Chapter XI: Studying the Individual Child

“Would you know how to lead the child? See and observe the child;
he will teach you what to do.”

—F. FROEBEL.

“The ideal which has animated all my own feeble educational
endeavor, and without which I should be without hope in the world
of pedagogy, is the reconstruction of education based not so much
on existing conditions in society as on child-nature. It is one
thing to fit the child for a preëxisting social condition, and
a very different thing to develop all his own latent powers to
their uttermost and trust to their development for all future
reforms. Holding, then, as I do, that childhood has in it
indefinite possibilities that are some realized, some repressed
or crippled, nipped in the bud in a way for which home, school,
and church must share responsibility, and that if every spring of
possible knowledge and power were touched, even by the lightest
suggestion at its nascent psychological hour, we should in a few
generations develop a superior race of men, we have in this faith
in the possibilities of childhood and youth the most central and
impregnable of all the fortresses of optimism.”

—G. STANLEY HALL.

=How to Study a Child.= A complete study of the child includes his physical and psychological characteristics, personality, gifts, deficiencies, his heredity, environment, training. In studying a child it is of first importance to avoid carefully any stirring of his self-consciousness, which might lead to either morbidness, introspection, priggishness, or vanity. The necessary physical measurements should be made as naturally and impersonally as possible, without discussion. The physical inspections should be made incidentally, during the processes of the daily life, without comment. Recording, except of measurements, should be done without attracting the attention of the child,—preferably not in his presence, and filed without his knowledge. The child’s traits or characteristics should not be discussed in his presence. Psychological characteristics can best be studied under natural, usual conditions:

(1) in the child’s play: what he plays; how he plays
(2) his stories: what he prefers or tells
(3) his handiwork, especially his drawing
(4) what he observes
(5) his questions

=A Score Card for Home Use.= The following score card has been especially prepared to meet the practical needs of the untrained layman and amateur in the intelligent observation and better understanding of normal young children. It does not attempt to include marked abnormalities. It is merely preliminary to a more detailed and scientific analysis by the specialist. Such a general score card is necessarily applicable only for certain ages. The following outline does not attempt to cover special development beyond ten years of age.

=Physical Measurements and Inspection.= During the first year the weight should be taken weekly, at the same hour, in order to bear the same relation to feeding, bath, elimination; other physical measurements and inspections should be recorded at least quarterly. In the succeeding years records should be made at least semi-annually and preferably quarterly. The person in charge of young children should observe daily the physical conditions, and be able to detect at once the special danger signals, or deviations from the normal.

Any person careful in details and accuracy can make these measurements and inspections, at least as preliminary to the specialist. Detailed directions are given in Pamphlet V, American Medical Association Press, and in “The Health Index of Children” (Hoag). For ordinary household use, the apparatus required includes a new, firm tape measure, yardstick, accurate beam scales, and cards for testing vision. For school or institutional work it is desirable to have also calipers, laboratory apparatus for taking heights, instruments for taking blood pressure, and a dynamometer for testing strength of muscles. Economic and social conditions, differences of race and heredity, will cause considerable variation among children of the same age.

=Psychological Analysis.= No generally accepted standards or tests have yet been devised for measuring psychological development. The standards developed by Binet and Simon for mental ability as one phase of psychological age, have been widely tested in this country but have not proven wholly satisfactory. American revisions are now being worked out. The outline here given does not provide standards for measurement, but depends entirely upon the judgment of the person making the analysis. During the first year a chronological record can profitably be kept of the psychological development, noting particularly each gain in motor control, every indication of increasing recognition of sense impressions, the development of speech.

Standards of normal and average conditions and development can be learned by:

(1) observations of numbers of children of the same age.

(2) the study of published tables of measurements.

(3) published records, studies, and stories of children.

The Tables of Indications and Summaries have been added to assist in gaining a clear picture of the child’s condition and the factors calling for special constructive measures, elimination, treatment, improvement, or development.

Physical Measurements[28]

Name ———————— Age: Years —— Months —— Weeks ——
Height standing[29]—— In. ——— Under Average ——— Over
Height sitting ———— In. ——— Under Average ——— Over
Weight ————— Lb. ——— Oz. ——— Under Average ——— Over
Circumferences: Head —— Chest ——— Abdomen ———
Diameter of Chest: Anterior-posterior ——— Lateral ———
Chest Expansion—————— Lengths: Arm ——— Leg ———

Physical Inspections

General Appearance: Robust Anemic
Vigorous Languid
Posture, standing: (2) Erect Stooping
Chest sunken
Head forward
Abdomen forward
Posture, sitting: (1) Erect Chest sunken
Back curved
On hips On curve of spine
Gait: (4) Normal Waddling
Elastic Heavy
Toe forward Toe in
Toe slightly outward Toe outward
Head: Shape normal Box shaped
Not symmetrical
Fontanel closed Fontanel not closed
(after 18 months)
Hair: Color Scant
Abundant Rough
Even Brittle
Fine
Coarse
Scalp: Clear Scurf
Pink Dandruff
Eruptions
Vermin

Figures at right in parentheses indicate age at which observation may normally or profitably begin, if not applicable during first year.

Features: Regular Unsymmetrical
Eyes:[30] Color
Clear Muddy
Sparkling Dull
Intelligent Staring
Normal Crossed
Protruding
Squint
Good condition Inflamed
Watery
Discharge
Frown
Work held near
Farsighted
Nearsighted
Headaches
Eyelids: Normal Swollen
Inflamed
Sore
Discharge
Styes
Granulated
Drooping
Nose: Large Small
Pinched
Bridge normal Bridge sunken (normal
during first year)
Discharge
Obstructions, _e.g._
adenoids
Snuffles
Mouth: Well-shaped Ugly shape
Large Held open
Small Deformed by pacifiers
or thumb sucking
Breathes through mouth
Canker sores
Breath sweet Offensive
Tongue: Clear Coated
Normal Protruding
Swollen
Tied
Teeth: Number Delayed first teeth
Delayed second teeth
Prolonged retention
first teeth
Extra teeth
Regular Irregular
Projecting
Good condition Discolored
Tartar deposits
Decayed
Gums: Healthy Pale
Bleeding
Spongy
Swollen
Receding
Throat: Clear Swollen
Enlarged tonsils
Strong Subject to sore throat
Coughs
Lips: Full Thin
Swollen
Ruddy Pale
Good condition Sore
Chapped
Fissured
Chin: (2) Normal Receding
Projecting
Firm Weak
Jaw: (2) Firm Weak
Strong
Ears: Large Small
Projecting
Normal Misshaped
Good condition Sore behind ears
Discharge
Earache
Hearing normal Defective
Neck: Normal size Small
Swollen glands
Scars
Skin: Free from blemishes Rough
Scaly
Pimples
Eczema (where located)
Ringworm
Clear Muddy
Ruddy Pale
Tanned
Freckled
Firm Soft
Puffiness under eyes
Muscles: Firm (½) Flabby
Well developed (1) Weak
Especially
Back
Trunk
Grip
Leg
Complementary pairs Unequal in balance
balanced (1)
Back and chest
Right and left of trunk
Right and left of neck
Right and left of back
Back: Straight Curvature; anterior-
posterior
Curvature; lateral, to right
Curvature; lateral, to left
Shoulders: Erect Stooped
Square Sloping
Equal Unequal (which lower)
Blades flat Projecting
Chest: Expanded Sunken
Deep Flat
Shallow
Barrel-shaped (after 1
year)
Funnel-shape (breast
bone sunken)
Pigeon-breast (breast
bone prominent)
Symmetrical Unsymmetrical
Beaded ribs
Good expansion (3) Poor expansion
Abdomen: Firm Flabby
Hard
Normal Distention
Rupture at navel
Inflammation at navel
Rupture at groin
Arms and Hands: Equal length Unsymmetrical
Normal Enlarged Joints
Clubbed fingers
Ambidextrous
Right-handed (1) Nails discolored
Left-handed Nail defects
Legs: Equal length Unequal
Straight Bowed
Knock-knee
Enlarged joints
Ankles strong Weak
Feet: Arch normal Flat foot (1½)
Stands squarely (2) Shoes run over:
outer edge
inner edge
heels
Well shaped Toes pinched
Swollen
Unblemished Callouses
Corns
Bunions
Defective nails
Excessive perspiration
Chafed toes
Genitalia: Normal Inflamed
Discharge
Protruding of rectum
Itching
Buttocks chafed
Nerves: Steady Explosive
Dull
Fears: (specify objects)
Irritable
Restless
Endurance Easily fatigued
Normal General misbehavior
Tantrums, hysteria
Malicious destruction
Bed-wetting
Nail-biting
Masturbation
Headaches
Convulsions
Motor
Coördinations: Steady (for age) Retarded
Sits alone (½) Stumbling (3)
Creeps (9 mo.) Dropping things (3)
Stands (1 year) Speech defects (3)
Walks alone (1½) Spasmodic movements
Controls eliminations Twitching of eyes,
Urine (1) face, muscles
Feces (2) Chorea (St. Vitus’
Holds own cup (1) Dance)
Holds own spoon (1) Paralysis
Runs (2) (what muscles)
Marches (3)
Claps to rhythm (3)
Feeds self neatly (3)
Dresses self (3)
Skips (4)
Uses scissors (5)
Normal Other abnormalities
Nutrition: Appetite good Poor
Hungry between meals
Gluttonous
Simple food relished Overfastidious
Abnormal appetites,
_e.g._, dirt, chalk
Good digestion Colic
Regurgitation,
eructations
Gas in stomach
Intestinal gas
Nausea
Elimination: Urine: Clear Cloudy
Straw color Dark
Bloody
Odor slight Strong
Painless Painful
Irritating
Normal quantity Scant
Excessive
Retained
Stools: Smooth (infancy)
Well-formed Watery
Mustard color (infancy) Green
Black
Bloody
Undigested curds
Slight mucus Much mucus
Odor slight Strong, offensive
1 to 3 passages daily Constipation
(less than 1)
Diarrhea
Perspiration:
Slight Excessive: head, under
arms, cold sweats
Odor slight Sour
Sleep: Quiet Restless
Sound Wakes easily
Dreams
No. hours Nightmares
Nap No nap
Sufficient for age Insufficient
Respiration: Deep Shallow
Diaphragmatic Chest
Mouth breather
Regular Irregular
Normal count Rapid
Slow
Pulse: Regular Irregular
Firm Weak
Normal count Rapid
Slow
Circulation: Efficient Sluggish
Cold hands
Cold feet
Temperature: Normal Irregular
High

The following examinations can be made only by specialists. Physician or physical education director:

Heart, lungs, genitalia; liver, spleen; hernia; sinuses, ductless
glands

Enlarged tonsils, adenoids; defects of palate; blood pressure;
arteries

Spinal curvature or faulty posture (except marked); asymmetry of
arms, legs, chest; flat foot

Osteopath, or physician or physical director with osteopathic
training: displaced vertebræ; spinal irritation

Oculist (not Optician): Defects of eyes (except marked)

Specialist: Defects of ears (except marked)

Dentist: Defects of teeth and gums (except marked)

Special chemist:

Urine, for acidity, albumen, sugar, casts

Feces, for worms, putrefactive bacteria

Blood, for hæmoglobin, leucocytes, acidity, germs of venereal
disease, tuberculosis.

Physical Habits

=Sleep:= Bed alone With another
Outdoors Indoors, scant
Indoors, windows open ventilation
Regular bedtime hour Irregular
Quiet before bedtime Excitement before bedtime
Early Late hour
Given soothing syrups
=Bathing=: Daily water baths Less than one daily
Number Too frequent
Kind Too warm
Temperatures Not followed by cool
Cool sponge
Air baths Not given
Sun baths Not given
=Feeding=: Regular hour Irregular
Prescribed intervals Intervals too short
” ” long
Eating between meals
Simple diet Injurious foods
Balanced, rational diet Dietary not analyzed
” poorly balanced
Chews well (2)
Eats slowly Rapidly
=Motor Activity=: Encouraged Restricted by clothing
” by carriage
Outdoors or open-air Indoors; poor
room ventilation
In raised, sanitary pen On floor

Toys sanitary Unsanitary; allowed
” harmless pacifier
Dangerous
Surfeit
Kept from crowds Taken to stores (4)
” ” theater (10)
” ” movies (8)
Handling: Moderate Excessive
Rational Lifted by arms
Tossed
Rocked
Jolted

History

Feeding: Maternal nursing 9 to Less
12 months More
Cow’s milk Bottle: how long
Patent foods (specify)
Illnesses: (state Bronchitis Subject to colds
age, duration, Convulsions coughs, constipation,
permanent Diphtheria indigestion,
effects) Earache nervousness, other
Eczema illness
Epilepsy Operations (age) for
Measles adenoids, tonsils,
Meningitis vaccination, others
Mumps
Rheumatism
Rickets
Scarlet Fever
Scurvy
Summer Complaint
Tuberculosis
Whooping cough
Others

Heredity

MOTHER FATHER
Nationality
Race
Height
Weight
Occupation
Education

Predispositions

MOTHER’S[31] FATHER’S[31] BROTHERS
MOTHER FAMILY FATHER FAMILY OR SISTERS
(how many) (how many) (how many)

Marked mental gifts
Nervous disorders
(form)
Alcoholism
Tuberculosis
Kidney disorders
Cancer
Pulmonary weakness
Digestive disorders
Blindness (form)
Deafness (form)
Living
Dead
Ages at death
Causes of deaths

Congenital Factors

Rank in birth (1st, 2d, etc.)
Age of brothers and sisters Living: At death: If had lived:
(in years and months):

MOTHER FATHER

Age at birth
Vigorous[32]
Fair health[32]
Sickly[32]
Nervous[32]
Use alcohol[32]
Excess
Moderate
Use tobacco[32]
Excess
Moderate
Use drugs[32]
Excess
Moderate

Indications

Vitality and Endurance

Sound digestion
Normal eliminations
Normal temperature, pulse, respiration
Normal posture
Normal increase in height and weight
Nerves steady
Sleep quiet, sound, undisturbed
Diaphragmatic breathing
Good chest expansion
Large nose, unobstructed
Large neck
Eyes clear, sparkling
Lips ruddy
Teeth sound, normal number
Muscles firm
Skin clear, ruddy, elastic
Active, vigorous play
Good-humored, optimistic

Low Vitality

Susceptibility to colds, coughs
Susceptibility to contagious diseases
Sensitiveness to cold
Poor nutrition
Peevishness, irritability
Easily fatigued
Poor chest development
Shallow breathing
Pallor
Small neck, nose
Adenoids

Poor Nutrition

Underweight
Overweight
Indigestion
No appetite
Capricious appetite
Rickets
Languor
Peevishness
Delayed dentition
Ridges and notches on teeth

Auto-intoxication

Low vitality
Constipation
Eruptions on skin
Coated tongue
Offensive breath
Rheumatism

Rickets

Pallor, anemia
Retarded growth in height and weight
Enlarged joints at wrists and ankles
Muscles flabby; sometimes fat
Enlarged abdomen
Breastbone sunken or protruding
Round shoulders, bent back
Delayed dentition and walking
Large square head

Scurvy

Loss of appetite; pallor
Loss in weight
Swelling of ankles and knees
Swollen gums
Black and blue spots on legs
Cry of pain when handled
Pain when legs are moved

Nervousness

Restlessness, fidgeting
Disturbed sleep
Irritability, peevishness
Tempers, hysteria, tantrums
Spasmodic movements
Stumbling, dropping things
Falling easily (after 2 years)
Nail-biting
Bed-wetting
Masturbation

Defective Vision

Squinting
Frowning
Book or work held near face
Headaches
Nervousness
Irritability
Indigestion

Deafness

Persistent inattention
Directions persistently slighted
Disinterest in music
Incorrect articulation (after five years)
Dull, stupid expression
Head persistently held at one side
Complains of roaring in ears

Adenoids (or other nasal obstruction)

Small nose
Sunken bridge (after 1 year)
High arched palate
Mouth breathing
Chronic cold
Nasal voice
Stupid expression
Nervousness
Irritability
Imperfect articulation

Temperament

I. Active: quick, vivacious
Phlegmatic: slow, inert
Balanced
II. Positive: decisive, firm, determined, not easily influenced
Negative: vacillating, easily influenced, weak impression
Balanced
III. Intellectual: theoretical; tendency to think about things
rather than to act
Emotional: acts upon impulse rather than thought; expends
energy in emotion rather than action or thought.
Motor: eager to do, execute
(Note which tendency is strongest, which weakest)
IV. Optimistic: irrepressibly good-natured, cheerful, blithe
Pessimistic: easily gloomy, discouraged, unhappy, fearful,
morose
Intermediate
V. Leader: initiative, positive, executive; inspires confidence,
loyalty, and coöperation of colleagues
Follower: compliant, easily led, lacks initiative
Intermediate
VI. Original: creative
Copyist: reproduces others’ ideas, principles
Intermediate
VII. Democratic: cordial, warm-hearted, hospitable, friendly,
responsive
Autocratic: snobbish, inhospitable, reserved, exclusive
Intermediate
VIII. Progressive: open-minded, temperamentally a radical, reformer
Conservative: conventional, biased by public opinion,
customs; suspicious of the new
Intermediate
IX. Mystic: sees spiritual phases of a situation
Realist: lacks imagination; has Yankee “common sense”,
practical
Balanced
X. Idealist: interested primarily in spiritual aspects and values
Materialist: interested only in material values, advantages,
or disadvantages
Balanced
XI. Responsible: thoughtful, conscientious, good judgment
Irresponsible: absent-minded, heedless, foolish, unreliable
Intermediate
XII. Sees large aspects of problem or work
Concerned with details
Balanced
XIII. Self-reliant: ready to care for self; furnishes own initiative
and encouragement
Dependent: relies on others for initiative, action, service,
encouragement
Intermediate
XIV. Reaction Time:
Deliberate
Impulsive
Rapid
Slow
Moderate

Psychological and Social Analysis

Mental
Activity: Alert Slow
Responsive Dull
Curiosity Disinterested
Experimenting Inert
Exploring Listless
Persistent will Vacillating
Interest in variety
Involuntary
concentration Flitting
Feeling strong Slight
Imaginative (1) Unimaginative
Self-reliant (1) Dependent
Initiative Inactive
Profits by experience Repeats same errors
Normal intelligence Backward
Precocious
Thought: Definite (2) Vague
Clear (2) Confused
Able to follow
directions (1) Unable
Open-minded (4) Self-satisfied
Attention: Well focused Superficial
Flitting
Dreaming
Concentration: Involuntary, marked Slight
Voluntary, marked (4) Slight
Senses: Keen: Discrimination Undeveloped
Sound of differences
Rhythm
Musical sound
Color
Beauty (pictures, sculpture, Nature)
Rhyme
Time: Day and night
Yesterday
To-morrow
Season
Year
Historic time
Imitation: Marked Slight
Mechanical Slavish
Creative (3)
Memory: Retentive Poor. Due to:
Motor Inattention
Emotional Lack of clearness
Auditory Lack of repetition
Visual
Verbal
Logical
Association Marked Slight
of Ideas: Poetic (2) Prosaic
Logical (2) Superficial
Imagination: Vivid (1) Lacking
Overwrought
Clear Hazy
Constructive (3) Reproductive
Resourceful (3) Unresourceful
Visual
Auditory
Reasoning: By association Easily satisfied
Logical (2) Undeveloped
Sensible (5) Foolish
Judgment: Sensible (6) Foolish
Erratic
Requires Proof (4) Credulous
Tastes and What kind of Stories
Interests: (2) Songs
Games
Handwork
Humor
How spends free time
Æsthetic: Marked Slight
Rhythm
Music
Color
Pictures
Nature
Poetry
Mechanics: Marked Slight
Watching
Examining
Contriving (1)
Philosophical: (3)
Marked Slight
(Seeks reasons for life,
God, death, immortality)
Questions: Numerous Few
“What?”
“Where?”
“Why?”
“How?”
Waits for answer Disinterest in answer
Asks for information For sake of talking
Seeks further
information Easily satisfied
Self-
expression: Free Reserved
Natural Self-conscious
Affected
Quiet Ostentatious
Artistic Awkward
Impressive Weak, hesitating
Charm Unattractive
Speech: Articulation
perfect (4) Imperfect
(Note which sounds)
Stammers
Stutters
Lisps
Clear (1) Indistinct
Slovenly
Forcible Weak
Fluent (4) Reticent
Halting
Sentences complete (3) Incomplete
Grammar correct (5) Incorrect (Note errors)
Good vocabulary (5) Limited vocabulary
Slang
Vulgarity
Voice: (1) Soft Loud
Musical Harsh
Nasal
Shrill
Clear Husky
Vital Drawl
Range (Test with Monotone
musical instrument)

Emotions: Strong Dull
Supersensitive
Wholesome Morbid
Silly
Deep Superficial
Poised Explosive
Moody
Good control Poor control
Capricious
Hysterical
Eccentric
Self-respect Undue humility
Pride
Sense of humor Prosaic
Trustful Suspicious
Jealous
Buoyant Easily discouraged
Courageous Fearful
Daring Timid
Cheerful Melancholy, petulant
Patient Impatient
Tantrums
Easily imposed upon
Contented Dissatisfied
Sensible Vain
Conceited
Overaffectionate
Enthusiastic Apathetic
Easily guided Contrary
Obstinate
Rebellious
Overdocile
Deliberative Impulsive
Social: Loyal Changeable
Jealous
Tattling
Treacherous

Generous Selfish
Sympathetic Hard-hearted
Silly
Considerate of others Thoughtless
Criticizing
Courteous Rude
Bullying
Winsome, manly Indifferent
Gracious Priggish
Conciliatory Ill-mannered
Peacemaking Quarrelsome

Manners: (2-3) Charm Indifference
Repulsion
Self-possessed Self-conscious
Bashful
Taciturn
Seeking attention
Simpering
Gentle Aggressive
Boisterous
Respectful Impudent
Interrupting
Contradicting
Trained in conventions Untrained, awkward
Industry: (4) Industrious Lazy, shirking
Prompt Dilatory
Dawdling
Procrastinating
Thorough Careless
Painstaking Indifferent
Orderly Disorderly
Systematic Erratic
Thrifty Spendthrift
Economical Extravagant
Miserly
Foresighted Short-sighted
Shrewd
Easily imposed upon
Moral: (3) Conscientious Supersensitive
Indifferent
Callous
Generous Selfish
Self-seeking
Honest Prevaricating
Thieving
Frank Hypocritical
Affected
Sly
Underhanded
Tricky
Brusque
Mischievous Destructive
Teasing Malicious
Modest Immodest
Pure-minded Uncouth
Bold
Brazen
Unchaste
Desires and appetites Uncontrolled desires
controlled and appetites
Will: Firm Weak
Persistent Vacillating
Subject to reason Stubborn
Motives that Ambition Fear of punishment
influence: (1) Pain to others Vanity
Pleasure to others Rivalry
Ideal good (the right) Selfishness
Joy in right doing Mercenariness
Love (of others, Material reward
cause, God)
Response to Friendly Sullen
reproof: (1) Rebounds Sulks
Acknowledges justice Resentful
Revengeful
Religion: (2) Wonder Apathy
Awe
Reverence Irreverence
Sense of gratitude Thoughtless
Interest in theological Disinterest
questions
Interest in religious Disinterest
ceremonies

Natural Gifts and Talents (5). Expressiveness in any of following:
Music: vocal, instrumental; rhythm, dancing, dramatics;
drawing, painting, modeling, sculpture; literature, handcrafts,
mechanics; nurturing, organizing, leadership

Ideals, Ambition, Expectations (8). Extent and nature of following:
Vocational: (Will change with periods of development, environment)
Professional: technical, artistic, industrial, manual
Educational: economic, social, family

Training: Sturdy Coddling
Simple Pampered
Consistent Inconsistent
Sympathetic Unsympathetic
Just Unjust
Persistent Intermittent
Scope for self-activity Repressed
Intelligent Irrational
Emotional
Sincere Superficial

Summary

Marked Traits, Physical and Psychological

Making for Efficiency: Inefficiency:
Need uprooting: Correction: Developing:
Making for social attractiveness: Unattractiveness:

Fundamental traits to be especially cultivated:

Energy
Expressiveness
Self-reliance
Persistence
Concentration
Imagination
Curiosity
Initiative
Orderliness
Responsibility
Self-control
Will
Altruism
Courtesy
Cheerfulness
Honesty

FOOTNOTES:

[28] Lefthand column includes normal and desirable characteristics; righthand column includes abnormal or undesirable.

[29] Measured as length, child lying down, during first year.

[30] Snellen cards may be used for testing vision.

[31] Parents, brothers, sisters.

[32] During year before child’s birth.