Chapter VIII: Part I: Grammar (4)

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_Animal sounds_: gnau! chicchirichì! coccodè! cra cra
cra! uè uè uè! glu glu glu! pi pi pi! cri cri! fron
fron! bu bu!

_Curses_: accidenti! accidempoli! perbacco! canchero!
malanaggia!

ENGLISH INTERJECTIONS:

_Pain_: oh! alas! ah! ouch! my!

_Joy_: oh! ah! oh my! good! splendid!

_Surprise_: ha! aha! oh! really! you don't say!
indeed! well, well! upon my word!

_Contempt_: fudge! pshaw! fie! nonsense! bother!

_Hesitation_: hum!

_Resolution_: by Jove!

_Silence_: hush! hist! listen! shh!

_To animals_: whoa! gee! haw! geddap! kitty-kitty!
puss-puss!

_Onomatapoetic_: ding-dong! bang! whiz! bing! crack!
snap! etc., etc.

(In general the use of interjections, especially of capricious character, is much more characteristic of the best Italian writing and speech than it is of English.)

XII

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

SIMPLE SENTENCES

The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls of fairly stiff paper, on which are printed simple, compound and complex sentences, in carefully prepared series.

There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rectangular spaces, with the name of one sentence element printed in each space. The sentence read on the roll can be torn off part by part, and each of these parts is placed in one of the rectangles, according to the name printed on it. This is another application of the compartment box method used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds which go to make up the word, finally the words as parts of speech. Here, the compartments are reduced to a simple design.

The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and are artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of four different kinds as regards ornament and color, for such details exert a considerable influence upon the work of the children. On the following page is a sample of the charts with its "sections."

CHART A

The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are somewhat larger and are more conspicuously decorated than the other rectangles below. The words _subject_ and _verb_ are printed entirely in large capitals. The other spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the principal from the secondary elements in the sentences. The names of the parts of speech, and the questions which bring out the meaning of these names, are in different colors: for instance, the names may be black and the questions red, or the names may be in red and the questions in green. And the letters of the questions are larger than the letters of the names, except in the two upper spaces, where the words _subject_ and _verb_ are in the largest type.

The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he begins to _concentrate_ on this particular question. How many times he has read sentences, pronounced sentences, composed sentences! But now he is examining them in detail, _studying_ them. The simple sentence is a short proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an action or a situation, organizing its different parts around a _verb_.

The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a task not very difficult after the preceding exercises on the parts of speech have been performed. When he has found the verb, it becomes essential for him to find the subject. The subject may be found by asking the question: _Who is it that_--? For example:

The child reads.

The word _reads_ is the verb. The section of the roll where the word _reads_ appears is torn off and placed in the space marked _Verb_. Then ask: "_Who is it that_ reads?" The answer is, "_The child_ reads." The section containing the word _the child_ is torn off and placed in the space marked _Subject_.

Another sentence: on the roll the child finds written:

_The glass is broken._

The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by itself, has no special meaning. _Is_ means nothing! "_Is?_ Is _what_?" Some attribute must be added: "Is _broken_!" Here we get a _nominal predicate_. When the verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action, for instance _reads_, we get a _verbal predicate_. The section of the roll containing _is broken_ is torn off, accordingly, and placed in the space of the verb. But _what_ is broken? _The glass!_ The section containing the words _the glass_ is placed in the space of the subject. All of this can be copied off by the child by hand, as follows:

Simple sentence: The child reads.
The child: Subject.
Reads: Predicate (verbal).

SERIES I

(Simple Sentences)

The first roll contains the following simple sentences without modifiers of any kind:

--The child reads.
--The glass is broken.
--Charles is tall.
--The trees are blossoming.
--The blackboard is clean.
--Who has come?
--The pencil is broken.
--The sky is blue.
--I am reading.
--I am studying.
--The children are playing.
--Time flies.
--The teacher sings.

SERIES II

(Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers)

The roll contains the following sentences, written one after another:

--The mother loves her child dearly.
--Johnny brought his teacher a rose.
--You may keep the book for some days, Louis.
--Mary, give the poor man a penny.
--Where have you been, Mary?
--I will do it, mother.
--Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole
blackboard.
--Who drew the pretty picture?
--Last night I showed the letter to father.
--In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving.
--Did you go to the theater last night?
--The rain was beating against the window panes.
--The dog is barking at the cat.
--The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands.

Example of application: The section containing the first sentence,

The mother loves her child dearly.

is first torn off from the roll. Then the section containing the word _loves_ is placed in the space marked _verb_. _Who_ loves?--_the mother_. The section containing the words _the mother_ is placed in the space marked _subject_. The mother loved _whom_? _Her child._ The section containing _her child_ is torn off and placed in the space marked _direct object_. By thus reading the names printed in the spaces of the chart the child learns to classify the various kinds of modifiers. _How_ does the mother love her child? _In what manner?_ _Dearly._ The section containing the word _dearly_ is placed in the space marked _Manner_ and the sentence is completed.

Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately or make others, as he thinks best. The copy may be as follows:

The mother loves her child dearly.
The mother: Subject.
Loves: Predicate (verbal).
Her child: Direct object.
Dearly: Adverb, manner.

In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little help from the teacher may be required. Example:

You may keep the book for some days, Louis.

The word _Louis_ can be dramatized somewhat into a kind of invocation, as--_O Louis, you may keep the book_ and so on. Vocatives can almost always be identified by trying the exclamatory _O_ before them.

In the sentence,

Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the
whole blackboard.

_only three years old_ is an attributive of Harry. It should be torn off and placed in the space marked _Attributive_.

SERIES III

(Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same kind)

The roll contains the following sentences in sections which may be read and torn off one after the other as the child unrolls the strip:

--The child sleeps and dreams.
--Everybody likes fruit and flowers.
--He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends.
--Charles opened and closed the book.
--The doctor and the father left the sick child's room.
--The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence.
--In the beginning God created heaven and earth.
--He will always have money and friends.
--In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women.

SERIES IV

(Elliptical sentences with subject understood)

[This situation does not however arise in English, which, save in the imperative, always requires at least a pronominal subject for the verb.]

Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it and finding the element that is lacking.

--La ringrazio (_I_ thank you).
--Verrete? (Will _you_ come?)
--Sono stanco (_I_ am tired).
--Non mi sento bene oggi (_I_ don't feel well to-day).
--Com'è andata? (How did _it_ turn out?)
--Dico la verità (_I_ will tell you all about it).
--Siamo contentissimi (_We_ are delighted).
--Vi saluto (_I_ bid you good-by).
--Vado a casa (_I_ am going home).
--Lampeggia (_It_ is lightening).
--M'impose silenzio (_He_ told me to say nothing).
--Ascolto (_I_ am listening).

SERIES V

(Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood)

--Silence!
--Why all this noise?
--After me, the deluge!
--The sooner the better!
--Good luck to you, sir!
--What nasty weather!
--What an attractive school!
--O for a calm, a thankful heart!
--A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse!
--Away with him!
--Fire! Fire!
--Here, here, quick!
--Honor to the brave!

SERIES VI

(Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood: _incomplete predication_)

--They drove away.
--He spends like a millionaire.
--He drinks like a fish.
--The farmer's boy had just milked.
--Do you understand?
--The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed.
--Did you see?
--The child did not hear.

SERIES VII

(Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased difficulty)

--The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered
with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and
with a black and blue lump on his forehead.
--Ethel hurried home as fast as possible.
--We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement.
--And so through the night went his cry of alarm
To every Middlesex village and farm.
--The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the lawn.
--And yet through the gloom and the night
The fate of a nation was riding that night.
--The woman walked along in front of me with the child in her
arms.
--The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others.
--To-morrow I shall come to town on foot.
--He spent the summer every year with his parents in their old
home on the mountain side.
--That evening the old house was more lonely than ever.
--They are very busy this morning.
--I never did such a thing in my life!
--Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed the
street.
--The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear.
--Just then some one knocked at the door.
--Here I am back again at my work.
--Mary had a little lamb
With fleece as white as snow.

THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE: PERMUTATIONS

Rules:

The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the direct order in prose, inversion being very rare.

In poetry, inversion is very common.

The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject, then the predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect; then the modifiers follow according to the importance they derive from the meaning of the sentence.

These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the child rarely has any difficulty in understanding them. Nevertheless, it is much easier to give the child a vivid impression of them by the permutation of parts than by explanation. This permutation is made very convenient by the sentences being printed in sections which may be moved about and combined at will. Just as the sequence of the various parts of speech was made clear by transposing the parts, here the same result can be accomplished by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example:

We heard the clatter of the horse's hoofs
(subject) (predicate) (direct object) (attribute)

on the pavement.
(place: adverb)

The following combinations are possible results of permutation:

We--heard--the clatter--of the horse's hoofs--on the
pavement.

We--the clatter--heard--on the pavement--of the
horse's hoofs.

We--of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--the
clatter--heard.

Of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--heard--the
clatter--we, etc., etc.

SERIES VIII

(The inverted order)

The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown in every sentence. But it is better to try examples of inversion from poetic language. In this series, all the sentences show inversion of one type or another:

--Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride,
Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride
On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere.

--Upon the roof we sat that night!
The noise of bells went sweeping by;
Awesome bells they were to me.

--Still sits the school-house by the road.

--Before them under the garden-wall
Forward and back
Went drearily singing the chore-girl small.

--And day by day more holy grew
Each spot of the sacred ground.

--There thronged the citizens with terror dumb.

Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements can lead to practise in the identification and use of grammatical forms as parts of speech, which the study of single words would not at first permit; as for instance, forms of the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as subject and object), the difference between personal pronouns used as direct or indirect objects, and so on.

SERIES IX

(The forms of the verb)

The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and passive, in sections. The analysis is conducted on the chart for the simple sentence:

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE REFLEXIVE

(Action performed by (Action performed by (_Middle Voice_)
subject) agent) (Subject is direct
object)

Mary dresses the little The little girl is The little girl
girl. dressed by Mary. dresses herself.

The teacher praised Charles was praised Charles praised
Charles for the by the teacher for himself for the
drawing. the drawing. drawing.

The little girl excused George was excused George excuses
George for his for his roughness by himself for his
roughness. the little girl. roughness.

The janitor accused The boy was accused The boy accused
the boy. by the janitor. himself.

The old man liked Albert Albert was very much Albert liked himself
very much. liked by the old man. very much.

The nurse tucked the The child was tucked The child tucked
child into the warm into the warm bed himself into the
bed. by the nurse. warm bed.

The girl rocked her The little friend was Her little friend
little friend to sleep rocked to sleep in rocked herself to
in the rocking-chair. the rocking-chair by sleep in the
the little girl. rocking-chair.

The teacher saw Henry Henry was seen in the Henry saw himself in
in the large mirror. large mirror by the the large mirror.
teacher.

The angry boy hurt Louis was hurt by the Louis hurt himself.
Louis. angry boy.

SERIES X

(Use of the personal pronoun)

The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching the personal pronouns can be used over again at this point for analysis on the sentence-chart.

--The children wrote a letter to their mother
The children wrote her a letter
They wrote it to her

--They gave their mother a surprise
They gave her a surprise

--I told father all about it
I told him all about it

--Charles soothed his sister with a kiss
He soothed her with a kiss

--Will you give your drawing to the teacher?
Will you give her your drawing?
Will you give it to her?

--Don't think badly of your schoolmates
Don't think badly of them

--Show those dirty hands to the teacher
Show her those dirty hands
Show them to her

--Tell the story to the children in the other room
Tell it to the children in the other room
Tell it to them there

The exercise in permutation brings out the relative positions of the direct and indirect objects; as also the conditions under which the preposition _to_ is required before the indirect object.

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

Here we are dealing with a number of propositions (clauses) which combine into one complete meaning. The clauses fit together in the sentences just as did the various elements in the simple sentence. The material for the analysis is therefore analogous to that used in the analysis of the simple sentence: strips of paper in rolls on which are written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with spaces where the detached pieces may be placed, according to the designation of these spaces.

The principal space on the chart is reserved for the main clause, around which the other clauses are arranged, as coordinate or subordinate.

Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sentence is sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the child to various forms of study, the material contains in addition to the rolls and the chart, a number of test-cards where the analysis is completed and logically demonstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy of the work done by the children, and as actual charts for analytical study. Of course, when the child is doing his exercise with the strips of paper and the chart, he does not have these test-cards before him. He should, however, always have free access to them. His interest in the game is to succeed by himself in placing the different propositions where they belong.

CHART B

SERIES I

(Compound Sentences)

The clauses are independent of each other. Each contains a complete meaning, and each therefore could stand alone. It is a question of simple sentences _coordinated_ with each other.

--I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it.
--She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the
strong sun.
--The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat purring
at her side.
--She dropped her sewing and went to the door.
--The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept.
--They looked into each other's faces: each of them had a question
to ask and neither dared to speak.
--I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight.
--They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him and waited
for his next word to attack him.
--Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish.
--Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around the
room.
--He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed his
hair and went out to greet his two friends.
--She went to the window and looked out over the stormy sea.

The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing each separately. Then, placing one under the other, he is impressed by the fact that each has a complete meaning and can stand by itself; save that in English the subject of the first clause is often carried over to the second:

I hunted carefully everywhere.
And at last I found it.

I am a lowly peasant.
And you are a gallant knight.

Louis clapped his hands for joy.
began to dance around the room.

He looked into the mirror.
straightened his tie.
smoothed his hair.
_and_ went out to meet his two friends.

The bees hummed in the warm sunshine.
And the cat sat purring at her side.

Then he began to weep.
And he tore his hair in anguish.

The girl covered her face with her hands.
_and_ wept.

They looked at the speaker.
crowded around him.
_and_ waited for his next word to attack him.

SERIES II

(The Complex Sentence)

Here only the main clause has a complete meaning. The other clauses make sense only when they are united with the main clause. On this roll, the subordinate clauses are attributes of one of the elements of the main clause (relative clauses).

--The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs belongs
to my mother.
--The man who brought me to school this morning was my uncle.
--He was educated by his sister who taught him many beautiful
things.
--The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very good.
--A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing eyes
at a plate of sandwiches.
--The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very dull.
--Bees don't care about the snow!
I can tell you why it's so:
Once I caught a little bee
Who was much too warm for me.--(F. D. SHERMAN)
--We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw.
--Here are the pennies my mother gave me.
--The children I play with did not come to school to-day.
--The house we live in is beautiful and airy.
--Stars are the little daisies white
That dot the meadow of the night.--(SHERMAN)

TEST CARDS

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE ATTRIBUTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
(The words modified by the relative (Relative or Adjective Clauses)
clause are in _italics_). (The clause has no meaning until
united with some noun in the
main clause).

The gold _ring_ belongs to which you found on the stairs
mother yesterday

The _man_ was my uncle who brought me to school this
morning

He was educated by his _sister_ who taught him many beautiful
things

The _colors_ are very good which Aunt Anna gave me
Christmas

A little _girl_ sat looking with who was at a party
longing eyes at a plate of
sandwiches

Once I caught a little _bee_ who was much too warm for
me

Stars are the little _daisies_ that dot the meadow of the
white night

RELATIVE OMITTED

_What word is omitted?_

Here are the _pennies_ --my mother gave me

The _children_ did not come to with--I play
school to-day

The _house_ is beautiful and in--we live
airy

SERIES III

In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed the meaning and constituted an attribute of _one word_ of the principal clause. Here, however, the subordinate clauses refer to the whole content of the main clause and complete _the whole thought_ of the main clause. They have, therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause. The child will be guided in finding the place of the different subordinate clauses and in classifying them according to the designations of the spaces by the questions which appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that he can readily identify the main clause itself.

The following sentences come one after the other on the rolled strip of paper:

--Do not forget that your objects are not in their places.
--Will you play with me when you have finished your work?
--When the sun is low our shadows are longer.
--I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you
arrive in Europe.
--The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the queen
as the procession went by.
--Brer Rabbit thought it was the worst time he had had in all his
life.
--All is well that ends well, says the proverb.
--The people mourned when the good President died.
--It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy.
--As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in through
the window.
--They could not play in the yard because the ground was too wet.
--Remember that you must thank the lady who gave you the book.

TEST CARD

PRINCIPAL AND INCIDENTAL QUESTION SUBORDINATE AND ATTRIBUTIVE
CLAUSES CLAUSES

Do not forget what? that your objects are not
in their places.

Will you play with me when? when you have finished
your work?

Our shadows are longer when? when the sun is low.

I hope what? that you will write me a
long letter.

when? as soon as you arrive in
Europe.

The little girl stood on tip-toe why? so that she could see the
queen

when? as the procession went by.

Brer Rabbit thought what? (that) it was the worst
_time_ he had had in all
his life (_attributive,
relative pronoun
omitted_)

All is well that ends well
says the proverb (incidental (_attributive_).
clause)

The people mourned when? the good President died.

It is not right what? that the big boys should
have all the candy.

A beautiful red bird flew when? as she sat there
in through the window reading.

They could not play in the why? because the ground was
yard too wet.

Remember what? that you must thank the
_lady_ who gave you the
book (_attributive_).

SERIES IV

Here we have sentences both compound and complex, containing both coordinate and subordinate clauses.

--As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room.
--The two friends shook hands and said they would always be
faithful to each other.
--When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him and
laughed.
--When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man appeared
and asked what he might do for her.
--The children walked along in the forest and became very hungry
because they had had nothing to eat since morning.
--The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that the
deceitful general be put to death.
--Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the children
to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them to their
state-rooms.
--The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into the
streets as the uproar of the combat increased.
--Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful house
and a fine road led up to it.
--He had left the village and mounted the steep,
And under the alders that skirt its edge,
Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge,
Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides.

TEST CARD

SUBORDINATE AND
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE COORDINATE CLAUSE QUESTION ATTRIBUTIVE
CLAUSES

He rose from his and left the when? as he said this
chair room

The two friends and said what? that they would
shook hands always be faithful
to each other

Brer Rabbit threw and laughed when? when the wolf came
the stone on him out

A smiling old man and asked what? what he might do for
appeared her

when? when the lady
knocked on the
door

The children walked and became very why? because they had had
along in the hungry nothing to eat
forest since morning

The king's face grew and he angrily what? that the deceitful
very red ordered general be put to
death

The captain told the and a sailor why? because the wind was
children to keep carried them blowing hard
off the deck to their
state-rooms

The dogs began to and the people when? as the uproar of the
bark all ran into combat increased
the streets

There was once a and a fine road where? where that tree now
beautiful house led up to it stands

He had left the and mounted the
village steep

under the that skirt its edge
_alders_ now (attributive).
soft on the
sand, now loud
on the ledge,
is heard the
tramp of his
steed when? as he rides

SERIES V

(Correlative Sentences)

The clauses are here dependent upon each other:

--The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all.
--That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work done.
--She sings much better than she plays.
--The more one studies, the more one learns.
--Either you return your objects to their places or some one
else must do it.
--Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished
the little boy.

TEST CARD

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE QUESTION SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

The flowers were so with what result? that we picked them all.
beautiful

That day he was so with what result? that he did not get his
lazy work done.

She sings much than what? than she plays.
better

The more one with what result? the more one learns.
studies

Either you return with what result? or some one else must do
your objects to it.
their places

Not only was the man with what result? but he actually punished
very cross the little boy.

SERIES VI

(The Order of Clauses in Sentences: Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse)

Our material makes it very easy for the children to understand the mutual dependence of the subordinate clauses. We take the commonest cases within easy reach of the children. There are clauses of the first degree of subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause. There are others of the second degree of subordination which depend on a subordinate clause (clause subordinate to a subordinate). We have the same situation in coordinates. We have the first degree of coordination when the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the second degree when the clause is parallel with a subordinate clause.

Since the slips have as many sections as there are clauses, the clauses may be arranged on the table in the order of their subordination, keeping, for example, the principal clause to the left, and arranging the subordinate clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for instance, the sentence:

--The old man liked to tell stories; and he would
laugh heartily when the women were frightened at the
terrible things that he had to relate.

As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a chart marked into sections by vertically placed arrows: the principal clause to the right of the first arrow; the first subordinate clause to the right of the second; the subordinate to the subordinate to the right of the third, and so on. The above sentence results as follows:

Principal and Coordinate 1st subordinate subordinate to
subordinate

The old man liked to
tell stories
and he would laugh
heartily

when the women were
frightened at the
terrible things

that he had to tell.

CHART C

Here is another example:

--I often sit and wish that I
Could be a kite up in the sky,
And ride upon the breeze, and go
Whatever way it chanced to blow.

Here, finally, is another:

-- I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to me, unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had done, or was accused of doing.

In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips using the analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives him the classification of the clauses. The strips are then to be placed on the dependence chart (Chart C) according to the indications of the arrows. This brings out the mutual relation of the clauses.

PERMUTATIONS

The preceding exercises have created in the child a notion of sentence construction and of the position of the clauses which make it up. Our material permits, of course, as an exercise supplementary to the analyses, dislocations and translocations of parts just as was true with the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this possibility, the teacher should have in mind the general rules for location of clauses:

Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow, and most often directly, the noun they modify.

Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or after the principal clause. If the subject clause follows, it is usually anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it (just as a following noun subject is anticipated by _there_).

(In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main clause, it is usually repeated before the noun by a conjunctive object personal pronoun.)

The position of the other clauses depends on considerations of emphasis.

The direct order for complex sentences is in general similar to that for simple sentences:

subject clause
principal clause
object clause
adverbial clauses.

Coordination is possible with subordinate as well as with principal clauses.

The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude with some practise in turning simple inversions as found in poetry into direct sentence order.

SERIES VII

The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise should be conducted with reference to the sentence charts.

--Just where the tide of battle Old John Burns stood, erect and
turns, lonely just where the tide of
Erect and lonely stood old battle turns....
John Burns ... A bright blue coat, with a rolling
And buttoned over his manly collar, was buttoned over his
breast manly breast.
Was a bright blue coat with a
rolling collar.

--It was terrible: on the right It was terrible: the deadly
Raged for hours the deadly fight raged for hours on the
fight, right; the battery's double bass
Thundered the battery's double thundered,--difficult music for
bass, men to face; while round shot
Difficult music for men to face; ploughed the upland glades on
While on the left, where now the left, where now the graves
the graves undulate like the living waves
Undulate like the living waves that swept unceasing all that
That all that day unceasing day up to the pits the rebels
swept kept.
Up to the pits the rebels kept,
Round shot ploughed the upland
glades.
BRET HARTE.--_John Burns
of Gettysburg._

--Merrily rang the bridle reins, The bridle reins rang merrily
and scarf and plume steamed and scarf and plume streamed
gay, gay, as the riders, held their
As fast beside her father's way fast by her father's gate.
gate the riders held their
way ...

"Now break your shield asunder Now break your shield asunder
and shatter your sign and shatter across your knightly
and boss, knee your sign and boss unmeet
Unmeet for peasant-wedded for peasant-wedded arms.
warms, your knightly
knee across.
WHITTIER.--_King Volmer._

The breaking waves dashed high The breaking waves dashed
On a stern and rock bound coast; high on a stern and rock-bound
And the woods against a stormy coast; and the woods tossed their
sky giant branches against a stormy
Their giant branches tossed. sky.
And the heavy night hung dark The heavy night hung dark
The hills and waters o'er, over (o'er) the hills and waters,
When a band of Pilgrims moored when a band of Pilgrims moored
their bark their bark on the wild New England
On the wild New England shore. shore.

Not as the conqueror comes They, the true hearted, came
They the true hearted came, not as the conqueror comes, not
Not with the roll of the stirring with the roll of the stirring
drums drums and the trumpet that
And the trumpet that sings of sings of fame.
fame.
MRS. HEMANS.

My golden spurs now bring to me Bring to me now my golden
And bring to me my richest mail, spurs and bring to me my richest
For tomorrow I go over land and mail; for I go in search of the
sea Holy Grail tomorrow over land
In search of the Holy Grail. and sea; a bed shall never be
Shall never a bed for me be spread for me, nor shall a pillow
spread. be under my head till I begin to
Nor shall a pillow be under my keep my vow; I will sleep here
head, on the rushes, and perchance a
Till I begin my vow to keep; true vision will come _before_ (ere)
Here on the rushes will I sleep. day creates the world anew.
And perchance there may come a
vision true
Ere day create the world anew.
LOWELL.

Glad tidings of great joy I bring I bring to you and all mankind
To you and all mankind: glad tidings of great joy. The
To you, in David's town this day Saviour, who is Christ the Lord,
Is born of David's line is born to you this day in David's
The Saviour, who is Christ the town, of David's line; and this
Lord, shall be the sign: you shall find
And this shall be the sign: the heavenly Babe there displayed
The heavenly Babe you there to human view, all meanly wrapt
shall find in swaddling clothes and laid in
To human view displayed, a manger.
All meanly wrapt in swaddling
bands
And in a manger laid.
TATE.--_While Shepherds
Watched._

The harp that once through The harp, that once shed the
Tara's halls soul of music through Tara's
The soul of music shed, halls, now hangs on Tara's walls,
Now hangs on Tara's walls as though that soul were fled.
As if that soul were fled. So the pride of former days
So sleeps the pride of former sleeps, so glory's thrill is over,
days, and hearts that once beat high
So glory's thrill is o'er, for praise now feel that pulse no
And hearts that once beat high more. The harp of Tara swells
for praise no more to chiefs and bright ladies:
Now feel that pulse no more. the chord alone, that breaks
at night, tells its tale of ruin.
No more to chiefs and ladies Thus Freedom now wakes so seldom
bright (that) the only throb she
The harp of Tara swells; gives is when some indignant
The chord alone that breaks at heart breaks to show that she
night still lives.
Its tale of ruin tells.
Thus Freedom now so seldom
wakes,
The only throb she gives,
Is when some heart indignant
breaks
To show that still she lives.
THOMAS MOORE.

Childhood is the bough where Childhood is the bough where
slumbered many numbered birds and blossoms
Birds and blossoms many numbered; slumbered; Age encumbered
Age that bough with snow encumbered. that bough with snow.
LONGFELLOW.

TEST CARDS

Just where the tide of battle subordinate of place (locative)
turns
Erect and lonely stood old John principal
Burns
And, buttoned over his manly (verbal attributive phrase)
breast,
Was a bright blue coat with a coordinate of principal
rolling collar

It was terrible principal
on the right
raged for hours the deadly fight coordinate of principal

thundered the battery's double coordinate of principal
bass
Difficult music for men to face (verbal attributive phrase in
apposition)
While on the left (round shot subordinate of time (temporal)
ploughed, etc.) begun
where now (_While_ may be considered as
the graves adversative coordinate)
Undulate like the living waves subordinate to subordinate
(locative) 2d degree
That all that day unceasing
swept attributive subordinate (relative
up to the pits adjectival clause modifying
_waves_) of 3d degree
the rebels kept attributive subordinate (relative
pronoun omitted) of 4th degree
Round shot ploughed the upland subordinate of time (concluded).
glades

Merrily rang the bridle reins principal

and scarf and plume coordinate
streamed gay

As fast beside her father's gate
the riders held their way subordinate of time

Now break your shield asunder principal

and shatter
your sign and boss coordinate
Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms
your knightly knee across

The breaking waves dashed high
On a stern and rock-bound coast principal

And the woods against a stormy
sky
Their giant branches tossed coordinate

And the heavy night hung dark
The hills and waters o'er principal (coordinated in
paragraph)
When a band of pilgrims moored
their bark
On a wild New England shore subordinate temporal

Not principal begun
as the conqueror comes subordinate of manner (modal)
They the true hearted came principal concluded
Not with the roll of the stirring
drums
and the trumpet coordinate (elipsis of verb _they_
_came_ continued from principal)
that sings of fame attributive (relative)
subordinate to coordinate.

My golden spurs now bring to me principal

And bring to me my richest mail coordinate

For tomorrow I go over land and subordinate of cause (causal):
sea may be considered coordinate
In search of the Holy Grail of _reason_

Shall never a bed for me be
spread principal

Nor shall a pillow be under my
head coordinate

Till I begin my vow to keep subordinate of time (temporal)

Here on the rushes will I sleep principal

And perchance there may come a
vision true coordinate

Ere day create the world anew subordinate temporal.

Great tidings of great joy I
bring
To you and all mankind principal

To you in David's town this day
Is born of David's line
The Saviour principal

who is Christ the Lord attributive (relative) subordinate

And this shall be the sign coordinate

The heavenly Babe you there
shall find
To human view displayed
All meanly wrapped in swaddling
bands
And in a manger laid. simple sentence with three
coordinate verbal phrases.

The harp principal begun
that once through
Tara's hall
The soul of music shed attributive subordinate (relative)

Now hangs on Tara's walls principal concluded

As if that soul were fled subordinate of manner (modal)

So sleeps the pride of former
days principal

So glory's thrill is o'er coordinate

And hearts coordinate begun
that once beat high attributive relative subordinate
for praise

Now feel that pulse no more coordinate concluded.

No more to chiefs and ladies
bright
The harp of Tara swells principal

The chord alone coordinate begun

that breaks at night attributive relative subordinate

Its tale of ruin tells coordinate concluded.

Thus freedom now so seldom
wakes principal

The only throb subordinate result begun
(conjunction _that_ omitted)

she gives subordinate to subordinate (2d
degree; relative omitted)

Is when some heart indignant
breaks
To show subordinate result concluded

that still she lives subordinate object (noun) clause
of 2d degree.

Childhood is the bough principal
where slumbered
Birds and blossoms many-numbered subordinate locative (of place)

Age that bow with snows encumbered coordinate.

(Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of inversion than does Italian. Such exercises as the above could be profitably applied to the analysis of the different kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.). It should be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate clauses.--TR.)

COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a more precise comprehension of the values of certain parts of speech as, notably, the conjunction. We have found, in fact, that little difficulty is experienced in realizing the distinction between the terms _coordinating_ and _subordinating_ as applied to conjunctions which _unite_ clauses but in different ways. The following charts serve to cover the vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We may add that at this point it may be found useful to have the child analyze the complex sentences which appeared in the commands and readings already familiar to him (see below under _Reading_).

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

_Copulatives_: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, nor.

_Disjunctives_: or else, otherwise, rather.

_Adversatives_: but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet, still, while, only, instead.

_Declaratives_: namely, in other words, that is.

_Asseverative_: in fact, assuredly, really.

_Illative_: hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so.

PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH ONE OF THESE CONJUNCTIONS

CHART D

THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

A special series of exercises on the relations of the subordinate to the principal clause brings out the changes in tense made necessary in the subordinate clause as the tense of the principal clause varies.

SERIES VIII

Sequence of Tenses

GROUP A

(Causal Clauses)

--I am writing to you because I have some important news.
" wrote " " " " had " " "

--I shall not go because I must attend to my work.
" did " " " " had to " " " "

--I am glad that you have done so well.
" was " " " had " " "

--I will give it to you since you insist on having it.
" gave " " " " " insisted " " "

--He does not answer because your letter is insulting.
" did " " " " " was "

GROUP B

(Miscellaneous Clauses)

--I shall be proud of you if you become a fine scholar.
" should " " " " " " became " " "

--I believe that only the rich can be happy.
" believed " " " " could " "

--I am waiting here till my father returns from town.
" waited " " " " returned " "

--They expect that something will happen before long.
" expected " " would " " "

--He is doing that for you, in order that you may go to school.
" did " " " " " " " might " " "

--He will let you know where he has been.
" let " " " " had "

GROUP C

(Object Clauses)

--They are telling me what they have been doing.
" were " " " " had " "

--I promise you that I will do everything punctually.
" promised " " " would " " "

--I think he will not be back before Wednesday.
" thought " would " " " " "

--Do you know that your friend has gone away?
Did " " " " " had " "

--I assure you that I will take good care of it.
" assured " " " would " " " " "

--I repeat that you ought to be ashamed of yourself.
" repeated " " " " have been " " "

GROUP D

(Conditional Sentences)

--I would read this book too, if I could.
" " have read " " " " " had been able.

--If I see him, I shall tell him what you say.
" " saw " " should " " " " said.

--I will finish this work, if you can wait.
" would " " " " " could "

--I shall come sooner if I can.
" should " " " " could.

--He would give it to you if you asked him for it.
" " have given " " " " " had asked " " "

--He would give it to you if you should ask him for it.

--I shall go there if I have time.
" should " " " " had "
" shall " " " " should have "
" should have gone " " " had had "

XIII

PUNCTUATION

The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials give empirical evidence of the pauses and accordingly of the functions of the orthographical signs of suspense in the sentence. These signs are included also in our alphabets. All the exercises hitherto given require more or less spontaneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illustration of the principal rules for the use of punctuation points. Almost all of our Italian sentences are taken from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy for his care in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are taken from the _Book of Knowledge_, by special permission of the publishers.)

SERIES I

The comma may separate coordinate elements.

--The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her
children's faces, the grace and strength of their
bodies, their reckless daring and unflinching courage.

--The little star fell plump into the middle of a big
puddle, and there it lay sad and shaken and quaking
with fright.

--It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face,
and could give no more light.

--A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see
whether it was going to rain, and whether it would be
safe to cross the fields.

--The mouse started running again, and ran until it
was tired out and had to sit down.

--The little star poured a flood of bright light over
the poor woman, and made her bright and cheerful and
strong again, and then the little girl became very
happy.

SERIES II

A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses.

--"Cæsar, let your men go forward," said the guide.

--Why do you want to find your father, Mora?

--"No," said he, "I shall be very well presently."

--"Boys," said our host, "I know whose hand it is."

--That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to
speak to a friend.

--"Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he
cried.

SERIES III

A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness, when the elements of one clause might seem to apply equally well to another clause, and when one clause is interpolated between the essential elements of another.

--Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated
times, wherever they are.

--George, who was only five years old, could not go
with his father to fight.

--The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided
to march away.

--He went that evening, as he had planned, to the
doctor's house.

--The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he
was born, to regions farther and farther north.

--The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little
fan, stood over his father all night fanning him.

SERIES IV

A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some word or idea (in such cases longer suspense can be indicated by a colon or a semi-colon).

--Very well, what of it?

--Good-by, all you nice people!

--Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries
with real cream!

--Please, mother, just a little more, a very little
more!

--Silence, obedience, and everybody at work!

--Enough said; I know exactly what the matter is!

SERIES V

A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses. In some special cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quotations.

--The knight mounted a superb steed; the old huntsman
did the same.

--Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver
sitting perched high above the door; others had the
driver's seat at the side, and in all sorts of queer
positions.

--The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses;
though many people can remember when London
street-cars were drawn by mules--two big ones or three
little ones for each car.

--The letter began: "I hope you will let me know if
this letter does not reach you."

--Patrick Henry said: "Give me liberty, or give me
death!"

--The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not
of sadness for--

Singing he was and fluting all the day:
He was as fresh as in the month of May.

--The king will ask you three questions: "How old are
you?" "How long have you been in his service?" "Are
you satisfied with your food and lodgings?"

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The Montessori Elementary MaterialChapter VIII: Part I: Grammar (4)

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