Chapter XI: Part 11

Of the comparative frequency of industrial remains in the terramara deposits, a correct notion will be got from a study of Dr. Coppi's report of the excavations at Gorzano during the year 1875. In this year there were 274 cubic mètres excavated, covering an area of 180 square mètres; and from this mass of _débris_ there were collected 3,051 objects, of which 173 belonged to the upper or Romano-mediæval stratum, which varied from 1 to 1½ mètres in thickness. The rest of the objects, which came from the under strata, and were reckoned prehistoric, are thus classified:--852 industrial objects, 1,544 remains of vertebrate animals, 285 remains of molluscs, 153 vegetable remains.

The 852 industrial remains are again thus assigned:--

_Bronze._--50 objects: viz. eight pins, four axes, 12 daggers, one chisel, two awls, six discs, one spindle-whorl, two fragments of sickles, and 14 diverse bits.

_Bone._--80 objects: viz. 38 needles and pins (of which 23 are entire), nine spatulæ, 17 pointers, three chisels, six teeth, one lamina, five awls, and one handle.

_Horn._--62 objects: viz. seven small wheels, one cylinder, one comb, two arrow-points, 17 spatulæ, 12 pointers, two awls, three ornaments, two picks, four handles, and 17 diverse pieces.

_Stone._--68 objects: viz. two flint knives, two pendants, four spindle-whorls, two discs, four weights, six grinding-stones, one polisher, three flint nodules, four flint flakes, and 30 worked stones.

_Terracotta._--585 objects: viz. 494 spindle-whorls (=Fig. 85=, No. 17), two cylinders, 12 weights, 68 vases, three covers, five percolators, and one small animal figure.

The bones capable of being determined represented the following animals:--15 oxen, 25 sheep or goats, seven stags, eight roes, 30 pigs, two wild boars, 14 dogs or wolves, one cat, eight birds, one tortoise, and 15 toads.

The industrial remains from the upper stratum were as follows:--The central part of a Byzantine crucifix, one lamp, two fibulæ, three rings of bronze, 12 spindle-whorls of terra-cotta (of which four were glazed), one spindle-whorl of amber, one spindle-whorl of glass, two spindle-whorls of talc; of iron there were 20 darts, two lance-heads, eight knives, seven keys, one lock, eight buckles, one horseshoe, one bullock-shoe, and 11 undetermined fragments; five fragments of glass vessels; one sword-handle of wood with bronze mountings; four bronze fragments; 25 pieces of pottery (three with potters mark); a small basin of brick; 52 coins (of which 46 were together); and some slag, etc.

The objects in the upper stratum were mostly associated with the Oratorio di S. Alberto, built about the early part of the seventeenth century, and other mediæval buildings now entirely demolished. It was found to have been built over a still older church, which dated from the third century. A few of the coins were Roman of about the same date, but the largest number dated from the end of the twelfth or commencement of the thirteenth century, and a few were of still later date. There was also a Christian cemetery found containing a number of skeletons.

In 1879 Coppi published (B. 340) an account of further discoveries, and among other objects he describes several stone moulds (10 for pins, five for lance-heads, and seven for daggers), a stone weapon of nephrite, two flint knives, a weight of white marble, etc. Of bronze there are 12 pins, three needles, 20 dagger-blades, five chisels, nine awls, and a small wheel ornamented with _graffiti_, besides a quantity of other objects of horn, bone, pottery, etc.

In 1885 the workmen came upon a grave embedded in the virgin soil underneath the terramara beds, and supposed to be anterior to their formation. It was constructed of small unhewn stones, and the space enclosed measured 5 feet 10½ inches long, 1 foot broad, and 1 foot deep. This grave contained a human skeleton which lay on the right side with the head towards the east, and along with it were found a spatula of staghorn, fragments of fossil shells, and some bits of carbonised vegetable matter. (Crespellani, "Scavi del Modenese," 1886, p. 11.)

A few of the bronze objects from Gorzano are illustrated on =Fig. 85=, Nos. 9, 12 to 14, and 19 to 23.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TERRAMARA SETTLEMENTS.

In the above sketch of the progress of scientific research into the terremare I have selected four typical examples for special description. We have seen that in one, viz. Montale, accumulated _débris_ stood as a clear mound on the surface of the surrounding plain, while that of Gorzano rested on a natural hillock. The Castione deposits also assumed the same form, but in this case the mound was only partially above the plain, the rest being buried in it. The tops of the piles found in its peaty stratum (_terra uliginosa_) were on an average 3 feet below the level of the present surface of the surrounding plain, and the lowest portion of this bed was a couple of feet still lower. In the fourth example, Casale Zaffanella, there was no mound at all visible, but on examination the remains of the settlement were found to be precisely similar to those of the others, only the mound was completely buried, as it were, in a sea of hardened mud.

The explanation of this will be readily perceived when we remember that the amount of submergence respectively shown in these instances is in the inverse ratio to their distance from the lower parts of the plain and its great water channels. The yearly inundations of the Po and its tributaries extend far and wide, each time leaving a film of mud, by the repetition of which, in the course of ages, the surface of the plain has become considerably elevated. Thus, the increase of silt since the terramara settlement of Casale Zaffanella was founded, amounts to 12½ feet--a depth sufficient to cover the highest part of the mound. It is difficult to say how much this levelling up process is accountable for the scarcity of these stations in the lower parts of the Po valley. That they existed, however, in close proximity to the river is amply proved by those stations at Viadana, as well as one or two others, for example, at Brescello, in the Parmensian district, on the south side of the river.

_Distribution._--Formerly the terramara deposits were supposed to be peculiar to the middle reaches of Parma, Reggio, and Modena; but later discoveries have upset this generalisation, as they are now shown to have a much wider distribution, embracing the provinces on both sides of the Po. (See Sketch Map, page 266.)

Dr. Giacometti first (1868) directed attention to the terramara deposits in the province of Mantua, and showed their similarity to those of Emilia. A few miles north-east of the town of Mantua there was found a group of seven or eight stations, regarding one of which, Bigarello, he stated that it contained the same kind of pottery and the same forms of stone implements as that at Castelnuovo in Emilia, the only difference being in the kind of stone used, the one being taken from the _débris_ of the Alps and the other from the Apennines. Among the fragments of pottery he drew particular attention to the variety of handles, which showed all the transitional forms from knobs up to the most elegant _anse lunate_. "Havvene," says he, "_di bicornute_, _di lunate_, _di bitubercolate_, _bilanceolate_, _cincinnate_, _transverse_, _appendiculate_, ecc., quasi tutta in somma, la famiglia designata dal Mortillet ('Les Terramares du Reggianais,' 1865), colla speciale caratteristica di anse lunate."

In 1874 Marinoni gave an interesting account of the prehistoric remains of the district of Seniga in the province of Brescia, especially those of the terremare at Chiavichetto and Gottolengo. (B. 265.) The former, which is the most interesting of a group of seven stations, is situated in the angle formed by the junction of the Mella with the Oglia, nearly 20 miles south of the town of Brescia. In excavating soil for making a dyke the workmen found objects of human industry--scrapers and saws of flint, three hatchets of serpentine, one large stone-adze, various stone rubbers, etc., several fragments of worked horn, and an extraordinary quantity of broken pottery. The further objects discovered here were chiefly of stone, rarely of bronze, and, according to Marinoni, they were very similar to those from the terramara stations of Bigarello and Pomella to the east of Mantua.

The station at Gottolengo, discovered in 1871, is situated five miles to the north of Regona, and on the left bank of the Mella. Before being disturbed it presented the form of a flattish mound, which on examination yielded relics similar to those of the other well-known terremare, of which the following may be mentioned:--

Upwards of 20 arrow-points--pedunculated, triangular, or heart-shaped. Some fragments of polished hatchets of serpentine; spindle-whorls of terra-cotta (=Fig. 86=, No. 17):--one very large, 4¾ inches in diameter (No. 28), was similar to another found at Chiavichetto. Broken bones, portions of deer-horns, some of which · were made into daggers and pointers; two bone combs ornamented with triangular lines and _graffitti_, similar to those from Castione and Noceto. An oval cake or ring of wood like the supports for vases (No. 25). Of bronze there were various tools and implements. Spear-heads with a tang were most common; No. 19 represents one with two rivet-holes, a type which was also represented at Chiavichetto. A double-edged implement still held the rivet which had fixed it to a handle (No. 22). One arrow-point (No. 23) is similar to one found in the terramara station at Campeggine in the province of Parma. Several fragments of pins, wires, spirals, and small plates of bronze. Among iron objects, all of which were much corroded, was a spear-head (No. 24). Portions of greenish vitreous paste.

The following animals were identified among the osseous remains:--stag, ox, goat, sheep, horse, and pig.

Not only as regards the relics but also in internal structure the terramara stations on the north of the Po have been shown to be identical with those on the south side. This we have already seen in the description of Casale Zaffanella. But the point was first established by the indefatigable researches of Chierici, who, in 1881, along with a few other antiquaries, explored the stations at Bellanda and Villa Cappella in the commune of Gazzoldo, about 10 miles west of Mantua. Here all the characteristic features of the terremare--the surrounding dyke, palafitte, and orientation--were clearly established. (B. 372a.)

The best investigated terramara in the Bologna district is that at Castellaccio, about three-quarters of a mile to the south of Imola. (B. 457.) The deposits repose on an isolated elevation on the right bank of the river Santerno, and rising nearly 120 feet above its bed; but on it there are no remains of ancient stone buildings, as the name would seem to imply. The hill is of yellowish sand, belonging to the Upper Pliocene. Scarabelli, who has recently published an illustrated monograph of its peculiarities and the antiquities found on it, states that piles were numerous, though many had disappeared by decomposition, only traces of their holes being then detected. Some of the piles were large, measuring over a foot in diameter, and they were placed irregularly. No less than 26 hearths were met with at different levels, and those on the same level were from 4 to 6½ mètres apart.

The peculiarity of this terramara is that its antiquities would appear to belong to both the Stone and Bronze Ages. The flint implements included about 20 roughly-chipped tools like scrapers, some badly-made arrow-points, and saws resembling those found in the palafittes in the Mincio. Altogether 216 worked flints and about 600 chips and cores were collected. Some polished stone axes, together with four portions of perforated implements.

Among about 120 spindle-whorls of burnt clay there was only one ornamented. There were various implements of staghorn and bone, a few of the former being perforated and apparently used as axe and hammer heads like those from Gorzano. Some perforated shells are also recorded.

The pottery was precisely similar to that usually found on the well-known terramara deposits of Emilia, showing various forms of handles, horn-like projections, perforated knobs, etc.

The total number of bronze articles amounted only to seven pieces, and included a small sickle, a coltello-ascia like that from Bosisio (=Fig. 51=, No. 10), and a small dagger with two rivets--the rest being of an undetermined character. Two objects of _pietra ollare_ (a small spindle-whorl and a dish turned on the wheel) and a bronze buckle were found among the disturbed beds on the surface.

Beyond the valley of the Po no decided remains of palafittes or terremare have come to light, and the obscure indications that have been recorded leave it doubtful whether they are of a prehistoric character.[41] Of these the only one worthy of detailed notice here is the dwelling found near Offida, in the Piceno district (Central Italy), and described by Professor Pigorini. (B. 343b.)

About one and a half miles from Offida, in a small valley surrounded by hills, there was formerly a small lake, which has become drained by the erosion of a stream which falls into the Tresino. Here, covered with 16 feet of sand and _débris_, the Marquis Allevi found a platform 50 yards long, 15 yards wide, and 2 feet thick. Below the platform there was lake-mud, containing fresh-water shells, to the depth of 9½ feet, in which were charcoal, bones of animals, fragments of pottery, and other remains of human occupancy. This platform was constructed of large trunks deprived of their branches and laid horizontally at intervals of about four feet, above which came smaller beams irregularly laid without any order and then a layer of clay and moss. On this platform were found calcined round stones, the bottom of a dish, and some 12 fragments of other vessels, some of fine and some of coarse pottery. One bit had a recurved lip, and another was ornamented with a kind of zig-zag ornamentation in incised lines. There were also about 20 pieces of copper, some of which looked like crucibles.

_Extent._--As to the actual dimensions of the terramara mounds, it is difficult to procure accurate measurements, for several reasons. In many instances they are either built over by modern buildings, or there is nothing to distinguish their _débris_ from the surrounding soil without making extensive excavations. Even when the site is a clearly-defined mound, as at Montale, one estimate may differ from another according as the area of the surrounding dyke is or is not included in the measurements. Generally speaking they are rectangular in form and, according to Chierici, their average superficial area is about seven acres. (B. 311, p. 105.) But their respective areas vary very much, as will be seen from the following stations, in addition to those already given, whose measurements have been accurately ascertained by competent authorities:--

Casaroldo (Parma), 200 by 160 by 3·70 mètres. (B. 297, p. 360.)

Parma, 300 by 28 mètres. (Strobel e Pigorini, Seconda Relazione, p. 149.)

Castiglione di Marano (Modena), 114 by 64, and 3 mètres thick. (B. 422, p. 19.)

Pragatto (Bologna), 200 by 150, and 3 mètres thick. (B. 372, p. 138.)

In his description of Bellanda (Mantua), Chierici observes that the bacino was a rectangle 96 mètres across, giving an area of about two acres, to which he adds "ampiezza ordinaria delle terremare." (B. 372, p. 80.) On the other hand, the two whose measurements have been accurately given by Parazzi, viz. Cogozzo and Casale Zaffanella, show a superficial area of only half this size, a fact which induced Parazzi to observe that the terremare in Viadana seemed to be smaller than those of Emilia and that at Bellanda. (B. 451, p. 4.)

_Number._--The total number of terramara stations in the Po valley is over 100, which are thus (approximately) distributed among the provinces:--Parma, 30; Reggio, 25; Modena, 16; Bologna, 5 or 6; Mantua, about 20; and Brescia, 8.

_Relics._--More trustworthy knowledge of the social conditions and general culture of the terramaricoli is to be derived from a study of the remains of their villages than if they had come within the scope of the earliest written records. The ordinary _débris_ here accumulated, such as the more imperishable portions of food refuse, stray objects, etc., are arranged in chronological sequence like geological strata, the more recent being on the surface, and the oldest at the bottom. Wherever an object of human industry happened to drop there it remained, marking in all time coming its relative place in the duration of the community. The industrial remains show that these people founded their dwellings in the early Bronze Age. The existence of a few flint implements and other objects of the Stone Age is quite in harmony with the usual overlap of the relics of dying customs in the transition period. That the weaving of cloth was largely practised by them is proved by the extraordinary variety and abundance of spindle-whorls and loom-weights. They made ornamental buttons of terra-cotta, horn, and bone; as well as pins, combs, and other objects of the latter materials. Wood was also largely used in the manufacture of a great variety of things, as handles, dishes, spoons, floorings, etc. (B. 328e.) That they worked their implements and ornaments of bronze is proved by the number of foundry objects collected, as bronze slag, stone moulds, etc. (=Fig. 83=, Nos. 14 to 17).

We have already seen that the terramaricoli had an extensive knowledge of the ceramic art. The vessels in daily use were no less varied and elegant in shape than our modern jugs, teapots, cups, bowls, basins, saucers, flower-vases, etc. Some had everted rims and the majority flat bases. The ornamentation consisted of parallel and wavy ridges, knobs (sometimes perforated), triangles, and crosses of incised grooves, circular or semicircular impressions, etc. But most characteristic are the appendages attached to the tops of the handles (=Fig. 84=, Nos. 21 and 22), which were of the most varied and fanciful forms. These remarkable handles are not found on pottery beyond the area circumscribed by the terremare. Nor is the fully-developed _ansa lunata_ found in the lake-dwellings within this area, with the exception of the stations at Peschiera, Mincio and Il Bor, in the south-east corner of Lake Garda. Rudimentary forms of these handles, such as those from the lake-dwellings of Polada (=Fig. 67=, Nos. 13 and 14), Arquà Petrarca and Fimon (=Fig. 66=), are also found in the western district of the Po valley (=Fig. 48=, No. 16). The terremare would, therefore, appear to be somewhat posterior to the earlier lake-dwellings. But, on the other hand, the later lake-dwellings (Peschiera and Mincio) were posterior to the terremare. Not only does the pottery of the palafitte at Peschiera include the characteristic _anse lunate_ (=Fig. 65=, No. 26), but among its bronze relics are examples of almost every object found in the terremare, as razors, pins, sickles, knives, etc.--a fact which will be at once seen from a comparison of their respective objects here illustrated. (Compare =Figs. 63, 64=, and =65=, with =Figs. 83, 84=, and =85=.) Moreover, from this comparison a further inference will be drawn, viz. that the lake-dwelling remains contain various objects which are not found in the terremare, as fibulæ (=Fig. 64=, Nos. 8 and 22 to 25), bracelets (=Fig. 63=, Nos. 31 and 32), one-edged knives (=Fig. 64=, No. 11), torques (=Fig. 63=, Nos. 13, 19), etc., all of which are indisputably of later date than the relics of the terremare proper.

_Organic Remains_.--The principal food of the terramaricoli consisted of the produce derived from agricultural and pastoral farming. An exhaustive analysis of their vegetable remains has not yet been made; but, from the occasional stores of grain, chiefly in a carbonised state, and other provisions met with, they are believed to have been in the habit of eating the following seeds and fruits:--wheat (two varieties), beans, millet, acorns, beech-nuts, apples, pears, sloes, cornel-cherries, brambles, pistachio-nuts (_Staphylea pinnata_), hazel-nuts, and grapes (_Vitis vinifera_). Flax was largely cultivated, and its seeds were supposed to have been used as food, while of course its fibres were converted into thread, ropes, and cloth. Among the vegetal remains from Casale Zaffanella submitted to Professor Oreste Mattirolo in Turin, wheat and both the seeds and wood of the vine were recognised.

As regards the domestic and wild animals on which the terramaricoli subsisted, we are in possession of more definite information, owing to the persevering watchfulness of Professor Strobel. The following is his corrected list down to the year 1883 (B. 410c):--

_Erinaceus europæus_, L. (hedgehog). Gorzano.
_Ursus arctos_ L. (bear). Castellaccio, Gorzano, Campeggine, etc.
_Vulpes vulg._, Brisson (fox). Castellaccio, Gorzano, Montecchio,
Ronchi di Viadana.
_Canis familiaris_, S. (domestic dog).
var. _Spalletti_, Strob. Montecchio, Castione(?),
Cogozzo(?), Casale Zaffanella.
" _palustris_, Rüt. Common.
sub. var. _matris optimæ_. Gorzano, Montale, Montecchio,
Demorta.
_Lupus vulgaris_ (wolf). Castellaccio, Redù.
_Meles vulgaris_ (badger). Montale.
_Martes foina_, L. (polecat). Gorzano.
_Felis catus_, L. (wild-cat). Gorzano(?), Montale(?).
_Sus scrofa_ (_ferus_), L. (wild boar). Widely spread,
but not common.
_Sus palustris_, Rüt. (domestic pig). Common.
_Asinus africanus_, Sans. (ass). Common.
_Equus caballus_ (horse). Widely spread and not rare. The remains
are of two races, one large and the
other small.
_Capreolus vulgaris_ (roe). Less common on the south side of the Po.
_Cervus elaphus_, L. (deer). Common.
_Dama platyceros_, Plinius (fallow deer). Gorzano. Very rare.
_Cervus tarandus_ (reindeer). Gorzano (Coppi).
_Hircus ægagrus_, L., _palustris_ (goat). Widely spread and common.
_Ovis aries_, L. (sheep). Emilia, Mantua, Brescia.
var. _palustris_, Rüt., _capricornis_, Can. Not rare.
" _O. musimom._ Castellaccio.
_Bos primigenius_, Boj., _domesticus_. Emilia, Mantua, and Brescia.
Not common.
_Bos brachyceros_, Rüt. Very common as domestic cattle.
_Lepus timidus_ (hare). Gorzano (Coppi).
_Mus sylvaticus_ (wood-mouse). Castione.
_Hystrix cristata_, L. (porcupine). Portion of a quill of this
animal was found in the socket
of an arrow-head of bronze from
Campeggine.
_Castor fiber_, L. (beaver). Castellaccio, Cogozzo.
_Frugilegus segetem_ (raven). Gorzano (Coppi).
_Gallus domesticus_, L. (domestic fowl). S. Ambrogio, Gorzano,
Bismantova, Castellazzo di
Fontanellato, Parma,
Bozzoletto.
_Ciconia alba_, W. (stork). Montale.
_Ardea cinerea_, L. (heron). S. Ambrogio.
_Anser segetum_ (wild-goose). S. Ambrogio, Possioncella near
Viadana.
_Anas boschas_, L. (duck). Montale, Parma, Cogozzo.
_Emys europæa_, Sch. (tortoise). Gorzano, Montale, S. Ambrogio
(Boni), Campeggine (Chierici),
Casale Zaffanella (Parazzi).
_Bufo_ (a species of toad).
_Esox lucius_, L. (pike). Parma, Casale Zaffanella (Parazzi).

As coming under the category of organic remains I may add that a great variety of shells, both of living and fossil species, are found in the terramara deposits. Many of them are perforated, especially the more ornamental fossil varieties, and were undoubtedly used as ornaments. Some of the flat shells of bivalves give a tingling noise when struck, and are therefore supposed to have been used to produce some kind of musical sound. Land and fresh-water species were also, no doubt, used as food. Coppi in his monograph (vol. ii. p. 100) describes and illustrates a variety of the more striking forms collected in Gorzano; and, in summing up his list, he states that 479 were of marine origin (either recent or fossil), 388 belonged to fresh-water species, and 31 were land shells.

From the existence of the horny cases of various kinds of insects, some living in air and others in water, and their larvæ in various stages of evolution, Pigorini adduces an argument against the supposition that the bacino was kept constantly filled with water. (Strobel, B. 88, p. 18, and 89, p. 36; Pigorini, B. 407, p. 38; Parazzi, B. 451, p. 54.)

The protracted discussion as to whether or not amber has been found in the terremare proper was finally settled by the statement of Pigorini that, in his recent explorations (1877) at Castione, it was found in the lowest stratum. "Ora siamo certi che l'ambra si trovò in Castione sepolta nello strato infimo, e colla certezza che vi fosse penetrata nei giorni in cui lo strato stesso si formava." (B. 407, p. 51.)

As early as 1863 Strobel and Pigorini announced the discovery at Castione of a couple of amber beads, but as their position in the _débris_ had not been determined, no inferences could be drawn from this discovery. In 1871 Coppi found a large one (_fusaiuola_) at Gorzano; and later, another of the same kind. One was also found at Montale, and another at Casinalbo. As these are all the records of amber up to the decided discovery of Pigorini, it is clear that it was a very scarce object among the terramaricoli. The number from Montale, however, now amounts to 16, the largest of which is 1¾ inches in diameter. (B. 279b, 298b, 311a'.)

_Age._--In the spring of 1865 Pigorini explored and described a station in the district of Parma called Fontanellato, which, at the time, he considered to be a terramara containing a fascine structure belonging to the Iron Age. (B. 112.) In the excavations which were conducted here the following different strata were exposed from above downwards:--(1) 2 feet of soil; (2) a bed of alluvial deposits 4 inches thick; (3) a bed of materials similar in colour and composition to those of the ordinary terramara deposits, 1 foot 10 inches thick; (4) a mass of mixed materials 2 feet 7 inches thick, containing roots, branches, leaves, etc., mixed with clay, together with pottery, short piles, charcoal, bones of animals, shells, fruits, seeds, etc.

The objects of special interest collected were fragments of coarse pottery, made, however, on the wheel, and particularly some vessels made of _potstone_; a large stone splinter, showing marks of usage; a bronze ring, and some iron slag.

In 1883 Pigorini recurs to the remains at Fontanellato (B. 408) and explains that, owing to the great progress made in the investigations of the terramara deposits, and the additional light thrown on the subject, he has come to the conclusion that the station at Fontanellato was not a direct continuation of the terramara system which prevailed in the Bronze Age, but a "palafitta barbarica," in which he sees the practical evidence of the incursions, into the Po valley many centuries later, of the northern hordes of barbarians which gave the final _coup_ to the Roman empire. That these people were conversant with such structures there is ample evidence in the analogous remains of terpen in Holland, the burgwälle and lake-dwellings of Germany, the Tószeg and other mounds in Hungary, etc. (B. 410b.)

Nor does the station at Fontanellato stand as an isolated example of these later structures. Chierici found one at Marmirolo, in the district of Reggio.[42] Another is recorded by Cornalia,[43] and Pigorini thinks that several other stations which have been more or less described belong to the same class as those in the Thrasimene district[44] and that at Offida, near Piceno. (B. 343.) With these exceptions, there are no terramara mounds of the Iron Age, and the system is supposed to have flourished in the early Bronze Age and to have fallen completely into desuetude before the commencement of the Iron Age.

FOOTNOTES:

[37] _Atti della Soc. It. di Sc. Nat._, vol. ii. p. 177.

[38] So called by the Congress of Italian Naturalists who met here in 1878, after Virginia Ponti, wife of the proprietor.

[39] _Atti della Soc. It. di Sc. Nat._, vol. ii.

[40] B. 90, and _Giornale dell' Ing. Arch. ed Agri._, an. xii.

[41] Brizio, "La Grotta del Farnè."

[42] _Bul. Palet. It._, 1883, p. 17.

[43] _Atti della Soc. It. di Sc. Nat._, vol. vii.

[44] Brizio, "La Grotta del Farnè," p. 45.

Fourth Lecture.

SPECIAL CHARACTER OF THE REMAINS FOUND AT LA TÈNE AND IN LAKE PALADRU: LACUSTRINE AND MARINE DWELLINGS IN THE LOWER RHINE DISTRICT AND NORTH GERMANY.

LA TÈNE.

The celebrated lacustrine station, La Tène, is situated at the north end of Lake Neuchâtel, just close to the present artificially formed outlet where the land end of its mole or dyke begins. Stretching from this point eastwards there is a gravelly elevation, some 200 yards long by 50 wide, which, before the "Correction des Eaux du Jura," formed a shallow part of the lake, and for this reason it was called among the fishermen La Tène (the shallows). As early as 1858, Col. Schwab discovered this to be the site of a rich repository of antiquities of a totally different character from those found in any of the hitherto explored Pfahlbauten. Subsequently Professor Desor directed his attention to the locality and made a collection of its antiquities, among which he announced some Gallic coins (=Fig. 92=, No. 8) and a sword-sheath ornamented with the forms of three fantastic animals (=Fig. 87=, No. 9). Further discoveries of its remarkable antiquities were made by M. Dardel-Thorens, who for many years, while resident superintendent of the Lunatic Asylum of Préfargier, situated close by, devoted his spare time to the investigation of La Tène. As the relics were associated with numerous piles there appeared to be no doubt among these antiquaries that the station was quite analogous to the ordinary pile-dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages, the only difference being that it represented a later age.

Notwithstanding the facilities for investigation afforded by the lowering of the waters of the lake in 1876, which had the effect of making La Tène dry land, nothing further was done till 1880, when M. E. Vouga, schoolmaster at Marin, interested himself in the matter. One reason for this neglect was the opinion that the whole area had been already so thoroughly examined by previous explorers, that nothing remained to be done. Before, however, describing the discoveries of M. Vouga, it will be necessary to look more minutely at the situation of La Tène and the nature of the substratum in which its antiquities were found.

In making a section through the La Tène elevation there is first encountered a bed of water-worn gravel and sand, varying in thickness from three or four feet to as many yards. This gravel had evidently been thrown up by the action of the waves, and in it there are no antiquities found, with the exception of occasional fragments of Roman pottery and tiles. Beneath this superficial gravel there lies a blackish bed of peat of considerable thickness, below which is the ancient lake sediment. It is on the surface of this intermediate mossy bed, and sometimes buried in it, that the objects characteristic of La Tène are found. From these stratigraphical glimpses of Natures workings it would appear that during prehistoric times the whole low-lying district from Préfargier to the lake of Bienne was a shallow bay, which became ultimately overgrown with marsh plants and peat to the extent of forming the "Gross Moos." Scattered throughout the deposits of this quiet bay, and especially along the waterway to Bienne, are frequently found antiquities belonging to all the three ages of prehistoric times previous to the occupation of the locality by the Romans, remains of whom are, of course, also met with. Professor Desor, and others who have carefully examined the locality from a geological point of view, account for the subsequent overspreading of La Tène as the combined result of two natural causes, viz. first, the elevation of the level of the lake owing to sedimentary deposits or accidental obstruction in the channels through which the surplus water found its escape; and, second, the gradual removal, by the action of the waves, of a protective barrier in the shape of a projecting moraine of sand and gravel, which stretched outwards from Préfargier in the direction of La Sauge, and sheltered La Tène for many ages from the action of the open lake. But whatever the explanation may be, it is certain that a considerable change has taken place since these sedimentary deposits of fine silt were formed, as at the present time the amount of gravel thrown up on the shore of La Tène is so great as to advance the beach at the annual rate of two or three yards; and this occurs notwithstanding that the level of the water, owing to the operations necessitated by the "Correction des Eaux du Jura," is even lower than it was when the neighbouring lake-dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages flourished.

RECENT EXPLORATIONS.--While M. Vouga was one day making excavations near a group of piles, which he considered to have been supports for a bridge, he came upon the foundations of a wooden house, and in the course of clearing it out he made the important discovery that it had been situated on the brink of a deep channel, which had subsequently become filled up with sand and gravel. The most natural explanation was that this channel was an ancient river-bed which, when the house was constructed, formed the outlet of the lake. With this idea paramount in his mind, Vouga determined to trace out its direction and bearings. About 20 yards farther up--_i.e._ in the direction of the lake--he came upon the remains of a second wooden house, with its foundation beams still _in situ_, and two of its containing walls (which had evidently fallen over) lying one over the other. Here the bank of the channel formed a steep descent of 10 feet deep. The floor of this structure was formed of two square-cut beams, each over 16 feet in length and 8 inches in thickness, having a series of closely-set mortised holes for transverse beams. Its breadth was 9 feet 2 inches, and it lay 2½ feet below the surface, and about 7 feet higher than the bottom of the river. The two sides of the building were formed of three beams corresponding in length with that of the flooring, and about 2½ feet apart, and having transverse mountings and a trellis-work of branches. One of these had apparently fallen into the river, as its end reached nearly to the bottom of the channel. Pursuing his investigations still in the direction of the lake, he came upon the remains of a third building, near which were the piles of a second bridge. The space between the two bridges was about 100 yards, and, judging from the position of the piles, this bridge was directed to the same point as the former--probably La Sauge, at the opposite corner of the lake. These bridges were supported on a succession of parallel rows of oak piles 4 to 6 inches in diameter, and placed at intervals of 3 to 20 yards; and each row contained five or six piles, from half a foot to 3 feet apart. About 50 yards above the second bridge a fourth dwelling was encountered, but it appeared to have been already pillaged of its contents. Near this our explorer proceeded to clear a portion of the bed of the river, and lying in the mud and gravel at a depth of 10 feet from the original surface he found a large quantity of antiquities--swords, lances, axes, chains, razors, various wooden implements, fragments of a large vase, the entire wheel and other parts of a chariot, together with the bones of men, horses, and oxen. A fifth building was subsequently discovered between the third and fourth, so that we have here the evidence of a row of five houses situated along the right bank of the ancient river, and all within a distance of 200 yards.

On the left bank of this supposed river only one habitation, opposite No. 1, was discovered, which M. Vouga thought had already been pillaged. It was reported that near this spot several human skeletons had been discovered, one of which had a rope round the neck! Below this the channel becomes deeply buried, and the superficial gravel attains the depth of some ten feet; but, nevertheless, Vouga succeeded in making excavations which decided the chronological sequence of the Roman and Gallic remains. "It was," says he, "in the midst of these gravels that I found the layer containing Roman remains--tiles and fragments of pottery, nails, etc.--at a height of two and a half to three feet above the Gallic objects." (B. 428, p. 13.) These Gallic objects consisted of the well-known fibulæ and other articles characteristic of La Tène, so that superposition clearly indicates the Roman occupation to be posterior to that of its original constructors.

M. Vouga believes that the channel, along the banks of which he found the remains of so many houses, was the right branch of two outlets which at that time existed, and which united lower down to form the Thielle. The left branch was nearer the rising ground towards Epagnier, but it is now covered over with gravel, and has never yet been examined. Some 300 or 400 yards lower down there are some gravel pits, which are occasionally worked for road metal, in which I saw in the summer of 1886 a great many piles, singly and in groups, cropping up through a black peaty deposit underneath the gravel. I mentioned the matter to M. Vouga, and he informed me that the few things found there indicate a Gallo-Roman period.

According to M. Vouga, the site of La Tène station extended from the south bank of the outlet to the small island formed by its two branches before they became united. The upper part of this island, now denuded of its peaty deposits by the action of the waves, forms part of the lake. This denuding process is still going on at the margin of the lake all the way from La Tène to Préfargier. Large masses of the ancient sedimentary deposits, containing piles and relics of the lake-dwellers, become undermined and broken up by the waves, leaving their more solid relics, such as stone hatchets, mixed with the gravel. These are often thrown up on the beach, and in this way many beautiful jade hatchets have been picked up from the sites of the four lake-dwellings now almost entirely disintegrated, which existed along the north shore from La Tène to Préfargier. It is in the gravel at the upper end of La Tène that most of the coins have been collected.

The success attending Vouga's excavations induced M. Borel, on behalf of the Museum of Neuchâtel, to make further excavations along the banks and bed of the ancient river discovered by the former, but without much success. Finally, in 1884, the Cantonal Government having granted to the Historical Society the exclusive right of conducting explorations at La Tène, this society undertook fresh excavations under the management of Messrs. Vouga and W. Wavre. During these researches portions of a gold torque and some gold coins were the principal finds. These coins are valuable inasmuch as they were found _in situ_, and not, as most of the others, among the shifting gravel.

From Keller's description (B. 126) of the earlier discoveries on La Tène it appears that Col. Schwab, on removing some large mortised beams, found many weapons and other antiquities all huddled together. In the light of Vouga's researches it is probable that this spot was a dwelling similar to those I have already described, as we are told that there were three beams of fir wood, from 15 to 20 feet long, lying parallel to each other and a few feet apart. These beams rested on upright piles, and contained a series of triangular holes as if for the tenons of wooden superstructures.

RELICS.--Like the fate of most lacustrine remains, those from La Tène have been widely scattered. Many are deposited in the Cantonal Museums of Bienne, Neuchâtel, and Berne. The Gross collection, being now public property, finds also a temporary lodgment in a room in the Federal Hall in the latter town. A few, including some of the most interesting relics, have been secured for the Museum of Geneva. The largest of the private collections are those of Messrs. Vouga, of Marin, and Dardel-Thorens, of St. Blaise. With the exception of the articles in the possession of the latter gentleman (which are, however, copiously illustrated in _Antiqua_ and the works of Vouga and Gross), I have studied more than once all these collections. As the principal objects have already been more or less described and illustrated in the excellent works of Keller, Desor, Gross, and Vouga, I wish here to acknowledge that in the production of the accompanying illustrations I have made free use of all these publications, either to rectify my own sketches, or (and this more especially) to give me the correct size of the objects--a point which is rather troublesome to attain through a glass case when, as it often happens as regards the smaller museums, authoritative officials may not be at hand to give access to the cases.

Owing to the peaty nature of the matrix in which the relics from La Tène were embedded they are in a remarkably good state of preservation. They consist chiefly of iron implements and weapons, presenting a striking difference not only in material but also in form and style of manufacture from any found in the ordinary lake-dwellings. Articles of bronze are sparingly met with, and they are, with one or two exceptions, very dissimilar to those from the true palafittes of the Bronze Age. In giving a short description of these relics it will be convenient to group them under the following heads:--(1) Arms; (2) Implements and Utensils; (3) Articles of Ornament and Dress; (4) Horse-Trappings and Waggons; (5) Money, and Objects of Amusement, etc.; (6) Osseous Remains.

1. ARMS.--_Swords_ (=Fig. 87=).--The swords from La Tène, which now number considerably over 100, are all made after one characteristic type. They vary in total length from 30 to 38 inches (or even more), of which the handles occupy 4 to 6½ inches. The blade is always double-edged, generally without a defined median ridge, and scarcely tapers in its whole length till within a few inches of the extremity, when it gradually forms a round blunt tip. It is devoid of ornamentation, except in one or two instances where parallel grooves run along the median line, or the surface becomes thickly dotted with small impressions. Others again have small incised figures upon them (No. 15), but these are supposed to be makers' marks--an interpretation which seems to be corroborated from the fact that those bearing such marks are of a superior quality. The handle is separated from the blade by a prominent curved ridge attached to the hilt of the blade, into the concave side of which the end of the scabbard neatly fits. Although all the swords hitherto found at La Tène have this dividing ridge in the form of a graceful curve such as is represented in the illustrations, I may remark that some of the same type from other stations are straight. What now remains of the handle is merely the central tang, over which there was a grip of horn or wood. On this tang were sometimes small transverse plaques for fastening the handle (No. 8); and Vouga figures one with two small circles from a grave of the Iron Age at Bevaix, which I here reproduce (No. 7) on account of its striking similarity to the sword-handles from Lisnacroghera. (See =Fig. 124=, Nos. 1 and 2.)

The sheaths are formed of two plates of iron (rarely bronze), one of which overlaps the other at the margins, where they are riveted together. Sometimes these plates are strengthened by one or more cross ridges, and about the lower third a raised bead begins which runs round the tip. These attachments often assume an ornamental character (Nos. 3, 4, and 5). The upper surface of the sheath is also generally ornamented with a variety of curious designs, in which spiral and recurring scroll patterns play a conspicuous part (Nos. 3, 10, and 11). But perhaps the most remarkable design is that of three fantastic animals (No. 9), which, from their resemblance to the figures on Gallic coins, first led Desor to the conclusion that the weapons had a similar origin. Only three sheaths are known to have been ornamented along their entire length--viz. Nos. 1, 2, and 12. That on No. 12 was repeated three times at regular intervals. The underside of the sheath has always a suspension clasp, which assumes various elegant shapes (Nos. 4, 13, and 14). In one instance the upper sheath-plate was of bronze, and another had both plates of iron, but the surrounding bead was of bronze. No. 6 represents a piece of iron (being one of about a dozen similar pieces found at La Tène), which is supposed to be the rudimentary stage of the sword-blade.

_Lance and Javelin Heads_ (=Fig. 88=).--These weapons are extremely varied in shape and size, as may be seen from a glance at the illustrations. They all have sockets, and the smallness of the bore at once distinguishes them from Roman weapons of the same class. Sometimes the socket is short, while the blade is large and leaf-shaped, and at other times it runs nearly the whole length of the latter. Two nail holes, and sometimes small prominences, are seen at the lower end of the socket, by which the wooden handle was more firmly fastened. In a few instances (No. 12) there is no median ridge, but generally this is a prominent feature extending the whole length of the blade, and sometimes it assumes a triangular form, like that in our modern bayonet (Nos. 3, 4, etc.). Another peculiarity of some of these weapons is the cutting away of segments and semilunar portions, either at the edges (Nos. 1, 3, and 17) or in the body of the blade (Nos. 1 and 2). One fine weapon has an oval blade with a crenated or wavy edge (No. 5).

The butt end of the wooden handle was protected by an iron knob (Nos. 7, 10, 13, and 14), either simply conical or multilateral, above which there was a neat ferule (No. 13).

_Arrow-heads._--It is only in the later excavations that a few arrow-points have come to light. Like the spear-heads, they are all socketed (Nos. 15 and 16).

_Shields, etc._ (=Fig. 89=).--Several objects have been found at La Tène which must be considered as shield-mountings. The umbo was of thin iron, arched in the centre, and attached to the shield by large studs or sometimes small nails (No. 1). The handle was made of a curved iron rod riveted to two rectangular plates of iron attached to the shield (No. 2). Some large handsome plaques of bronze, of a flamboyant character, are supposed to have been ornaments on the face of the shield (Nos. 3 and 4), of which about half a dozen altogether have been found. Besides these there are several discs and other objects of bronze (Nos. 5, 8, 9 to 11, and 21), many of which were probably ornaments for horse-harness, and there are some which Dr. Gross conjectures to have been ornaments for helmets. (B. 446, p. 28.) The curious object of thin bronze represented by No. 20 is also supposed to be an ornament for a helmet.

2. IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS.--_Hatchets_ (=Fig. 90=).--Though comparatively rare, the hatchets are of various kinds (only about twenty have been hitherto found). One form (Nos. 1, 2, and 7) reminds one of the winged celt of the Bronze Age. The former, however, has only two wings, instead of four as in the latter, and its cutting edge is more expanded. Others are like our modern axes and adzes (Nos. 4, 5, and 6). One of this type is made of bronze, but of so diminutive a size as to give rise to the idea that it was a toy (=Fig. 91=, No. 31).

_Chisels and Gouges._--These tools differ only from those of the Bronze Age in being made of iron. They are in considerable numbers (=Fig. 90=, Nos. 33 and 34).

_Hammers._--Only a very few hammers are recorded; they are small, and generally hafted by means of a central hole (No. 22). The almost entire absence of implements from La Tène, required in the forging of iron, is somewhat remarkable, and in striking contrast with the number of foundry materials collected from the palafittes of "_le bel âge du bronze_."

_Saws._--Also sparingly represented. Two found by Vouga had handles, one of horn (No. 25) and the other of wood (No. 24). Another has a solid handle of iron, and terminates at the other end in a curious raised hook (No. 29).

_File._--Only one object of this class (No. 37) is recorded.

_Shears._--Three of these implements are here illustrated (Nos. 15, 16, and 17), from which it will be seen that they are precisely similar to those still used for sheep-shearing. They are elegant in shape, and some even still retain their elasticity. The number collected from La Tène is over a dozen.

_Sickles and Scythes._--The few sickles recorded resemble those of modern times, and some of them had teeth. Scythes, more numerous than the sickles, vary in size from 14 to 20 inches in length, and 1½ to 3 inches in breadth. They were hafted by a crooked tang and a ring, precisely like those still in use (Nos. 30 and 32).

_Knives._--As regards style and ornamentation, the knives of the Iron Age are greatly inferior to those of the preceding age. Their size and special characters are sufficiently shown in the illustrations (Nos. 8 to 12). One, like the saw already noticed, has a peculiar hook at the point (No. 23).

_Razors._--The so-called razors are short, thick, and heavy blades with a rounded cutting edge, and a small prolongation as a handle (Nos. 18, 27, and 28). One of these implements was found adhering by its rust to a pair of shears (Nos. 17 and 18).

_Pruning Hooks._--Under this category I reckon some large cutting implements in the form of a bent knife, similar to that in present use for cutting hedges. The one here figured from La Tène (No. 31) is very similar to those found on some of the palafittes in Lake Constance. (See =Fig. 32=, No. 11.)

_Pincers._--Pincers are of bronze and iron, and vary considerably both in size and form, as may be seen from the illustrations (=Fig. 91=, No. 11 to 14).

_Pots and Dishes._--Of earthenware only a few fragments have come to light, and it is said to be of a totally different kind from that of the true palafittes. It is black and coarse, and shows no evidence of having been made on the wheel; but as to this there appears to be difference of opinion. (B. 428, p. 27, and 446, p. 48.) In addition to this kind, however, there are usually found on the surface of the peaty bed and in the superimposed gravel beds fragments of tiles, pottery, etc., the Roman origin of which cannot be mistaken; but such industrial remains, according to the explorers, are more superficial, and, consequently, posterior to the Gallic remains. (B. 428, p. 27.)

On the other hand, La Tène has furnished several large pots of beaten bronze, with rims and ring-handles of iron (=Fig. 92=, No. 19), some bronze cups (No. 18), a large iron ladle (No. 20), and one or two chains with large hooks, probably pot-hangers (No. 1). The cup here represented was found on the shore in the vicinity of La Tène, but it is supposed to have come from this station.[45]

_Fishing Materials_ (=Fig. 90=).--Among this class of objects are some large spears with two or three prongs (No. 14), fishing-hooks of bronze and iron (Nos. 39 and 40), and some implements like the iron tips of boating gaffs (Nos. 13 and 26).

_Diverse._--Hammer-stones, polishers, and corn-grinders are like those used in the preceding ages.

3. OBJECTS OF ORNAMENT AND DRESS.--As regards the objects coming under this category, if we exclude the fibulæ and torques, which we now know to have been worn by men as well as women, it is noteworthy that those peculiar to female adornment are extremely rare, if not entirely awanting--a fact which strongly supports the theory that this station was a military fort.

_Fibulæ_ (=Fig. 91=).--The number of fibulæ from La Tène now amounts to several hundreds. They are all made on one principle, viz. that of our modern safety-pins. This principle is simply an evolutionary stage of the function of the straight pin, by which the point is bent round so as to meet the top after having subjected the stem to several twists so as to give it elasticity. In the part corresponding to the top of the pin there is a catch for the point when fastened. The ornamentation on the upper part and the number of spiral twists on the stem are so varied that each fibula has a distinct individuality of its own, and no two specimens exactly alike have ever yet been found. Their average size is from two to six inches in length, but sometimes they exceed this, as in one here figured (No. 1), which is 10½ inches in length. They are almost exclusively made of iron (Nos. 1 to 6), the exceptions being one or two of bronze (Nos. 18 and 26), and a small circular-shaped brooch of gold (B. 428, p. 28), which are somewhat analogous to those of the Hallstadt period.

_Pins, Needles, etc._--The ornamental pins are few in number, and generally made of bronze. Of four here figured (Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 36) one has a double stem, and is so similar to some half-dozen found in the Pfahlbauten of the Bronze Age that it is more likely to be a stray object from the latter than a relic of La Tène. Nor is this at all improbable, as we have already seen that there were several of these stations quite in the vicinity of La Tène, the relic-beds of which have become almost entirely disintegrated by the waves.