Chapter IX: Part I: Grammar (5)

--How happy they were: all kinds of toys to play with;
all sorts of good things to eat; and a kind old father
to satisfy their every want!

--Slowly one of the dialects of English--the language
of London--came to be regarded as standard English.

--Washington is called "the Father of his Country."

--When he got home, he said to his wife: "See, I have
brought you a present."

--He shouted gleefully: "I am a lion--a terrible
lion."

SERIES VI

(Other Punctuation Points)

The period, the question mark, exclamation point and other signs of punctuation:

In this series should be given dialogues, interesting stories, passages which express emotional states of mind vividly portrayed. Such selections, as is true also of our shorter passages, ought to be taken from the best writers, distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of their style and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At this point we make use of the selections used for our "interpretations," since the question of punctuation coincides with the problems of text interpretation itself.

XIV

WORD CLASSIFICATION

THE KINDS OF WORDS

In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be used for these exercises in word grouping.

This new step is preparatory to a _theoretical study_ of language to be developed in later courses in the second period of their education.

WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION

Root }
Derived[3] } words
Compound[4] }

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION

There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable:

/ /
| preposition | They may be simple or
INVARIABLES: < conjunction < compound, made up,
| interjection | that is, of one word or more.
\ \

/ / may be of masculine,
| \ | feminine, neuter or
| in gender | | common gender.
| and number > nouns < form their plurals by
| | | adding -s or by
| / | changing the root
| \ vowel (umlaut)
|
| \ / have special
| | | words for
| in gender, number > pronouns < each form: e.g. he,
| person and case | | him, who, whom, I,
| / \ me, etc.
|
| } adjectives { -er for comparative
| in degree } adverbs { -est for superlative
|
| / show third person
| | singular by adding -s,
VARIABLES < | and old second person
| | singular by adding
| | -st
| | show moods by adding
| | -ing, -ed or by vowel
| in person, number,} verbs < change for participles:
| tense and mood } | or by special
| | forms (I be, he be,
| | etc.) for subjunctive.
| | show tense by suffix
| | -ed, -t: or by vowel
| | change (I go, I
| | went).
| \ show irregular forms.
|
| / _the_ has two
| \ definite | pronunciations
| for | article < according to
| phonetic reasons > | the following word.
| | \
| | { _a_ becomes _an_ before
\ / indefinite { a vowel.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE

(Parts of Speech)

Article Verb Pronoun
Noun Adverb Conjunction
Adjective Preposition Interjection

NOTE: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own functions, but also the functions of other parts of speech, for instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, etc.

THE NOUN

Proper Common
Concrete Abstract
Collective Individual

THE ARTICLE

Definite--the
Indefinite--a, an

THE ADJECTIVE

Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings.

/ _cardinal_: one, two, three, four, etc.
| _ordinal_: first, second, third,
/ Definite | fourth, last, etc.
| (numeral) < _multiple_: single, double, triple,
| | quadruple, etc.
| \ _fractional_: half, third, etc.
Quantitative: <
| / many, all, some, much, enough, no,
| | more, most, other, little, few,
\ Indefinite <| whatever, each, every, certain,
| several, somewhat, etc.
\

Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same.

Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.

Interrogative: what? which?

VERB

The verb indicates:

existence: _to be_.
state or condition: _nominal predicate_ (copular): e.g., She _is_
beautiful.
action: _verbal predicate_: e.g., I _run_.

/ lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise,
| lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover,
Transitive (action upon | undo, invert, rub, spread, collect,
an object different < scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix,
from subject) | dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust,
| sweep, button, lace, hook,
\ brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc.

/ grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger,
Intransitive | march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance,
(action remains < shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom,
in subject) | remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh,
\ hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc.

Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive
and intransitive (incomplete predication).

Impersonals (the /
subject is _it_ | rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder,
without reference to a < etc.
specific object): |
\

ADVERBS

/ slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly,
| loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill,
of Manner: < better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so,
| lightly, heavily, etc., etc.
\

of Place: { here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward,
{ backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc.

/
| always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday,
of Time: < tomorrow, today, now, occasionally, before,
| afterwards, soon, etc., etc.
\

of Quantity: { much, little, enough, nothing, more, less,
{ least, most, about, only, too, very, etc.

of Comparison: more, less, than, etc.

of Affirmation: { yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely,
{ assuredly, truly, even, etc.

of Negation: no, never, not, at all, etc.

of Doubt: perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc.

PREPOSITION

/
| of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above,
Simple: < through, under, around, beside, behind, save,
| except, near, next, like, during, off, etc.
\

Compound { in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board,
(preposition { with regard to, etc.
phrases):

PRONOUN

/
| subject: { I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they
|
Personal < { me, thee, him, her, it, us, you,
| object: { them
\

/
| definite: { this, this one, that, that one,
| { these, those
Demonstrative <
| /
| | one, ones, some, somebody,
| indefinite: < everyone, each, each one, no one,
\ | nobody, none, nothing, etc.
\

/
| /
| | subject: who, that
| of person: < possessive: whose
| | object: whom, that
| \
|
| of thing: which, that
Relative <
| indefinite: whoever, which ever
|
| compound (antecedent understood): what (that
| which), whereof, wherewith, etc.
\

/
| who
/ | whose
| of person < whom
| | which
| \
Interrogative <
|
| of thing { what
\ { which

Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

CONJUNCTION

Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather.

Copulative: { and, also, too, besides, moreover, further,
{ furthermore, nor, etc.

Adversative: { but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still,
{ while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc.

Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc.

Relative: that.

Illative: { hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so,
{ with the result that, etc.

Temporal: { while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till,
{ hardly, etc.

Concessive: though, although, even if.

Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc.

Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc.

Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc.

Result: that, so that, etc.

Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc.

Degree and Comparison: as, than.

INTERJECTION

See list already given on pp. 122-123.

FOOTNOTES:

[3] Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some suffixes change one part of speech into another: _love_ (verb), _lovable_ (adj.), etc.; others, such as _diminutives_, _peggioratives_, _augmentatives_, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: _-er_, _-est_).

[4] Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two words or by prefixes.