Chapter XIX: Appendix: II (2)

Let us look through our cards now. I take several
cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is
the word _sweet_. Bring me _sweet_. Is there anything
to answer when I call _sweet_? But you are bringing me
a piece of candy! I didn't say _candy_: I said
_sweet_! And now you have given me sugar! I said
_sweet_. If I say _candy_, _sugar_, then you
understand what I want, what object I am thinking
about, because the words _candy_, _sugar_, stand for
objects. Those words are _nouns_. Now let us look
through the noun cards. Let us read a couple of lines
in our reading books and see whether there are any
nouns there. Tell me, are there any nouns? How are we
to find some nouns? Look around you! Look at yourself,
your clothes, etc.! Name every object that you see!
Every word you thus pronounce will be a noun: Teacher,
clothing, necktie, chair, class, children, books, etc.
Just look at this picture which represents so many
things! The figures represent persons and objects.
Name each of these figures! Every word you pronounce
will be a noun!

VERB: ACTION

Mary, rise from your seat! Walk! Mary has performed a
number of _actions_. She has _risen_. She has
performed the _action_ of rising. She has _walked_.
_Walk_ stands for an action. Now write your name on
the blackboard! _Writing_ is an action. Erase what you
have written. _Erasing_ is an action. When I spoke to
Mary, I performed the action of speaking. (Just as the
noun was taught with objects, here we must have
actions. Objects represented in pictures will be of no
use, since actions cannot be portrayed by pictures.)

The next step will be to suggest a little exercise of
imagination. Look at all these objects! Try to imagine
some action which each might perform! A _class_, for
instance; what actions might a class perform? _Store_:
what actions might take place in a store? Let us now
look through our cards after we have shuffled them.
Next try our reading book. Show me which of the words
are verbs. Give me some words which are verbs
(infinitive).

NOUN

Persons, things (proper and common nouns). Singular,
plural, masculine and feminine. The articles: "Choose
the article that goes with this noun!" etc.

VERB

Present, past, future. I am performing an action now.
Have I performed it before? Did I do it yesterday?
Have I always done it in the past? When I walk now, I
say I _am walking_, I _walk_. When I mean the action
that I performed yesterday, I say: I _was walking_, I
_walked_. The same action performed at different times
is described differently. How strange that is! The
word referring to an object never changes. The beads
are beads to-day. They were beads yesterday.
_Actions_, however, are represented by words which
change according to the time in which they are
performed. To-day I _walk_. Yesterday I _walked_.
To-morrow I _shall walk_. It is always _I_ who do the
walking, _I_ who perform the _action_ of walking; and
I walk always in the same way, putting one foot in
front of the other. The objects you see perform an
action always perform it. Do you see that little bird
which is flying--which is performing the _action_ of
flying? It was flying yesterday. It flew at some time
in the past. To-morrow also, that is, at some _future_
time, if the little bird lives, it will fly and it
will fly always in the same way, beating its wings to
and fro. You see what a strange thing a verb is! It
changes its words according to the _time_ in which the
action is performed. It is different according as it
represents action in _present_ time, or action in
_past_ time, or action in _future_ time. Now, see! I
am going to take out some of my cards and make up a
little sentence:

+-----+ +--------+ +------+ +----+ +-------+
| Now | | George | | eats | | an | | apple |
+-----+ +--------+ +------+ +----+ +-------+

Now I am going to change the word which stands for the
time when the action takes place. In place of the card
_now_ I am going to use this one:

+-----------+
| yesterday |
+-----------+

Is this a good sentence? No! Supposing we change the
time of the verb: _Yesterday George ate an apple_.
This makes good sense. Put these cards back now in the
boxes where they belong.

ADJECTIVE

Every object possesses certain _qualities_. Tell me
what you can about this apple. It is red, it is round,
it is sweet. What qualities can you find in this
chair? It is hard, it is brown, it is wooden. What
about your school-mates, the children? Are they good,
are they pretty, are they polite, are they obedient,
or are they naughty, impolite, disobedient,
disorderly? Let us look through our cards to see
whether we can find words which stand for the
qualities of objects. Supposing we select some from
the drawer of the adjective and some from the drawer
of the noun. Now let us place beside each noun a card
which makes sense with it: here, for instance, I have
_Charles_, _red_, _quadruped_, _transparent_. Does
that mean anything? Well then find me some adjectives
which will go well with _Charles_. Adjectives are
words which stand for qualities of a given object.
They must go well with their noun. Find me some
adjectives which fit well with the noun _dog_. They
must be words which stand for some quality of the dog.
Now put all the cards back in the compartments where
they belong. (This latter exercise is very
instructive.)

In this method of teaching grammar we make use of
objects and actions directly relating to life. Such
lessons may be made more attractive with story
telling, etc. The teaching of grammar at this period
should be extended as far as is possible without
forcing the pupil.

OBJECT LESSONS

There should be concise and vivid descriptions of some
object. The attention of the child should be sustained
by changing the tone of voice, by exclamations
calculated to excite the child's curiosity, by praise,
etc. Never begin with the _word_, but always with the
_object_. All the notions possessed by the child
should be as far as practicable in a given case
applied to his study of the object. First it should be
described as to its qualities; next as to its uses,
then as to its origin; for example, Here is an
_object_! What color is it? What is its shape? Feel of
it! Taste of it! etc. If possible, have the child
_see_ the use of the object and its origin in every
possible way. Just as the concrete idea of the object
is imparted by verbal description and by various
appeals to the senses of the child, so the different
uses of the object should be brought out in
_describing actions_ which the child _sees_ performed
with it before him. This, of course, is an ideal which
the teacher should try to realize as far as possible.
The object should be shown the child in different
circumstances and under different aspects so as to
give it always the appearance of something new and
something to excite and hold the attention of the
child. Take, for instance, a lesson on the word _hen_.
Show a paper model of the hen, the live hen in the
courtyard, the stereopticon slide of the hen; the
print of the hen in the reading book; the hen alive
among other domestic fowls; pictures of the hen among
pictures of other birds, etc. Each new step should be
taken on a different day and each time the word should
be connected with the object. Write the word on the
blackboard; make up the printed card for the card file
and put it in its proper box. "Who wants to take the
blackboard out-doors? We are going to write some words
in the yard. Now in your reading books there is the
figure of the hen. Next to it is the word _hen_. Write
this word in your copy books. Who can repeat what we
have said about the hen? Write down what you know
about the hen." The amount of information given about
a particular object will depend, of course, upon the
class. The simplest description should be followed by
one more minute, passing thus to speak of uses,
habits, origin, etc. The writing of a simple word may
be developed into a written description. But the
lessons on the given object should always be short,
and they should be repeated on different days. For the
lessons on trees, plants, and vegetables, a garden is
necessary: the children should see the seeds planted,
a growing vegetable, a picture of the fruit, etc. If
possible the domestic use of the garden products
should be demonstrated. This applies also to flowers.
The blackboard with crayon should never be lacking in
the garden. For object lessons we need toys to
represent furniture, dishes, various objects used in
the home, tools of different trades, rooms and the
furniture that goes in each, houses, trees, a church
(to build villages), etc.; dolls equipped with all the
necessaries for dressing. There should be a shelf for
bottles containing specimens of different drinks;
various kinds of cloths (for tactile exercises); the
raw materials out of which they are made,
demonstrations of the way they are manufactured, etc.
Show also specimens of the various minerals, etc.

HISTORY

History is taught first on a little stage with living
tableaux, gradually advancing to action; second, by
descriptions of large illustrations and colored
pictures; third, by story-telling based on
stereopticon views. The teacher should strive for
brevity, conciseness, and vivacity in descriptions.
Historical story telling should, as in the case of all
other lessons, bring about additions of printed cards
to the word boxes. Various information of the seasons,
months of the year, etc., should be imparted by
illustrations and pictures. Every morning the child
should be asked: "What day is it? What day was
yesterday? What day will to-morrow be?" and "What day
of the month is it?"

GEOGRAPHY

1. Exercises on the plane for the cardinal points,
with various gymnastic and guessing games. 2. Building
games out of doors. Make a lake, an island, a
peninsula, a river. 3. Carry the houses and church
into the yard and construct a small village. Put the
church on the north; the schoolhouse on the east; the
mountain on the west; in front of the school place the
national flag. 4. In the classroom fit out a room with
its proper furniture to be placed on a map of the room
outlined on a large chart. As the furniture is
removed, make a mark on the map to indicate where each
article was. Make a little village in the same way,
houses, church, etc. Take away the church, etc.; mark
the place of each object on the map as it is removed.
Then identify each spot. "Where was the church?" "What
was over here?" etc. Thus we get a conception of the
geographical map. Read the map, making use of the
cardinal points. 5. Physical characteristics of
regions may be shown by clay modeling to represent
hills, etc. Draw outlines around each model, remove
the clay and read the _geographical map_ resulting.

ARITHMETIC

The children are to count: 1 nose; 1 mouth; 1, 2
hands; 1, 2 feet; 1, 2, 3, 4 points in the insets; 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 soldiers on the plane. How many blocks
did they use in the building? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9. Thus for the elementary steps in counting.

COMPUTATION

Computation should be taught practically in the store
from the very beginning. The shopkeeper sells 1 cherry
for 1c. The children have 2c and get two cherries.
Next they get two nuts for 1c. Place 1c on the counter
and place 2 nuts beside it. Then count all the nuts
and there are 2 for 1c, etc. The child must give him
1c in change (2 + 2 = 4; 2 - 1 = 1). In money changing
it will be observed that at first some children
recognize the coins more easily by touch than by sight
(motor types).

WRITTEN NUMBERS

Charts with the nine numbers: one for each number.
Each chart has picture representing quantities of the
most varied objects arranged around the number, which
is indicated by a large design on the chart. For
instance: on the _1_ card there is one cherry, one
dog, one ball, etc. Yesterday the shopkeeper sold one
cherry for 1c. Is the cherry here? Yes, there is the
cherry! And what is this? _One_ church! And this?
_One_ cent! etc. What is this figure here? It is the
number _one_. Now bring out the wooden figure: What is
this? Number _one_! Put it on the figure on the chart!
It is _one_.

Now take the charts to the store. Who has 1c? Who has
2c? etc. Let us look for the number among the charts.
The shopkeeper is selling three peas for 1c. Let us
look for number _3_ among the charts! Numbers should
be taught in the afternoon lesson in the store. The
designs representing the figures should be shown the
following morning. Next time the charts with the
figures previously taught should be taken to the shop
to be recognized again. Other numbers are brought out
in the new computations. The figures for the new
numbers then taught in the store should be shown the
following day, etc. To make the store interesting, the
topic lesson on the objects offered for sale should be
frequently repeated. The child should be taught to buy
only perfect objects, so that on receiving them he may
examine them carefully, observing them in all their
parts. He should give them back if they are not
perfect or if mistakes are made by the shopkeeper in
giving them out. For instance: A spoiled apple should
not be accepted. "I refuse to buy it!" Beans should
not be accepted for peas. Again the child refuses to
buy them. He must pay only when he is sure he has been
served properly (exercise in practical life).

The storekeeper will make mistakes: first, in _kinds_
of objects, to sharpen the observation of _qualities_
by the children who purchase; second, in the _number_
of objects given, to accustom the child to purchasing
proper _quantities_.

ODD AND EVEN NUMBERS

Even numbers are red. Odd numbers are blue. There are:
movable figures in wood; red and blue cubes in numbers
corresponding to the figures on them; finally, charts
with numbers drawn in color. Under each design are
small red and blue squares arranged in such a way as
to emphasize the divisibility of _even_ numbers by 2
and similarly the indivisibility by 2 of _odd_
numbers. In the latter case one square is always left
by itself in the center.

1 2 3 4 5 6
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - -
- - -

The child places the movable numbers and the cubes on
the figures on the charts. The teacher then makes two
equal rows of cubes to correspond to the even numbers
(red). The division is easy! But try to separate the
odd numbers (blue). It is not possible! A block is
always left in the middle! The child takes the figures
and the blocks and arranges them on his table,
imitating the design on the chart. He tries to make
two equal rows of cubes for the even numbers. He
succeeds. He does not succeed in doing so with the odd
numbers. The numbers which can be divided thus are
_even_; those which cannot be so divided are _odd_.

_Number boxes_: On these boxes are designed red and
blue figures identical with those on the charts. The
child puts into each box the number of cubes called
for by the figure on the box. This exercise follows
immediately the work on odd and even numbers described
above. As the child transfers each series of cubes
from his table to the boxes, he pronounces the number
and adds _odd_ or _even_.

_Exercises in attention and memory_: A chart of odd
and even numbers in colors is placed on the teacher's
desk in view of all the children. The red and blue
cubes are piled on the teacher's desk. The teacher
passes the wooden figures to the children and tells
them to examine them. Immediately afterwards the
children leave their seats, go to the teacher's desk,
and get the numbers which correspond to their own
figures. On going back to their places they fit the
cubes under the corresponding figure in the
arrangement just learned. The teacher is to observe

1. Whether the child has remembered the color of his
figure (frequently a child with a red number takes the
blue cubes).

2. Whether he has remembered his _number_.

3. Whether he remembers the proper arrangement.

4. Whether the child remembers that the chart from
which he _can copy_ is before him on the stand and
whether he thinks of looking at it.

When mistakes are made, the teacher has the child
correct himself by calling his attention to the chart.

COUNTING BY TENS

(_For more advanced classes_)

In the store ten objects are sold for one cent, e.g.:

(10 beans), one cent for each _ten_.

One ten = ten, 10.

Two tens = twenty, 20.

Three tens = thirty, 30, etc.

From forty on (in English from sixty on) the numbers
are more easily learned because their names are like
simple numbers with the ending -_ty_ (Italian
-_anta_).

Charts should be prepared (rectangular in shape) on
which nine tens appear arranged one under the other;
then nine cards where each ten is repeated nine times
in a column; finally, numerous cards with the unit
figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to be fitted on the
zeros on the cards where the tens are repeated nine
times.

10--10--20
20--10--20
30--10--20
40--10--20
50--10--20
60--10--20
70--10--20
80--10--20
90--10--20

Some difficulty will be experienced with the tens
where the names do not correspond to the simple
numbers: 11, 12, 13, etc. The other tens, however,
will be very easy. When a little child is able to
count to 20, he can go on to 100 without difficulty.
The next step is to superimpose the little cards on
the first chart of the tens series, having the
resultant numbers read aloud.

_Problems_: Problems are, at first, simple memory
exercises for the children. In fact the problems are
solved practically in the store in the form of a game;
buying, lending, sharing with their schoolmates,
taking a part of what is bought and giving it to some
other child, etc. The store exercises should be
repeated in the form of a problem on the following
morning. The children have simply to remember what
happened and reproduce it in writing. _Problems are
next developed contemporaneously_ with the various
arithmetical operations and computations (addition,
multiplication, etc.). The teacher explains the
operations starting with the problem, which becomes
for the children a very amusing game. The problem,
finally, becomes an imaginative exercise: "Suppose you
are going to the store to buy," etc., etc. We can
ultimately arrive at real problems that require
reasoning. In the store the teacher illustrates the
various operations on the blackboard, using simple
marks at first: "You have bought 2c worth of beans, at
three for a cent. Let us write that down: III--III.
Then let us count. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are six.
Well, then, 3 + 3(III III) = 6. We can also say: 2
groups of III equals 6; twice, three, six; two times
three, six; 2 × 3 = 6. How much is 3 + 3? How much is
2 × 3? How much is 3 × 2?"

The following morning, when the written problem is
given, the child should have before him for reference
the computation charts with all the combinations
possible.

The transition to mental computation will come after
this and not before.

SAMPLE CARDS

(Addition)

1 + 1 = 2 2 + 1 = 3 3 + 1 = 4
1 + 2 = 3 2 + 2 = 4 3 + 2 = 5
1 + 3 = 4 2 + 3 = 5 3 + 3 = 6
1 + 4 = 5 2 + 4 = 6 3 + 4 = 7

(Multiplication)

1 × 1 = 1 2 × 1 = 2 3 × 1 = 3
1 × 2 = 2 2 × 2 = 4 3 × 2 = 6
1 × 3 = 3 2 × 3 = 6 3 × 3 = 9

Subtraction in the same way. The development of these
various operations followed logically on the practical
exercise in the store, where multiplication proved to
be a product of sums, division, a process of
successive subtractions.

In our classes we have arithmetic lessons every day.
The afternoon practice in the store prepares for the
theoretical lesson of the following morning.
Accordingly, on the day when the practical exercise
occurs, there is no theoretical lesson and vice versa.

The decimal metric system applied to weights, measures
and coinage is taught in the same way. The store
should be equipped with scales, weights, dry and
liquid measures, etc. All kinds of coins should be
available, including bills up to $20 (100 francs).
Work in the store should continue to be not only a
help toward arithmetical computation but also toward
the preparation for practical life. For instance, when
cloth is sold, some attention should be given to its
actual market value; its qualities should be
emphasized by feeling, etc.; and the child should be
taught to observe whether the storekeeper has given
him the right amount and the right quality. Money
changing should be made ready and easy. The money
which the children spend at the store should be earned
by them as a reward for their application to study and
their good behavior.

GENERAL RULES

To attract the attention of defective children strong
sensory stimulants are necessary. The lessons,
therefore, should be eminently practical. Every lesson
should begin with the presentation of the object to be
illustrated by the teacher in a few words distinctly
pronounced with continual modulations of the voice and
accompanied by vivid imitative expression. The lessons
should be made as attractive as possible and, as far
as practicable, presented under the form of games, so
as to arouse the curiosity of the child: guessing
games, blindman's buff, store-keeping, the sleep
walker, the blind store-keeper, etc. But however
amusing the game may be, the lesson should always be
stopped while the child is still willing to continue.
His attention, which is easily fatigued, should never
be exhausted. To fix ideas, lessons should be
repeated many times. Each time, however, the same
objects should be presented under different forms and
in a different environment, so that it will always be
interesting by appearing as something new:
story-telling, living tableaux, large illustrations;
colored pictures; stereopticon views, etc. In case
individual teaching is necessary, as happens in the
most elementary classes, care should be exercised to
keep all the other children busy with different toys:
insets, lacing-and-buttoning-frames, hooks and eyes,
etc. When children refuse to take part in their
lessons it is better not to use coercion, but to aim
at obtaining obedience indirectly through the child's
imitation of his schoolmates. Glowing praise of the
pupils who are showing good will in their work almost
always brings the recalcitrants to time. When a child
shows he has understood the point under discussion, it
is better not to ask for a repetition. His attention
is easily fatigued, and the second time he may say
badly what at first he gave successfully; and the
failure may discourage him. It is well to be satisfied
with the first good answer, bestow such praise as will
afford the child a pleasant memory of what he has been
doing; and go back to the subject on the following
day, or, at the earliest, several hours later.

In manual training, however, the situation is
different. The lesson in this subject can be a whole
hour long and should take the form of serious work and
not of play. The child should be set early at some
useful task, even if a little hard work, not
unattended with risk, be involved (wood-cutting,
boring, etc.). From the outset, thus, the child will
become familiar with the difficulties of bread-winning
effort and will learn to overcome them.

Interest in work may be stimulated by appropriate
rewards. The child may earn during work-hours the
money for his purchases at the store, for his tickets
to the theater and the stereopticon lecture. The child
who does not work may be kept away from the more
attractive lessons, such as dancing and music, which
come immediately after the work hour. As a matter of
fact, these children take to manual training very
readily, provided the tasks assigned are adapted to
the natural inclinations of the individual child in
such a way that he may take in his work the greatest
possible satisfaction and thus by natural bent attain
a skill useful to himself and society.

MORAL EDUCATION

By the expression "moral education" we mean an
education which tends to make a social being of an
individual who is by nature extra- or anti-social. It
presents two aspects which may be paralleled with the
education thus far treated and which we call
"intellectual education."

In this latter training of the mind, we began by an
appropriate hygienic cure of all those physical
defects which could stand in the way of successful
mental education. In moral education, likewise, we try
to eliminate such defects as arise from some passing
physical ailment. We should carefully consider the
apparently causeless "naughtiness" of children, to see
whether it may not be due to some intestinal
disturbance, or to the early stages of some infectious
disease. The symptoms of such diseases should be known
to the teacher. I have been told that English mothers
use the empirical method of administering purgatives
or cold shower baths to "naughty children," often with
good correctional effect. I suggest that such
empiricism is hardly prudent where science is able to
prescribe much safer and more efficacious methods.
Child hygiene must be well known to the educator and
should be the pivotal point of every educational
system.

In mental education, we began by reducing the child to
_tonic quiescence_; here we must begin by reducing the
child to _obedience_.

In mental education, to give the child his first
notions of his physical person (personal imitation:
touching of the parts of the body) and of his
relations to environment (personal imitation: moving
of objects, etc.) we had recourse to _imitation_;
here, to instil in the child elementary notions of his
duties, we must throw around the child an atmosphere
morally correct, an environment in which, after
attaining obedience, he can _imitate_ persons who act
properly.

In mental education we went on to the training of the
senses; here we pass to the education of _feelings_.
Our next step, in the one case, was to the education
proper of the mind; here it is to the training of the
will.

The parallel is perfect:

hygienic training: hygiene;
_tonic quiescence_: obedience;
imitation: imitation (environment);
sensory education: education of the feelings (sensibilities);
mental education proper: education of the will.

OBEDIENCE

In a command the will of the teacher is imposed upon
the defective child who is lacking in will. The will
of the teacher is substituted for the child's will in
impelling to action or inhibiting the child's
impulses. From the very first the child must feel this
will, which is imposed upon him and is irrevocably
destined to overcome him. The child must understand
that against this will he cannot offer any resistance.
The teacher's command must be obeyed at whatever cost,
even if coercive measures must be resorted to. No
consideration should ever lead the teacher to desist
from enforcing her command. The child _must_ submit
and obey. The teacher accordingly, should be careful
at first to command the child to move; since, if
necessary she can _force_ him to move. She may command
the child to stand motionless because, if necessary,
she can tie him or put him in a straight-jacket. She
should never, on the other hand, command the child to
"beg pardon," because the child may refuse, and in the
face of this refusal the teacher may find herself
helpless and lose her authority. To acquire authority
in command, the teacher must possess a considerable
power of suggestion; and this she can partially
acquire. The teacher should be physically attractive,
of an "imposing personality." She should have a clear
musical voice, and some power of facial expression and
gesture. These things may be in large part acquired by
actual study of declamation and imitation, subjects in
which the perfect teacher should be proficient. The
artistic study of _command_, which the teacher may
undertake, presents itself under three aspects: voice
study, gesture, facial expression.

_Voice and speech:_ The voice should be clear and
musical, word articulation perfect. Any defect in
pronunciation should effectually bar a teacher from
the education of defective children. On days when the
teacher has a cold and her voice is likely to assume
false or ridiculous intonations, she should not think
of correcting or _commanding_ a defective child. The
teacher's voice must be impressive and suggestive to
the child. If shouting and declamatory tirades have
gone out of fashion in the education of normal
children, they may serve very well in the education of
defectives. Whereas, in the mental education of these
unfortunates, we are to pronounce a few words, but
very distinctly, here there is no objection to a
veritable flood of speech, provided such lectures be
free from monotony, the voice passing from tones of
reproof to tones of sorrow, pathos, tenderness, etc. A
few words are to receive special emphasis--those which
we intend shall convey to the child what we wish him
to understand. The rest of all we say will constitute
for the child merely modulated, musical or painful
sound. It is in the music of the human voice that the
elements of the education of the feelings reside;
whether in the prohibition against doing something
wrong, we introduce the corrective command, or, in the
order to perform some action, we include
encouragement, menace, or promise of reward.

Often the command is very simple. When the child is
told to do something, he does not refuse. Nevertheless
he is not easily persuaded. He must try to understand,
first of all, what we want of him. The technique of
such a simple command falls into two parts. We may
call the first _incitement_, and the second
_explanation_. The whole command should be repeated
several times with varied intonations and with stress
on different words until each word in its order has
been emphasized. "James, put that book on the table."
In the first instance the command will be _incitive_
in character, calling the attention of the child to
the action and urging him to perform it. Here the
accent should fall on the name of the child and on the
imperative. The tone should be that of absolute
command. "_James_, _put_ that book on the table." As
we pass from the command to the explanation, the tone
should be changed and somewhat softened. The first
word should be clear and impelling, followed by slow,
insistent words--"James, put _that book_ on the
table": "James, put that book on the _table_": "James,
put that book _on_ the table." Thus the voice both in
commanding and in describing what was commanded, while
urging the child to perform the required action and
guiding him to do it, was also affording us help in
its suggestive power and by explanation.

_Gesture:_ The teacher must study particularly
expressive gesture. She must always accompany what she
says with gestures serving both to impel the child to
actions and which suggest imitation and explain the
command. Gestures should be expressive enough to be
readily intelligible even without words; for example,
if it is desirable to bring the child to perfect
quiescence, as the command is given, the teacher
should stop, become almost rigid, looking sharply at
the child in such a way that he may be impressed by
that rigid fixity which he sees before him and be
brought by suggesting to imitate it. Then to keep the
child motionless, the teacher may attract his
attention by a slight almost continuous hypnotizing
sort of whistle. To excite an apathetic child to
movement the teacher should herself move, accompanying
the stress of her voice with motion in her whole body.

In the _simple command_, arm gesture only should be
used and as follows:

For _Incitement_: rapid movement in straight line.

For _Explanation_: slow movement in curve.

Command of _quiescence_: gesture up and down, from
without toward the body.

Command of _movement_: gesture from down, up, from
within, out from the body.

_Facial expression and gaze_: The gaze has a powerful
effect on the child. It is the same gaze which
impressed the child and brought him to the first steps
in his education (see our chapter on the _Education of
the Gaze_). All the expressions of the eye are useful
provided the teacher employs them properly. It is not
a question of scowling at the child to frighten him,
as might be supposed; but rather of bringing the eye
as well as the whole face to express all those
emotions which the teacher must herself actually feel
in the presence of an obedient or rebellious, a
patient or angry child; and of giving to this
expression such clearness that the child cannot
possibly be mistaken as to its meaning (Séguin, page
679). The teacher's face must be expressive, mobile,
hence in harmonious relationship with what is to be
expressed (calmness, gaiety, effort). The expression
must never vary momentarily on account of any
extraneous diversion which may occur; otherwise the
children will soon learn to provoke such distractions
of the teacher's attention. Such commands, which
demand on the teacher's part so much artistic study,
will, of course, not be necessary during the whole
period of the child's education.

THE END

* * * * *

Transcriber's Notes:

Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Varied hyphenation was retained.

Page 29, the translations for "il lavoratore" and "l'italiano" were reversed. This was corrected.

Page 29, order of feminine column of list from "la santa" down were out of order. The original read:

il santo la tagliatrice the saint
il tagliatore la donna the cutter
l'uomo la vecchia the man
il vecchio la visitatrice the old man
il visitatore la zia the visitor
lo zio la santa the uncle

This was repaired.

Page 30, "visitor" changed to "visitors" ("le visitatrici the visitors)

Page 78, "vincino" changed to "vicino" (vicino a, accosto a)

Page 90, "ziz-zag" changed to "zig-zag" (straight, zig-zag)

Page 93, repeated word "a" deleted. Original read (into a a new kind of activity)

Page 122, "oihmè" changed to "ohimè" (ahi! ohi! ohimè!)

Page 156, "casual" changed to "causal" (causal clause)

Page 198, "promesai" changed to "promessi" (I promessi sposi)

Page 231, "discription" changed to "description" (Although this description may)

Page 277, "demonator" changed to "denominator" (by the denominator)

Page 366, song, "Bethleem" changed to "Bethlehem" (Puer natus Bethlehem)

Page 378, "passe" changed to "passa" (qualcuno passa e parla)

Page 386, "spunta" changed to "spúnta" (Quinci sp=ú=nta per l'=á=ria)

Page 394, the symbols used were "U" and "--" in the tables as the figures used were not available. Starting with this table, the original puts an acute accent above the "--".

Page 403, "In" changed to "Ín" (=Í=n there st=é=pped)

Page 437, "processs" changed to "process" (in the process of distinguishing)