

[164] Pliny, vol. iii. p. 239.

[165] Pliny, vol. iv. p. 259.

[166] Athenæus, vol. ii. p. 772.

[167] Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities, Art. “Vinum.”

[168] Athenæus, p. 738 _et seq._

[169] Ibid., p. 747.

[170] Petronius (Bohn’s Classical Library); Athenæus, &c.

[171] Athenæus, p. 729.

[172] Petronius, Trimalchio’s Feast.

[173] Originally the skeleton was carried round to remind the feasters of their mortality, and to warn them _not_ to indulge too freely in the pleasures of the table.

[174] In England it was customary in the Middle Ages to pour the wine down the offender’s sleeve. At Haddon Hall there is still an iron clasp fixed against a wall, which was used for the purpose of holding the wrist whilst that operation was performed.

[175] Book iv. cap. 28.

[176] More than two gallons at a draught! It seems an incredible feat.

[177] Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. iii. p. 215. Edinburgh: Strachan, 1782.

[178] Bohn’s Tacitus, vol. ii. p. 312 _et seq._

[179] J. W. Petersen. Geschichte der Deutschen Nationalneigung rum Trunke, p. 7. (History of the German National Tendency to Drink, originally published in Stuttgart, 1782.) Stuttgart: Scheible, 1856.

[180] Klemm’s Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft, vol. ii. p. 326, Leipzig, Romberg, 1856; and Petersen, p. 9.

[181] Readers who are desirous of following the extension of vine-culture in Germany and Europe generally, will find full details in a work by H. von Carlowitz, Leipzig, 1846; and a fair list of all important works on the subject published in past times in Germany is to be found in Klemm, p. 327 _et seq._

[182] All the chief vineyards on the Rhine were planted by the monks. See “Speise und Trank vergangener Zeiten in Deutschland” (Food and Drink in Past Times in Germany), by Dr. A. Schlossar, p. 23. Vienna: A. Hartleben, 1877.

[183] For an account of the preparation of mead, see “Speise und Trank vergangener Zeiten,” &c., p. 24.

[184] “Ut nullus ebrius suam causam in mallo possit conquirere, neo testimonium dicere. Nec placitum comes habeat, nisi jejunus.” See Petersen, Appendix, p. 128. Also Klemm, pp. 342, 343.

[185] “Ut in hoste nemo parem suum, vel quemlibet alium bibere coget, et quicunque in exercitu ebrius inventus fuerit, ita excommunicetur, ut in bibendo sola aqua utatur, quousque se male fecisse cognoscat.” Petersen, p. 128.

[186] “Jus Potandi,” from the original, published in 1616, by “Dr. M. Oberbreyer,” Introduction. Heilbronn: Gebr. Henninger. Whether “Jus Potandi” be a satire, as it probably is, or a serious production, it very faithfully reflects the drinking habits of the time.

[187] Studenten-Lieder des Mittelalters. Heilbronn: Gebr. Henninger.

[188] Jus Potandi, p. xvi., Introduction.

[189] “Das Leipziger gekräuterte, bauchzerreissende Rastrum.”—_Jus Potandi_, clause 8, p. 13. See also, “Speise und Trank vergangener Zeiten in Deutschland,” p. 46, where many other kinds of beer are mentioned.

[190] Jus Potandi, clause 24, p. 31.

[191] Ibid., clause 25, p. 34.

[192] Ibid., clause 48, p. 69. See “Speise und Trank,” &c., p. 38, where the drunkenness of females is referred to.

[193] Ibid., clause 18, p. 22.

[194] Jus Potandi, clause 34, p. 45.

[195] Ibid., clause 15, p. 20.

[196] Ibid., clause 45, p. 64.

[197] Similar codes will hereafter be referred to, of an undoubtedly serious character, as existing in France and England.

[198] Full confirmation of this state of things is given in “Speise und Trank,” &c., pp. 10, 11, 28, 31, 32, and at p. 34, where an account is given of a hundred and ten persons drinking four tuns of beer and one and half ohm of wine at a sitting.

[199] “Saus und Braus” in German is equivalent to “revelry” in English.

[200] The same practice prevailed even amongst women. Speise und Trank, &c., p. 38.

[201] Speise und Trank, &c., pp. 11, 12, 18.

[202] Eckehardus, jun.: De Casibus Monast. St. Galli, cap. ix. p. 41; also Speise und Trank, &c., p. 17, as to monasteries in the Black Forest.

[203] Rabanus Maurus. The Discipline of Drink, by Rev. T. E. Bridgett. Burns & Oates.

[204] _Loc. cit._, p. 141.

[205] As to the luxury and drunkenness of priests, see also “Speise und Trank,” &c., pp. 10, 11, 17.

[206] Speise und Trank, &c., pp. 47, 48. The first coffee-house was opened in Vienna in 1683; in Augsburg, 1713; in Stuttgart, 1712. This part of the subject will be fully treated of in one of the chapters on England.

[207] Petersen, “Concluding remarks.”

[208] The German Working Man. Longmans & Co.

[209] Discipline of Drink, p. 255. All the German Culture Unions are practically temperance societies, although alcoholic drink (chiefly German beer) is freely obtainable in them.

[210] The events which have happened in Berlin whilst this treatise is passing through the press lead the author to add, “without assassination.”

[211] Discipline of Drink, chap. xi.

[212] Homes of Other Days, by Thomas Wright, M.A., F.S.A., p. 294, Trübner & Co.; British Monachism, by T. D. Fosbrooke, p. 47, Nichols & Son and Rivington, 1802.

[213] Homes of Other Days, p. 42.

[214] Discipline of Drink, p. 77.

[215] Harleian, Cottonian, &c.

[216] Homes of Other Days, pp. 45-47. The various instrumentalists of the Anglo-Saxon period are called by the author _hearpere_, the harper; _bymere_, the trumpeter; _pipere_, the piper or flute-player; _fithelere_, the fiddler; and _horn-blawere_, the horn-blower.

[217] Legend of St. Juliana, Homes of Other Days, p. 50.

[218] Discipline of Drink, p. 135.

[219] Ibid., p. 135.

[220] Ibid., p. 136.

[221] Fosbrooke’s British Monachism, vol. i. pp. 16, 17.

[222] Ibid.

[223] Fosbrooke’s British Monachism, vol. i. p. 24.

[224] Homes of Other Days, p. 25.

[225] Homes of Other Days, p. 119.

[226] The reader must remember that noon was the dinner-hour.

[227] Justiciar was equivalent to our Lord Chief-Justice.

[228] Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century, by T. E. Tomlins and J. E. Rokewode. Whittaker.

[229] Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century, p. 27.

[230] Homes of Other Days, p. 94.

[231] Homes of Other Days, p. 288.

[232] Fosbrooke, vol. ii. p. 124.

[233] Discipline of Drink, p. 80.

[234] Fosbrooke, vol. ii. p. 124.

[235] Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century, pp. 30, 31.

[236] Ibid., p. 35.

[237] Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century, p. 44; also Fosbrooke, vol. i. p. 83.

[238] Beer and wine were both made by the monks. In the time of William Rufus there were four brewers, and five servants in the vineyard at Kresham monastery (Fosbrooke, vol. ii. p. 102). A most amusing record for posterity, by the by, of the customs of our day will be the advertisements which appear from time to time in our English papers, of the right of certain monasteries to the sole manufacture of well-known liqueurs—Gin and Gospel!

[239] A Book about the Clergy, by J. C. Jeaffreson, vol. i. p. 354. Hurst & Blackett.

[240] Discipline of Drink, p. 113.

[241] It is but right to say that decrees were from time to time promulgated by the synods and bishops against the practice of holding “ales” in churches, but they seem to have had little effect.

[242] Jeaffreson’s Book about the Clergy, vol. i. p. 356.

[243] Homes of Other Days, p. 368.

[244] Homes of Other Days, p. 427.

[245] Ibid., p. 445.

[246] Homes of Other Days, p. 346.

[247] Ibid., p. 397.

[248] Discipline of Drink, p. 175; see also p. 176 and elsewhere. Also, British Monachism, vol. i. p. 66. For some time after the Reformation some of the poorer English clergy kept taverns. ‘Miscellany Accounts of the Diocese of Carlisle’ (1703-7) by William Nicholson, late Bishop of Carlisle, ed. by R. S. Ferguson. (“Contemporary,” May 1878.)

[249] King Henry IV., Part II. Act ii. sc. 4.

[250] Monastic and Social Life in the Twelfth Century, p. 25.

[251] British Monachism, vol. ii. p. 122.

[252] Homes of Other Days, p. 181; MS. Sloane Museum, No. 2435.

[253] British Monachism, vol. ii. p. 167.

[254] British Monachism, vol. i. p. 121.

[255] Hallam’s Constitutional History of England, vol. i. p. 71. Murray.

[256] British Monachism, vol. i. pp. 138-140.

[257] Ibid., vol ii. p. 19.

[258] British Monachism, vol. ii. pp. 32, 33.

[259] Ibid., pp. 42-47.

[260] Ibid., p. 177.

[261] Jeaffreson’s Book about the Clergy, vol. i. p. 91.

[262] Canons of Œlfric, A.D. 970; Discipline of Drink, p. 150.

[263] Decree of Giles of Bridport, Bishop of Salisbury, A.D. 1256, against “Scot-ales,” _loc. cit._, p. 176.

[264] Synod of Kilkenny, A.D. 1614, _loc. cit._, p. 180.

[265] Nationalneigung zum Trunke, p. 97.

[266] Nugæ Antiquæ, i. 348-350; in Lingard’s History of England, vol. ix. p. 109 n., 2d ed., 1825.

[267] Macaulay’s History of England, vol. i. chap. i, Longmans, 1873; Scott’s Peveril of the Peak; Brooke’s Manners and Customs of the English, Blackwood, &c.

[268] John Evelyn, one of the first Fellows of the Royal Society, A.D. 1620-56, quoted in Doran’s “Table Traits,” p. 458. Bentley.

[269] Kindly given to the author by Sir Sydney Waterlow, Bart., M.P.

[270] From Memoires de l’Angleterre, A.D. 1698, in Homes of Other Days, p. 473.

[271] Doran’s Table Traits, p. 66.

[272] Doran’s “Table Traits,” where a more detailed account is given of the clubs here named, along with many others.

[273] Alphonse Esquiros, “The English at Home.”

[274] Those who are curious to know which of the political and social leaders of the period were drunkards should read Lecky’s “History of England in the Eighteenth Century,” vol. i. chap. iii. pp. 476-482. Longmans & Co., 1878.

[275] Morewood, p. 25.

[276] The Chemistry of Wine, p. viii., by C. J. Mulder. Churchill.

[277] Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, vol. i. p. 42, 6th ed.

[278] Morewood, p. 560.

[279] The table is compiled from Mulder’s “Chemistry of Wine” (Appendix), Bloxam’s “Chemistry,” and the author’s own article on “Beer Scientifically and Socially Considered,” Quarterly Journal of Science, 1870, vol. vii. p. 315, and from other sources.

[280] Rev. Dawson Burns, M.A., Metropolitan Superintendent of the United Kingdom Alliance. From the Journal of the Statistical Society, March 1875, p. 13.

[281] Morewood, p. 560.

[282] Macfarlane and Thomson’s History of England, vol. iii. p. 258; Lecky’s History of England during the Eighteenth Century, pp. 476-482.

[283] It should be mentioned that in 1751 more stringent regulations were enacted, but none that in any degree approached the “Gin Act” in severity.

[284] Fraser’s Life of Berkeley, pp. 332, 333, in Lecky’s History of England.

[285] The Upas Tree in Marybone Lane, by James Smith (1775-1839).

[286] The High Street of Edinburgh, by Sir Alexander Boswell, the oldest son of Johnson’s biographer (1775-1822).

[287] Meaning Welshman.

[288] From an old poem, in the “Discipline of Drink,” p. 84.

[289] A.D. 1678. Ibid., p. 182.

[290] Jeaffreson’s Book about the Clergy, vol. i. p. 91 n.

[291] Lecky’s History of England, vol. ii. p. 93.

[292] A.D. 1698-1762.

[293] The Court of Death. Gay lived 1688-1732.

[294] Lecky’s History of England, p. 476 and notes, where numerous authorities are quoted.

[295] Third Report of the Lords’ Committee, p. 954, Q. 10,116.

[296] For further details as to the sale of alcoholic drinks to females, and reputed drinking practices amongst them, _vide_ First Report of Lords’ Committee on Intemperance, evidence of Captain Palin, Chief Constable of Manchester, p. 166, Q. 1601; also Third Report, evidence of Sir William Gull, M.D., p. 254, Q. 10,116. In the work on “The Uses of Wines in Health and Disease,” p. 8, by Dr. Anstie (Macmillan), the author refers to secret dram-drinking by women; but medical men, like police magistrates, usually have before their eyes the worst side of human nature.

[297] First Report of Lords’ Committee, p. 16, Q. 184.

[298] Third Report, p. 32, Qs. 8311, 8312.

[299] It must be clearly understood that the above remarks are not intended to disparage the evidence that was tendered by Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., who replied to the questions of Lord Aberdare, and whose efforts in the cause of licensing reform merit, in the author’s opinion, greater appreciation than they have received.

[300] First Report, p. 240, Qs. 2416-2418.

[301] Table No. 22, Extract from the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis for the year 1876.

[302] In the same report (1876) the reader will find that Colonel Henderson attributes the additional number of arrests to “the increased activity of the police,” but he believes there has been some increase in drunkenness during the last six years. Of course he can only judge of the class which comes under the notice of the police.

[303] Table laid before the Committee of the House of Lords on Intemperance, by the Head Constable of Liverpool, being a compendium of the facts relating to the subject for twenty-one years.

[304] “Instructions” for 1845, pp. 34, 35; 1867, p. 33; and 1878, p. 42; kindly supplied to the author by the Chief Constable.

[305] Journal of the Statistical Society, March 1875.

[306] P. 7.

[307] Return to a canvass of working men made by sixty-seven of the largest employers of labour in Liverpool, and verified by the President of the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. See also the remarks on the extension of the hours by the present Government.

[308] It may be added, as an expression of opinion, that the Rev. Canon Ellison considers there is a diminution of drunkenness in the agricultural districts. See his evidence before the Lords’ Committee, Third Report, p. 105, Q. 8930. From other evidence, also, the author has satisfied himself that one of the chief objects of the Agricultural Labourers’ Union, like most other trades unions, has been to prevent the payment and expenditure of wages in drink. In many parts of England a considerable proportion of the labourers’ wages is still paid in cider—an infamous system, which ought long since to have been abolished along with other forms of “truck.” The three reports also contain many expressions of opinion, very conflicting, however, on the prevalence of drunkenness amongst miners, quarrymen, &c., which are well worthy of the reader’s perusal.

[309] The English at Home, by Alphonse Esquiros, pp. 271-273. Chapman & Hall.

[310] Whilst writing these pages the author read the following narrative in the “Liverpool Daily Post,” April 25, 1878, which illustrates the condition of the poor in some of the lowest parts of that town:—

“On Tuesday afternoon the attention of a constable was drawn to the not very unusual phenomenon of a drunken man and woman in Johnstone Street. The woman had a child in her arms. It was taken from her, and found to be in a shockingly diseased and neglected state. The constable afterwards visited the ‘home’ of the inebriates. The sole piece of furniture was an old table. In the top room the woman’s father was lying on the bare boards, without a vestige of clothing upon him, and covered only by an old rug. In another part of the house was an aunt, who was much the worse for drink. Around her were three young children. There was not a particle of food in the whole place, and when the children were given some buns to eat, they devoured them savagely. Drunken parents reeling in the street with an unhealthy and neglected baby; a house in a court, with only an old table in it; an old man lying on the bare boards, with simply a rug for clothing or covering; a tipsy aunt, and three hungry, dirty children around her, make up a picture which would be considered unusually terrible if the scene were laid in the hut of a savage, and which is certainly a bitter satire on nineteenth century civilisation. The father and mother were brought up at the Police Court yesterday, and remanded; and the court ordered that the children should be removed forthwith to the workhouse.”

[311] Mr. Carnegie’s evidence before the Lords’ Committee on Intemperance, First Report, p. 262.

[312] Alison’s History of Europe, vol. xv. p. 191, 7th ed. Blackwood.

[313] Morewood, p. 477.

[314] A.D. 1771-92.

[315] History of Europe, vol. xv. p. 191, 7th ed.

[316] First Report of Lords’ Committee, p. 262.

[317] In his first edition (1824) he does not refer to the smaller stills; indeed, his remarks are of no interest. His second edition is dated 1838.

[318] Morewood, p. 480.

[319] Morewood, p. 481.

[320] Rev. Dawson Burns’ paper before Statistical Society, p. 17.

[321] Morewood, p. 481.

[322] Carnegie, _loc. cit._, p. 263.

[323] We shall find precisely the same state of things to exist in certain parts of America.

[324] See the evidence on the “Gothenburg System” in the Report of the Lords’ Committee.

[325] A good deal of information concerning the sale of brandy (Bränvin) in Sweden may be gleaned from the Acts of June 26, 1871 (Stockholm, Norstedt & Söner), and from those of 18th September 1874 and 16th May 1877, for which the author is indebted to Mr. Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg.

[326] The author is indebted for these particulars to Mr. S. P. Wilding (son of a former American Vice-Consul at Liverpool), who has resided many years on the River Plate.

[327] _Macropiper methysticum_: Miquel. See Lindley’s Medical and Economic Botany, p. 133. Bradbury & Evans.

[328] P. 250; also Lindley’s Medical Botany, _loc. cit._

[329] P. 325, and Addenda. This table also appears in the first edition (1824), p. 177.

[330] America, Historical, Statistical and Descriptive, by J. S. Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 304. Fisher.

[331] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 417.

[332] Ibid., vol. iii. p. 36.

[333] Sketches on the Prairies, by Captain A. H. Markham, R.N., in “Good Words,” May 1878.

[334] Liquor Laws of the United States, p. 21. National Temperance Society and Publication House. New York.

[335] Liquor Laws of the United States, p. 43.

[336] New York Herald, 18th April 1878.

[337] New York Herald, 16th April 1878.

[338] The San Francisco weekly “Alta California.” The author has not named any other papers. He has studied whole files of them, in some cases without even finding drunkenness mentioned, and the reader who desires to consider the question carefully can easily do the same.

[339] “Prohibitory Liquor Legislation in the United States,” by Justin M’Carthy, “Fortnightly Review,” August 1871, p. 166. Although a writer on America is here quoted, the author has not trusted to printed testimony in any of these observations upon the drinking habits of the United States. He has verified them from the experience of numerous friends and acquaintances who have travelled and resided in the States, Englishmen, Germans, and Americans themselves.

[340] By some it is affirmed that the middle classes of the United States consume more _spirits_ than the same class in England.

[341] The Americans at Home, vol. ii. p. 306. By D. Macrae. Edinburgh: Edmonston & Douglas.

[342] The Americans at Home, vol. ii. p. 305.

[343] The Americans at Home, p. 307.

[344] Liquor Laws of the United States, p. 15.

[345] Liquor Laws of the United States, p. 20.

[346] Ibid.

[347] Ibid., p. 22.

[348] Liquor Laws of the United States, p. 131. It is right to mention that the publication from which these particulars are taken was issued in 1877, since which time no doubt many changes have taken place in the liquor legislation of the various States, but these the author has been unable to learn from trustworthy sources. The tendency of legislation seems to be towards “local option” or “permissive prohibition.”

[349] Greater Britain, vol. i. p. 202. By C. W. Dilke. Macmillan.

[350] Prohibitory Legislation, &c. “Fortnightly Review,” Aug. 1871, p. 166.

[351] This was, of course, some years after Mr. M’Carthy’s visit.

[352] _Vide_ Third Report of the Lords’ Committee on Intemperance, pp. 211, 212. Evidence of Professor Leone Levi, where the essential part of the Consul’s report is given.

[353] Mr Caine says that he has seen Boston under prohibition with nine hundred drink-sellers deliberately inserting in the Boston Directory their names and addresses _as_ drink-sellers, and a far greater number openly defying the law. He, however, favours “prohibition by local option.”

[354] Reports on the Subject of a License Law, by a Joint Special Committee of the Legislature of Massachusetts. Boston: Wright & Potter, 1867. The author is indebted to the Secretary of State of Massachusetts for this and other valuable printed reports on the subject of the liquor traffic in that State.

[355] Reports on the Subject of a License Law, &c., p. 16.

[356] In his book on the German working man, the author of this treatise said (p. 109), “Beer” (meaning the German beer), “means sobriety; wine and spirits mean intoxication.”

[357] Liquor Laws, p. 26.

[358] Boston: Wright & Potter.

[359] Report of Governor’s Address, p. 54. The circumstances are, however, we hope, different in the two countries, otherwise there is a poor chance for the American bill. According to the Third Report of the Lords’ Committee on Intemperance, p. 195 (Mr. Patterson’s evidence), in Liverpool, the town most in need of temperance reform, the aldermen, who in the U.S.A. decide the question of granting licenses, have in their body, besides a large wine and spirit merchant, two publicans who occupy between them from sixty-four to eighty-four public-houses.

[360] Governor’s Address, p. 57.

[361] Governor’s Address, p. 58.

[362] The Maine Law Vindicated, p. 7.

[363] Prohibitory Legislation, p. 174.

[364] Ibid., p. 176.

[365] Ibid., p. 169.

[366] The Americans at Home, vol. ii. p. 315.

[367] Third Report of the Lords’ Committee on Intemperance, p. 3; Evidence of Rev. R. M. Grier.

[368] The Great Country, by George Rose, M.A. (Arthur Sketchley), Tinsley. A very graphic account of a visit to an inebriate asylum, extracted from the “Atlantic Monthly,” will be found in this work, pp. 385-401.

[369] Alcohol, its Place and Power, pp. 46-109, &c. Glasgow: Scottish Temperance League.

[370] Dr. Anstie’s two works, “Stimulants and Narcotics,” and “The Use of Wines in Health and Disease.” See Also Dr. T. P. Lucas on “The True Action and Physiological Results of Alcohol,” pp. 140, 141 (a strong temperance work); “On Chronic Alcoholic Intoxication,” p. 9, by W. Marcet, M.D., F.R.S. (Churchill); “The Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System,” by Dr. Hammond in “The Psychological and Medico-Legal Journal,” July 1874, New York. The records of discussions amongst guardians of the poor where objection has been made to the use of beer as an article of diet also tend in the same direction. At a recent meeting of the West Derby Board, for example, the medical officers, one of whom is a total abstainer, distinctly expressed their determination to continue administering alcohol as a medicine.

[371] See the Report of the Temperance Hospital, “Daily News,” May 31, 1878.

[372] Richardson’s Researches on Alcohol, p. 6.

[373] Miller’s Alcohol, its Place and Power, p. 92.

[374] Pope’s Homer’s Odyssey, book ix.

[375] Tom Moore.

[376] Anstie, Uses of Wine in Health and Disease, p. 11.

[377] Ibid., p. 40.

[378] Morewood, p. 339.

[379] Rev. D. Burns, to whom the author is indebted for some of these particulars.

[380] Morewood, p. 340.

[381] Ibid., p. 341.

[382] Third Report, p. 25, Q. 8242.

[383] Readers who are desirous of pursuing the question of temperance societies will find a vast amount of information in Graham’s “Temperance Guide.” London: Pitman, &c.

[384] Speech of the Duke of Westminster, Free Trade Hall, Manchester.

[385] The Licensing Act 1872, Section 13.

[386] Report of the Liverpool Police, 1877.

[387] See especially the evidence of Mr. Robinson (Chief Constructor), Second Report p. 117.

INDEX.

A

Abbot Sampson, actions of, 127, 131.

Abbots, vices of, 144.

Aberdare, Lord, on drinking amongst the working classes, 176, 177.

Abstinence total, not recommended by ancient Chinese, 20.
of Buddhist priests, 27, 28.
of Mohammedans, 53.
not universal, 55.
in Koom, in Persia, 55.
of Nazarites during noviciate, 62.
of Rechabites, 63.
of Lacedæmonians, 81.
amongst native Americans in the United States, 222.
of English temperance societies, 241.

Addison, at Button’s club, 156.
on intemperance in his day, 164.

Adulteration, of wine, materials used for, in ancient Rome, 89.
in Germany, 90.
of beer with salt, in England, 249.
of spirits with water, in England, 250.

Agreement to hold ales, 135.

Agromanyus (Ahriman) drunkenness supposed to be the work of, 50.

Alcohol, first obtained by Villeneuve, 159.
table of percentage in various intoxicating drinks, 160.

Ales, agreement to hold, 135.
“bid,” 134, 136.
“bride,” 134.
“church,” 134, 136.
“clerk,” 136.
held in churches, 135.
forbidden to be held in churches, 137.
“help,” 134.
Whitsun and Easter, 134.

Ale-wives of mediæval England, 139.

Alexis, on cabbage as an antidote to drunkenness, 75.

Alison on drunkenness amongst savages, 10.
on former drunkenness in Sweden, 196.

America, South, study of drunken habits in, 201, 202.
United States of, 205-227, (see “United States.”)

Americans, drinking habits of, 205-227.

_Amphoræ_, ancient Roman wine-holders, 88.

Anglo-Norman, politeness, 125.
fabliaux, 126.
wood carvings, 126.
knights, stories of drinking amongst, 126, 127.
drinking, William of Malmesbury on, 128.
ladies, drinking etiquette for, 129.
ecclesiastics, luxury of, 130.

Anglo-Saxon intemperance, 119.
mode of pledging, 120.
feasts, 121.
music, 121.
legends, 122.
women, intemperance amongst, 122.
taverns, 122.
clergy, 122.
monasteries, drinking in, 123.
nunneries, irregularities in, 124.
drinking, William of Malmesbury on, 128.

“Announcement about drunkenness”, the, an ancient Chinese edict,
19-21.

_Annus mirabilis_ of drink, the, (1736), 161.

Anstie, Dr., on dram-drinking amongst women, 173.
on moderate drinking, 238.

Apes, taste for drink in, 2, 3.

_Apothecæ_, Roman apartments for storing wine, 88.

Arch, Joseph, on improved habits of agricultural labourers, 187.

Archbishops, drinking at installations of, 137.

Aristocracy, drinking habits of Roman, 99.
mediæval German, 105-111.
English, of the present day, 171, 172.

Arnold, Arthur, on Mussulman intemperance, 55, 56.

Arrack, of modern India, 43.
Persia, 55.

Aryans, “Soma,” drink and sacrifice of the, 35.
their belief in the drinking propensities of their gods, 35.
drunkenness of their priests, 39.
the laity, “Sura” and other drinks used by, 39.
drunkenness of, 40.

_Asclepias_, a creeper used for making “Soma,” 36.

Asylums, inebriate in the United States, 227.

Athenæus, authorities quoted from, 75 (verses), 82 (verses), 83
(verses), 91, 92, 94 (verses).
Egyptian wines named by, 74.
on Egyptian intemperance, 75.

Atlantic Monthly, the, on inebriate asylums, 227, 228.

B

Bakers, improved drinking habits of, 184.
changes in drinking habits produced by machinery, 184.

Ballot, decrease of drunkenness through the, 173.

Bands of Hope, a remedy for drunkenness, 245.

_Banga_, An ancient Persian drink, 51.

Bangor (Maine), state of the drink question in, 220.

Barley, its early use in making an intoxicating drink, 11, 12.
its early use in making “Sura,” 39.
its use in Egypt, 73, 74.
its use by the ancient Germans, 103.

_Bassia Latifolia_, used in an intoxicating drink of ancient India,
41.

Beer, of ancient Egypt, 74.
of ancient Germans, 103.
various kinds of, in mediæval Germany, 108 and _note_.
Erfurt, praised by Rudolph of Hapsburg, 111.
table of alcoholic strength of, 160.
light, considered a temperance drink by Committee on Maine Law in
Massachusetts, 222.
adulterated with salt in England, 249.

_Bengueh_, a drink of mediæval Persia, 54.

Beni-Hassan, monuments of, 73.