Chapter XXIX: Book XXXI (2)

All salt is either native or artificial;[3106] both kinds being formed in various ways, but produced from one of these two causes, the condensation or the desiccation, of a liquid.[3107] The Lake of Tarentum is dried up by the heat of the summer sun, and the whole of its waters, which are at no time very deep, not higher than the knee in fact, are changed into one mass of salt. The same, too, with a lake in Sicily, Cocanicus by name, and another in the vicinity of Gela. But in the case of these two last, it is only the sides[3108] that are thus dried up; whereas in Phrygia, in Cappadocia, and at Aspendus, where the same phænomena are observable, the water is dried up to a much larger extent, to the very middle of the lake, in fact. There is also another marvellous[3109] circumstance connected with this last—however much salt is taken out of it in the day, its place is supplied again during the night. Every kind of lake-salt is found in grains, and not in the form of blocks.[3110]

Sea-water, again, spontaneously produces another kind of salt, from the foam which it leaves on shore at high-water mark, or adhering to rocks; this being, in all cases, condensed by the action of the sun, and that[3111] salt being the most pungent of the two which is found upon the rocks.

There are also three different kinds of native salt. In Bactriana there are two vast lakes;[3112] one of them situate on the side of Scythia, the other on that of Ariana, both of which throw up vast quantities of salt.[3113] So, too, at Citium, in Cyprus; and, in the vicinity of Memphis, they extract salt from the lake and dry it in the sun. The surface-waters of some rivers, also, condense[3114] in the form of salt, the rest of the stream flowing beneath, as though under a crust of ice; such as the running waters near the Caspian Gates[3115] for instance, which are known as the “Rivers of Salt.” The same is the case, too, in the vicinity of the Mardi and of the people of Armenia. In Bactriana, also, the rivers Ochus[3116] and Oxus carry down from the mountains on their banks, fragments of salt. There are also in Africa some lakes, the waters of which are turbid, that are productive of salt. Some hot springs, too, produce salt—those at Pagasæ for example. Such, then, are the various kinds of salt produced spontaneously by water.

There are certain mountains, also, formed of native salt; that of Oromenus, in India, for example, where it is cut out like blocks from a quarry, and is continually reproduced, bringing in a larger revenue to the sovereigns of those countries than that arising from their gold and pearls. In some instances it is dug out of the earth, being formed there, evidently, by the condensation of the moisture, as in Cappadocia for example, where it is cut in sheets, like those of mirror-stone.[3117] The blocks of it are very heavy, the name commonly given to them being “mica.”[3118] At Gerrhæ,[3119] a city of Arabia, the ramparts and houses are constructed of blocks of salt, which are soldered together by being moistened with water. King Ptolemæus discovered salt also in the vicinity of Pelusium, when he encamped there; a circumstance which induced other persons to seek and discover it in the scorched tracts that lie between Egypt and Arabia, beneath the sand. In the same manner, too, it has been found in the thirsting deserts of Africa, as far as the oracle of Hammon,[3120] a locality in which the salt increases at night with the increase of the moon.

The districts of Cyrenaica are ennobled, too, by the production of hammoniacum,[3121] a salt so called from the fact of its being found beneath the sands[3122] there. It is similar in colour to the alum known as “schiston,”[3123] and consists of long pieces, by no means transparent, and of an unpleasant flavour, but highly useful in medicine; that being held in the highest esteem, which is the clearest and divides into straight[3124] flakes. There is one remarkable fact mentioned in connexion with it: so long as it lies under ground in its bed[3125] it is extremely light, but the moment it is exposed to the light, it is hardly credible to what an extent its weight is increased. The reason for this is evident:[3126] the humid vapours of the excavations bear the masses upwards, as water does, and so aid the workmen. It is adulterated with the Sicilian salt which we have mentioned as being found in Lake Cocanicus, as also with that of Cyprus, which is marvellously like it. At Egelasta,[3127] in Nearer Spain, there is a salt, hewn from the bed in almost transparent blocks, and to which for this long time past most medical men, it is said, have given the preference over all other salt. Every spot in which salt[3128] is found is naturally barren, and produces nothing. Such are the particulars, in general, which have been ascertained with reference to native salt.

Of artificial salt there are several kinds; the common salt, and the most abundant, being made from sea-water drained into salt-pans, and accompanied with streams of fresh water; but it is rain more particularly, and, above all things, the sun, that aids in its formation; indeed without this last it would never dry. In the neighbourhood of Utica, in Africa, they build up masses of salt, like hills in appearance; and when these have been hardened by the action of the sun and moon, no moisture will ever melt them, and iron can hardly divide them. In Crete, however, salt is made without the aid of fresh water, and merely by introducing sea-water into the salt-pans. On the shores of Egypt, salt is formed by the overflow of the sea upon the land, already prepared for its reception, in my opinion, by the emanations of the river Nilus. It is made here, also, from the water[3129] of certain wells, discharged into salt-pans. At Babylon, the result of the first condensation is a bituminous[3130] liquid, like oil, which is used for burning in lamps; when this is skimmed off, the salt is found beneath. In Cappadocia, also, both well and spring-water are introduced into the salt-pans. In Chaonia there is a spring, from the water of which, when boiled[3131] and left to cool, there is an inert salt obtained, not so white as ordinary salt. In the Gallic provinces and in Germany, it is the practice to pour salt-water upon burning wood.[3132]

CHAP. 40.—MURIA.

In one part of Spain, they draw a brine for this purpose from deep-sunk pits, to which they give the name of “muria;” being of opinion, also, that it makes a considerable difference upon what kind of wood it is poured. That of the quercus they look upon as the best, as the ashes of it, unmixed, have the pungency of salt.[3133] In other places, again, the wood of the hazel is held in high esteem; and thus, we see, by pouring brine upon it, charcoal even is converted into salt. All salt that is thus prepared with burning wood is black. I find it stated by Theophrastus, that the Umbri[3134] are in the habit of boiling ashes of reeds and bulrushes in water, till there remains but little moisture unconsumed. The brine, too, of salted provisions is sometimes boiled over again, and, as soon as all the moisture has evaporated, the salt resumes its original form. That prepared from the pickle of the mæna[3135] has the finest flavour.

CHAP. 41.—THE VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF SALT: ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY HISTORICAL REMARKS RELATIVE THERETO.

Of the various kinds of sea-salt, the most esteemed is that of Salamis, in Cyprus; and of the lake-salts, that of Tarentum, and the salt known as Tattæan salt, which comes from Phrygia: these last two are also good for the eyes. That of Cappadocia, which is imported in small cubes,[3136] imparts a fine colour, it is said, to the skin; but, for effacing wrinkles, that which we have[3137] already spoken of as the salt of Citium is the best: hence it is that, in combination with gith,[3138] it is used by females as a liniment for the abdomen after childbirth. The drier the salt, the stronger it is in taste; but the most agreeable of all, and the whitest known, is that of Tarentum. In addition to these particulars, we would remark also, that the whiter salt is, the more friable it is. Rain-water deadens every kind of salt, but dew-water makes it more delicate in flavour. North-easterly winds render the formation of salt more abundant, but, while south winds prevail, it never increases. It is only while north-easterly winds prevail, that flower of salt[3139] is formed. Neither the salt of Tragasa, nor the Acanthian salt—so called from the town[3140] where it is found—will decrepitate or crackle in the fire; nor will the froth of salt do so, or the outside scrapings, or refined salt. The salt of Agrigentum[3141] resists fire, but decrepitates in water.

There are differences, too, in the colour of salt: at Memphis it is deep red, russet-coloured in the vicinity of the Oxus, purple at Centuripa, and so remarkably bright at Gela, situate also[3142] in Sicily, as to reflect the image of objects. In Cappadocia there is a saffron-coloured fossil salt, transparent and remarkably odoriferous. For medicinal purposes, the ancients esteemed the salt of Tarentum in particular, and next to that all the marine salts, those collected from sea-foam more especially. For maladies of the eyes in cattle and beasts of burden, the salt of Tragasa and that of Bætica are employed. For made dishes[3143] and ordinary food, the more easily a salt liquefies and the moister it is, the more highly it is esteemed; there being less bitterness in salt of this description, that of Attica and of Eubœa, for example. For keeping meat, a pungent, dry, salt, like that of Megara, is best. A conserve of salt is also made, with the addition of various odoriferous substances, which answers all the purpose of a choice sauce,[3144] sharpening the appetite, and imparting a relish to all kinds of food: indeed, among the innumerable condiments which we use, the flavour of salt is always distinctly perceptible; and when we take garum[3145] with our food, it is its salt flavour that is considered so exquisite. And not only this, but sheep even, cattle, and beasts of burden, are induced to graze all the better[3146] by giving them salt; it having the effect, also, of considerably augmenting the milk, and imparting a superior flavour to the cheese.

We may conclude, then, by Hercules! that the higher enjoyments of life could not exist without the use of salt: indeed, so highly necessary is this substance to mankind, that the pleasures of the mind, even, can be expressed by no better term, than the word “salt,”[3147] such being the name given to all effusions of wit. All the amenities, in fact, of life, supreme hilarity, and relaxation from toil, can find no word in our language to characterize them better than this. Even in the very honours, too, that are bestowed upon successful warfare, salt plays its part, and from it, our word “salarium”[3148] is derived. That salt was held in high esteem by the ancients, is evident from the Salarian[3149] Way, so named from the fact that, by agreement, the Sabini carried all their salt by that road. King Ancus Martius gave six hundred modii of salt as a largess[3150] to the people, and was the first to establish salt-works. Varro also informs us, that the ancients used salt by way of a relishing sauce; and we know, from an old proverb,[3151] that it was the practice with them to eat salt with their bread. But it is in our sacred rites more particularly, that its high importance is to be recognized, no offering ever being made unaccompanied by the salted cake.[3152]

CHAP. 42.—FLOWER OF SALT: TWENTY REMEDIES. SALSUGO: TWO REMEDIES.

That which mainly distinguishes the produce of salt-works, in respect of its purity, is a sort of efflorescence,[3153] which forms the lightest and whitest part of salt. The name “flower of salt”[3154] is given, also, to a substance of an entirely different character, more humid by nature, and of a red or saffron colour; a kind of “rust of salt,” as it were, with an unpleasant smell like that of garum, and differing therein not only from froth of salt,[3155] but from salt itself. This substance is found in Egypt and, as it would appear, is conveyed thither by the waters of the Nilus; though it is to be found floating upon the surface of certain springs as well. The best kind is that which yields a certain fatty[3156] substance, like oil—for salt even, a thing that is quite marvellous to think of, is not without a degree of unctuousness.

This substance is sophisticated, and coloured with red earth, or in most instances, with powdered potsherds; an adulteration to be detected by the agency of water, which washes off the fictitious colour, the natural colour being only removable by the agency of oil. Indeed, it is for its colour that perfumers more particularly make such extensive use of this drug. When seen in the vessels, the surface of it is white, but that which lies in the middle is moister, as already stated. It is of an acrid nature, calorific, and bad for the stomach. It acts also as a sudorific, and, taken with wine and water, has a purgative effect upon the bowels. It is very useful, also, as an ingredient in acopa[3157] and in detersive[3158] compositions, and is remarkably efficacious for the removal of hairs from the eye-lids. It is the practice to shake up the sediment, in order to renovate the saffron colour of the drug.

In addition to these substances, there is another, known in the salt-works by the name of “salsugo,” or “salsilago:” it is quite liquid, salter in taste than sea-water, but inferior to it in its properties.

CHAP. 43.—GARUM: FIFTEEN REMEDIES.

Another liquid, too, of a very exquisite nature, is that known as “garum:”[3159] it is prepared from the intestines of fish and various parts which would otherwise be thrown away, macerated in salt; so that it is, in fact, the result of their putrefaction. Garum was formerly prepared from a fish, called “garos”[3160] by the Greeks; who assert, also, that a fumigation made with its head has the effect of bringing away the afterbirth.

(8.) At the present day, however, the most esteemed kind of garum is that prepared from the scomber,[3161] in the fisheries of Carthago Spartaria:[3162] it is known as “garum of[3163] the allies,” and for a couple of congii we have to pay but little less than one thousand sesterces. Indeed, there is no liquid hardly, with the exception of the unguents, that has sold at higher prices of late; so much so, that the nations which produce it have become quite ennobled thereby. There are fisheries, too, of the scomber on the coasts of Mauretania, and at Carteia in Bætica, near the Straits[3164] which lie at the entrance to the Ocean; this being the only use that is made of the fish. For the production of garum, Clazomenæ is also famed, Pompeii, too, and Leptis; while for their muria, Antipolis,[3165] Thurii, and of late, Dalmatia,[3166] enjoy a high reputation.

CHAP. 44.—ALEX: EIGHT REMEDIES.

Alex, which is the refuse of garum, properly consists of the dregs of it, when imperfectly strained: but of late they have begun to prepare it separately, from a small fish that is otherwise good for nothing, the apua[3167] of the Latins, or aphua of the Greeks, so called from the fact of its being engendered from rain.[3168] The people of Forum Julii[3169] make their garum from a fish to which they give the name of “lupus.”[3170] In process of time, alex has become quite an object of luxury, and the various kinds that are now made are infinite in number. The same, too, with garum, which is now prepared in imitation of the colour of old honied wine, and so pleasantly flavoured as to admit of being taken as a drink. Another kind, again, is dedicated to those superstitious observances[3171] which enjoin strict chastity, and that prepared from fish without[3172] scales, to the sacred rites of the Jews. In the same way, too, alex has come to be manufactured from oysters, sea-urchins, sea-nettles, cammari,[3173] and the liver of the surmullet; and a thousand different methods have been devised of late for ensuring the putrefaction of salt in such a way as to secure the flavours most relished by the palate.

Thus much, by the way, with reference to the tastes of the present day; though at the same time, it must be remembered, these substances are by no means without their uses in medicine. Alex, for instance, is curative of scab in sheep, incisions being made in the skin, and the liquor poured therein. It is useful, also, for the cure of wounds inflicted by dogs or by the sea-dragon, the application being made with lint. Recent burns, too, are healed by the agency of garum, due care being taken to apply it without mentioning it by name. It is useful, too, for bites inflicted by dogs, and for that of the crocodile in particular; as also for the treatment of serpiginous or sordid ulcers. For ulcerations, and painful affections of the mouth and ears, it is a marvellously useful remedy.

Muria, also, as well as the salsugo which we have mentioned,[3174] has certain astringent, mordent, and discussive properties, and is highly useful for the cure of dysentery, even when ulceration has attacked the intestines. Injections are also made of it for sciatica, and for cœliac fluxes of an inveterate nature. In spots which lie at a distance in the interior, it is used as a fomentation, by way of substitute for sea-water.

CHAP. 45. (9.)—THE NATURE OF SALT.

Salt, regarded by itself, is naturally igneous, and yet it manifests an antipathy to fire, and flies[3175] from it. It consumes everything, and yet upon living bodies it has an astringent, desiccative, and binding effect, while the dead it preserves from putrefaction,[3176] and makes them last for ages even. In respect, however, of its medicinal properties, it is of a mordent, burning, detergent, attenuating, and resolvent nature; it is, however, injurious to the stomach, except that it acts as a stimulant to the appetite, For the cure of injuries inflicted by serpents, it is used with origanum, honey, and hyssop; and for the sting of the cerastes, with origanum, cedar-resin, pitch, or honey. Taken internally with vinegar, it is good for injuries caused by the scolopendra; and, applied topically, with an equal proportion of linseed, in oil or vinegar, for stings inflicted by scorpions. For stings of hornets, wasps, and insects of a similar description, it is applied with vinegar; and, for the cure of hemicrania, ulcers on the head, blisters, pimples, and incipient warts, with veal-suet. It is used also among the remedies for the eyes, and for the removal of fleshy excrescences upon those organs, as also of hangnails[3177] upon the fingers or toes. For webs that form upon the eyes it is peculiarly useful, and hence it is that it is so commonly employed as an ingredient in eye-salves, as well as plasters. For all these last-mentioned purposes, the salt of Tatta or of Caunus is more particularly in request.

In cases where there is ecchymosis of the eyes, or a bruise from the effects of a blow, salt is applied, with an equal quantity of myrrh and honey, or with hyssop in warm water, the eyes being also fomented with salsugo. For this last-mentioned purpose, the Spanish salt is preferred; and when wanted for the treatment of cataract, it is ground upon small whetstones, with milk. For bruises it is particularly useful, wrapped in a linen pledget and renewed from time to time, being first dipped in boiling water. For the cure of running ulcers of the mouth, it is applied with lint; gum-boils are also rubbed with it; and, broken to pieces and powdered fine, it removes granulations on the tongue. The teeth, it is said, will never become carious or corroded, if a person every morning puts some salt beneath his tongue, fasting, and leaves it there till it has melted. Salt effects the cure also of leprosy, boils, lichens, and itch-scabs; for all which purposes it is applied with raisins—the stones being first removed—beef-suet, origanum, and leaven, or else bread. In such cases it is the salt from Thebaïs that is mostly used; the same salt being considered preferable for the treatment of prurigo, and being highly esteemed for affections of the uvula and tonsillary glands, in combination with honey.

Every kind of salt is useful for the cure of quinzy; but, in addition to this, it is necessary to make external applications simultaneously with oil, vinegar, and tar. Mixed with wine, it is a gentle aperient to the bowels, and, taken in a similar manner, it acts as an expellent of all kinds of intestinal worms. Placed beneath the tongue, it enables convalescents to support the heat[3178] of the bath. Burnt more than once upon a plate at a white heat, and then enclosed in a bag, it alleviates pains in the sinews, about the shoulders and kidneys more particularly. Taken internally, and similarly burnt at a white heat and applied in bags, it is curative of colic, griping pains in the bowels, and sciatica. Beaten up in wine and honey, with meal, it is a remedy for gout; a malady for the especial behoof of which the observation should be borne in mind, that there is nothing better for all parts of the body than sun and salt:[3179] hence[3180] it is that we see the bodies of fishermen as hard as horn—gout, however, is the principal disease for the benefit of which this maxim should be remembered.

Salt is useful for the removal of corns upon the feet, and of chilblains: for the cure of burns also, it is applied with oil, or else chewed. It acts as a check also upon blisters, and, in cases of erysipelas and serpiginous ulcers, it is applied topically with vinegar or with hyssop. For the cure of carcinoma it is employed in combination with Taminian[3181] grapes; and for phagedænic ulcers it is used parched with barley-meal, a linen pledget steeped in wine being laid upon it. In cases of jaundice, it is employed as a friction before the fire, with oil and vinegar, till the patient is made to perspire, for the purpose of preventing the itching sensations attendant upon that disease. When persons are exhausted with fatigue, it is usual to rub them with salt and oil. Many have treated dropsy with salt, have used external applications of salt and oil for the burning heats of fever, and have cured chronic coughs by laying salt upon the patient’s tongue. Salt has been used, also, as an injection for sciatica, and has been applied to ulcers of a fungous or putrid nature.

To bites inflicted by the crocodile, salt is applied, the sores being tightly bandaged with linen cloths, first dipped[3182] in vinegar. It is taken internally, with hydromel, to neutralize the effects of opium, and is applied topically, with meal and honey, to sprains and fleshy excrescences. In cases of tooth-ache, it is used as a collutory with vinegar, and is very useful, applied externally, with resin. For all these purposes, however, froth of salt[3183] is found to be more agreeable and still more efficacious. Still, however, every kind of salt is good as an ingredient in acopa,[3184] when warming properties are required: the same, too, in the case of detersive applications, when required for plumping out and giving a smooth surface to the skin. Employed topically, salt is curative of itch-scab in sheep and cattle, for which disease it is given them to lick. It is injected, also, with the spittle, into the eyes of beasts of burden. Thus much with reference to salt.

CHAP. 46. (10.)—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF NITRUM, THE METHODS OF PREPARING IT, AND THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT: TWO HUNDRED AND TWENTY-ONE OBSERVATIONS THEREON.

And here we must no longer defer giving an account of nitrum;[3185] which in its properties does not greatly differ from salt, and deserves all the more to be attentively considered, from the evident fact that the medical men who have written upon it were ignorant of its nature; of all which authors Theophrastus is the one that has given the greatest attention to the point. It is found in small quantities in Media, in certain valleys there that are white with heat and drought; the name given to it being “halmyrax.”[3186] In Thracia, too, near Philippi, it is found, but in smaller quantities, and deteriorated with earthy substances, being known there as “agrion.”[3187] As to that prepared from the burnt wood of the quercus,[3188] it never was made to any very great extent, and the manufacture of it has been long since totally abandoned. Nitrous[3189] waters are also found in numerous places, but not sufficiently impregnated to admit of condensation.[3190]

The best and most abundant supply is found at Litæ, in Macedonia, where it is known as “Chalastricum:”[3191] it is white and pure, and closely resembles salt. In the middle of a certain nitrous lake there, a spring of fresh water issues forth. In this lake the nitrum[3192] forms for nine days, about the rising of the Dog-star, and then ceases for the same period, after which it again floats upon the surface, and then again ceases: facts which abundantly prove that it is the peculiar nature of the soil which generates the nitrum, it being very evident that, when the formation is there interrupted, neither the heat of the sun nor the fall of rain is productive of the slightest effect. It is also a truly marvellous fact, that though the spring of fresh water is always uninterruptedly flowing, the waters of the lake never increase or overflow. If it happens to rain on the days during which the nitrum is forming, the result is, that it is rendered additionally salt thereby: the prevalence of north-east winds, too, still more deteriorates its quality, as they have a tendency to stir up the mud at the bottom. Such is the formation of native nitrum.

In Egypt, again, it is made artificially, and in much greater abundance, but of inferior quality, being tawny and full of stones. It is prepared in pretty nearly the same manner[3193] as salt, except that in the salt-pans it is sea-water that is introduced, whereas in the nitre-beds it is the water of the river Nilus; a water which, upon the subsidence of the river, is impregnated with nitrum for forty days together, and not, as in Macedonia, at intermittent periods only. On occasions when there has been a fall of rain, a smaller proportion of river-water is employed. As soon, too, as any quantity of nitrum has formed, it is immediately removed, in order that it may not melt in the beds. This substance, also, contains a certain proportion of oil,[3194] which is very useful for the cure of scab in animals. Piled up in large heaps, it keeps for a very considerable time. It is a marvellous fact, that, in Lake Ascanius[3195] and in certain springs in the vicinity of Chalcis, the water is fresh and potable on the surface, and nitrous below. The lightest part of nitrum is always considered the best, and hence it is that the froth of it is so much preferred. Still, however, when in an impure state, it is very useful for some purposes, colouring purple[3196] cloth, for instance, and, indeed, all kinds of dyeing. It is employed, also, very extensively in the manufacture of glass, as we shall more fully mention on the appropriate occasion.[3197]

The only nitre-works in Egypt were formerly those in the vicinity of Naucratis and Memphis; those near Memphis being inferior to the others, the piles of nitrum there prepared being as hard as stone, and many of the heaps having become changed into rocks. When in this state, vessels are made of it, and very frequently they melt it with sulphur[3198] on a charcoal fire.[3199] When substances[3200] are wanted to keep, they employ this last kind of nitrum. In Egypt there are also nitre-beds, the produce of which is red, owing to the colour of the earth in the same locality. Froth of nitrum,[3201] a substance held in very high esteem, could only be made, according to the ancients, when dews had fallen; the pits being at the moment saturated with nitrum, but not having arrived at the point of yielding it. On the other hand, again, when the pits were in full activity, no froth would form, it was said, even though dews should fall. Others, again, have attributed the formation of this last substance to the fermentation of the heaps of nitrum. In a succeeding age, the medical men, speaking of it under the name of “aphronitrum,”[3202] have stated that it was collected in Asia, where it was to be found oozing from the soft sides of certain mines—the name given to which was “colyces”[3203]—and that it was then dried in the sun. The very best is thought to be that which comes from Lydia; the test of its genuineness being its extreme lightness, its friability, and its colour, which should be almost a full purple. This last is imported in tablets, while that of Egypt comes enclosed in vessels pitched within, to prevent its melting,[3204] the vessels being previously prepared by being thoroughly dried in the sun.[3205]

To be good, nitrum should be very fine, and extremely spongy and porous. In Egypt, it is sophisticated with lime, an adulteration easily detected[3206] by tasting it; for when pure, it liquefies immediately, while that which has been adulterated, remains undissolved sufficiently long to leave a pungent taste[3207] in the mouth. It is burnt in a close earthen vessel, as otherwise it would decrepitate:[3208] except in this last case, however, the action of fire does not cause it to decrepitate. This substance neither produces nor nourishes anything; while, in the salt-pans, on the other hand, we see plants growing, and the sea, we know, produces immense numbers of animated beings, though, as to plants, sea-weed only. It is evident, too, that the acridity[3209] of nitrum must be much greater than that of salt, not only from the fact last mentioned, but from the circumstance also, that at the nitre-beds the shoes wear out with the greatest rapidity; localities which are otherwise very healthy, and remarkably beneficial for the eye-sight. At the nitre-works ophthalmia is a thing unknown: persons, too, that come there with ulcers upon them experience a rapid cure; though ulcerations formed upon the spot are but slow in healing. Used as a friction with oil, nitrum is a sudorific, and acts emolliently upon the body. That of Chalastra is used as a substitute for salt, in making bread,[3210] and the Egyptian nitrum is eaten[3211] with radishes,[3212] it having the effect of making them more tender; though as to other edibles it turns them white and spoils them. To vegetables it imparts an additional greenness.[3213]

Viewed medicinally, nitrum is calorific, attenuant, mordent, astringent, desiccative, and ulcerating: it is good, too, in all cases where certain humours require to be drawn out or dispersed, or where gentle mordents or attenuants are required, as in the case of pustules and pimples, for example. Some persons ignite it for this purpose, and, after quenching it in astringent wine, bruise and use it, without oil, at the bath. Applied with dried iris powdered, and green olive oil, it checks immoderate perspiration. Applied topically with a fig, or boiled down to one half in raisin wine, it removes marks upon the eyes and granulations of the eyelids. It is used, also, for the removal of argema, boiled in a pomegranate rind with raisin wine. Used as an ointment, in combination with honey, it improves the eye-sight. It is very useful, also, for tooth-ache, taken as a collutory with wine and pepper, or boiled with a leek. Burnt, and employed as a dentifrice, it restores teeth[3214] to their original colour that have turned black; and an application of it, with Samian earth and oil, kills nits and other vermin of the head. Dissolved in wine, it is used as an injection for suppurations of the ears, and, applied with vinegar, it consumes filth that has accumulated there. Introduced dry into the ears, it disperses singings and tinglings in those organs.

Applied topically, in the sun, with an equal quantity of Cimolian[3215] chalk dissolved in vinegar, it removes white morphew; and a mixture of it with resin, or with white raisins—the stones being beaten up as well—is an excellent cure for boils. It is useful, also, for inflammations of the testes; and, in combination with axle-grease, for pituitous eruptions on all parts of the body. For the cure of bites inflicted by dogs, it is used with resin, the application being made at first with vinegar. With lime and vinegar, it is used as a liniment for stings inflicted by serpents, as, also, for ulcerations, whether phagedænic, putrid, or serpiginous; in cases, too, of dropsy, it is employed both internally and externally, beaten up with figs. Taken internally as a decoction, in doses of one drachma, with rue, dill, or cummin, it effectually removes griping pains in the bowels. An external application of it, with oil and vinegar, is highly refreshing to persons exhausted with fatigue; and it is equally beneficial for shudderings and cold shiverings, the feet and hands of the patient being well rubbed with it, mixed with oil. It allays the itching sensations attendant upon jaundice, more particularly when it is administered to the patient while perspiring, with vinegar. Taken internally in oxycrate, it is an antidote to the poison of fungi; and, taken with water, it acts beneficially, as an emetic, in cases where the buprestis has been swallowed.

To persons who have taken bull’s blood,[3216] nitrum is administered, in combination with laser.[3217] Mixed with honey and cow’s milk, it is curative of ulcers upon the face. For the cure of burns, it is applied pounded, being first parched till it turns black. For pains in the bowels and kidneys, and for rigidities of the limbs and pains in the sinews, it is used in the form of an injection. For the cure of paralysis of the tongue, it is applied to that organ with bread, and to asthmatic patients it is administered in a ptisan. Flower of nitrum, used in combination with equal proportions of galbanum and turpentine respectively, is curative of chronic coughs; the mixture being taken in pieces the size of a bean. Nitrum[3218] itself, boiled and melted with tar, is given to patients to swallow, for quinzy.

Flower of nitrum, mixed with oil of cyprus,[3219] and applied in the sun, is a soothing liniment for pains in the joints. Taken internally with wine, it is curative of jaundice. It acts as a carminative also; and it arrests bleeding at the nose, the vapour of it in boiling water being inhaled by the patient. Mixed with alum, it removes porrigo; and, used daily with water, as a fomentation, it removes offensive odours of the armpits. Used in combination with wax, it heals ulcers produced by pituitous secretions, and, similarly employed, it is very useful for affections of the sinews. For the cure of the cœliac flux, it is used in the form of an injection. Many authorities recommend the use of it, with oil, as a friction when cold shiverings are just coming on; as also, for the removal of leprous spots and freckles. It is a good plan also, to use a sitting-bath made with an infusion of nitrum, for the cure of gout, atrophy, opisthotony, and tetanus.

Both salt and nitre, boiled with sulphur,[3220] become petrified.

CHAP. 47. (11.)—SPONGES, AND THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THEM: NINETY-TWO OBSERVATIONS THEREON.

We have already,[3221] when speaking of the marine productions, described the various kinds of sponge. Some authorities make the following distinctions: they regard as males[3222] those sponges which are pierced with more diminutive holes, are more compact in form and more ready to imbibe, and are stained, to satisfy luxurious tastes, in various colours, sometimes purple even: those, on the other hand, which have holes, larger and running into one another, they consider to be females. Among the male sponges, too, there is one kind, harder than the others, the name given to which is “tragi,”[3223] and the holes of which are extremely small and numerous. Sponges are made white artificially; the softest being chosen for the purpose, and after they have been steeped the whole summer through with the foam of the sea. They are then exposed to the action of the moon and hoar-frosts, being turned upside down, or, in other words, with that part upwards by which they formerly adhered to the rocks, the object being that they may become white throughout.

That sponges are animated beings, we have already stated; and not only this, but they have a coat of blood[3224] even, adhering to them. Some say that they regulate their movements by the sense of hearing, and that at the slightest noise they contract themselves, and emit an abundant moisture: when such is the case, it is said, it is impossible to tear them away from the rocks, and consequently they must be cut, an operation during which they emit a sanious secretion. Those sponges, too, are preferred to all others, which are grown on spots with a north-east aspect, the physicians assuring us that these retain the breath of life the longest of all; a circumstance which renders them additionally useful to the human body, from the union which is thereby effected of their vital principle with our own.[3225] It is for this reason, too, that they are preferred as fresh as possible, and in a moist state rather than dry. They are not so useful, however, if applied with hot water,[3226] and still less so if they are oiled, or applied to the body when just anointed. The compact sponges, it is thought, have less adhesive power than the others.

The softest kind of sponge are those employed for tents.[3227] Applied with honied wine, sponges reduce swellings of the eyes, and are extremely useful for the removal of rheum from those organs, the very finest and softest being of necessity selected for the purpose. Sponges are applied, also, with oxycrate, to defluxions of the eyes, and, with warm vinegar, for head-ache. In addition to these properties, fresh sponges are resolvent, emollient, and soothing; but when old, they lose their healing properties for wounds. They are employed, also, in medicine, for cleansing sores, and for either fomenting or covering the parts fomented, till some other application is made. Applied topically, they have a healing effect upon running ulcers, and upon sores on the bodies of aged persons. Fractures, too, and wounds are most effectually fomented with sponge; and when surgical operations are performed, it instantly absorbs the blood, so as to allow the incision to be seen. Sponges are applied, also, as a bandage, to inflamed wounds, sometimes dry, and, in some cases, moistened with vinegar, wine, or cold water. Soaked in rain-water, and applied to the incision, they prevent cuts recently inflicted from swelling. They are used as an application for such parts of the body, though apparently uninjured, as are threatened with occult humours which require to be dispersed; as also for reducing the tumours known to us as “apostemes,” the parts being first fomented with a decoction of honey. Sponges are employed, also, for affections of the joints, steeped in vinegar and salt, or in oxycrate: in cases, however, where the attack is attended with fever, water alone is used with the sponge. Soaked in salt and water, sponges are applied to callosities; and, with vinegar, they are used for stings inflicted by scorpions.

In the treatment of wounds, sponges are sometimes used as a substitute for greasy wool, either with wine and oil, or with salt and water; the only difference being, that wool acts emolliently upon sores, whereas sponge has an astringent action, and absorbs the vitiated humours. To dropsical patients, bandages of sponge are applied, either dry or steeped in warm water or oxycrate, according as there is a necessity for soothing the skin, or for covering it up and drying it. Sponges are applied, also, in all those diseases where warmth is required, being first soaked in boiling water and then squeezed out between a couple of boards. Employed in this manner, too, they are very useful for affections of the stomach and for the excessive heats attendant upon fever. Steeped in oxycrate, they are good for diseases of the spleen, and in vinegar for erysipelas; nothing, in fact, being equally efficacious. Sponge, when thus used, should always be so applied as amply to cover the adjacent parts that are not affected.

Employed with vinegar or cold water, sponge arrests hæmorrhage; soaked in warm salt and water, and frequently renewed, it removes the lividity which results from a recent blow. Used with oxycrate, it disperses pains and swellings in the testes. To bites inflicted by dogs, it is a good plan to apply sponge, from time to time, cut fine, and moistened with vinegar, cold water, or honey. Ashes of African[3228] sponge, with juice of cut-leek and a mixture of salt and cold water, are good, taken internally, for patients suffering from discharges of blood: applied topically to the forehead, with oil or vinegar, they are curative of tertian fevers. The sponge of Africa, more particularly, soaked in oxycrate, disperses tumours. Ashes of any kind of sponge burnt with pitch, arrest the discharge of blood from wounds; though some recommend, for this purpose, the sponge with large pores only, burnt with pitch. For affections of the eyes; sponge is burnt in vessels of unbaked earthenware; the ashes being found highly efficacious for granulations of the eyelids, fleshy excrescences, and all diseases of those parts which require detergents, astringents, or expletives. For all these purposes, however, it is the best plan first to rinse the ashes. When the body is in a diseased state, sponge acts as a substitute for body-scrapers and linen towels, and it protects the head most efficiently against the action of the sun.

Medical men, in their ignorance, comprehend all sponges under two names; African sponge, the substance of which is tougher and firmer; and Rhodian sponge, which is softer and better adapted for fomentations. At the present day, however, the softest sponges of all are those found about the walls of the city of Antiphellos.[3229] Trogus informs us that the softest tent sponges are found out at sea, off the coast of Lycia, upon spots from which the sponge has been previously removed: we learn, too, from Polybius, that these fine sponges, suspended over a patient’s bed, will ensure him additional repose at night.[3230]

We will now turn to the remedies derived from the marine and aquatic animals.

SUMMARY.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, nine hundred and twenty-four.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,[3231] Cassius[3232] of Parma, Cicero,[3233] Mucianus,[3234] Cælius,[3235] Celsus,[3236] Trogus,[3237] Ovid,[3238] Polybius,[3239] Sornatius.[3240]

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Callimachus,[3241] Ctesias,[3242] Eudicus,[3243] Theophrastus,[3244] Eudoxus,[3245] Theopompus,[3246] Polycritus,[3247] Juba,[3248] Lycus,[3249] Apion,[3250] Epigenes,[3251] Pelops,[3252] Apelles,[3253] Democritus,[3254] Thrasyllus,[3255] Nicander,[3256] Menander[3257] the Comic writer, Attalus,[3258] Sallustius Dionysius,[3259] Andreas,[3260] Niceratus,[3261] Hippocrates,[3262] Anaxilaüs.[3263]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See B. xvi. cc. 6, 8, 33, 50.

[2] See B. xvii. c. 3.

[3] As Fée justly remarks, the greater part of these so-called sympathies and antipathies must be looked upon as so many fables. In the majority of instances, it is the habitual requirements of the tree or plant that constitute the difference; thus, for instance, the oak or quercus requires a different site and temperature from that needed by the olive, and the stony soil adopted by the vine is but ill-suited for the cultivation of the cabbage.

[4] See B. xx. c. 36.

[5] See B. xxi. cc. 27, 38, and B. xxv. c. 67.

[6] See the same statement made in B. xxiii. c. 62.

[7] Or Bacchus.

[8] “Philyra.” Fée does not think that it can be of any use for such a purpose. Hardouin says, however, that in his time meat when too highly salted was wrapped in leaves of the lime or linden, for the purpose of extracting the salt.

[9] See B. xviii. c. 14.

[10] Instead of having this effect, Fée says, it would render it much worse.

[11] The intention being to clear the wine, though in reality, as Fée observes, it would have a tendency to turn the wine into vinegar.

[12] Chalk, or in other words, sub-carbonate of lime, and argilla, or aluminous earth combining several earthy salts, would probably neutralize the acetic acid in the wine, but would greatly deteriorate its flavour.

[13] On the contrary, lime would appear to have a great affinity for water, absorbing it with avidity, if we may use the term.

[14] More easily with water; though vinegar will do for the purpose.

[15] “Atramentum.” By this passage, Fée says, it is clearly proved that the ink of the ancients was soluble in water, and that it contained neither galls nor salts of iron. What it really was made of is still a matter of doubt; but it is not improbable that the basis of it was spodium, or ashes of ivory.

[16] “Officinas.”

[17] “In medio.” The reading is very doubtful here.

[18] This, of course, is mere exaggeration.

[19] He would seem to imply that the medical men of his age had conspired to gain an adventitious importance by imposing upon the credulity of the public, on the principle “Omne ignotum pro magnifico;” much as the “medicine-men” of the North American Indians do at the present day.

[20] He alludes to the physicians of Greece more particularly.

[21] “Imperatoribus quoque imperaverunt.”

[22] In B. xiii. c. 32, and B. xvi. c. 53. Pliny ascribes here to the Lotus of Italy, the Celtis Australis of Linnæus, the same medicinal properties that are given by Dioscorides, B. i. c. 171, to the Egyptian bean or Nymphæa Nelumbo of Linnæus. Galen gives the same account as Dioscorides; it is not improbable, therefore, that Pliny is in error.

[23] See B. xvi. c. 53, Note 2539.

[24] Half a denarius. See Introduction to Vol. III.

[25] Acorns, as well as the bark of the various kinds of oak, are of an astringent nature.

[26] Or, hogs’ lard.

[27] In the singular number, “cacoethes,” “a bad habit;” signifying a malignant or cancerous tumour.

[28] See B. xvi. c. 12. All the properties here ascribed to it, Fée says, are hypothetical. It is no longer used in medicine, at least to any recognized extent.

[29] Hence the Latin word “vermiculum,” from which our word “vermilion” is derived.

[30] In B. xvi. c. 12.

[31] In B. xvi. c. 9.

[32] They might be used advantageously, Fée thinks, in the shape of a decoction, for procidence of the uvula and uterus.

[33] “Eating,” or “corrosive.”

[34] See B. xvi. cc. 11, 93, 94.

[35] See B. xvi. cc. 10, 11.

[36] This passage, as Fée remarks, is somewhat obscure.

[37] As to the identity of the “nitrum” of Pliny, see B. xxxi. cc. 22, 46.

[38] Fée says, that till very recently it was a common belief that the oak mistletoe is curative of epilepsy. It was also employed as an ingredient in certain antispasmodic powders.

[39] See B. xvi. c. 10.

[40] See B. xvi. c. 8.

[41] This decoction would be of a tonic and astringent nature, owing to the tannin and gallic acid which the leaves and bark contain.

[42] See B. xvi. c. 13.

[43] “Ex utrâlibet parte.”

[44] There is no foundation, Fée says, for any of these statements.

[45] See B. xvi. c. 60. The leaves of the cypress, Fée says, contain tannin and an essential oil; all the medicinal properties therefore, here attributed to them, which are not based upon these principles, must be looked upon as hypothetical.

[46] Down to the present century the leaves and fruit of the cypress were recommended in some medical works for the cure of hernia. The juice, however, of the leaves, taken internally, would be, as Fée says, highly dangerous.

[47] Owing probably to the gallic acid they contain.

[48] See B. xiv. c. 4.

[49] See Introduction to Vol. III.

[50] See B. x. c. 28, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28.

[51] See B. xiii. c. 11.

[52] Fée remarks, that many of the moderns attribute to frankincense the properties here ascribed to cedria; a most unfounded notion, he thinks.

[53] In B. xiv. c. 25, and B. xvi. cc. 21, 22.

[54] Sillig reads “volumina;” in which case it is not improbable that the allusion is to the practice of seasoning the paper of manuscripts with a preparation of cedar, as a preservative against mildew and worms. Another reading is “lumina,” and it is not impossible that it is the right one, meaning that pitch of cedar is useful for making lamps or candles. Fée reminds us that we are not to confound the “cedria” with the “cedrium” of B. xvi. c. 21, though Pliny seems here to confound the two. See Note 2326 to that Chapter.

[55] As in B. xvi. c. 21, he has said the same of “cedrium,” a red tar charged with empyreumatic oil, it is clear that he erroneously identifies it with “cedria,” or pitch of cedar. It is with this last, in reality, that the Egyptians embalmed the dead, or rather preserved them, by dipping them in the boiling liquid.

[56] If he implies that it is poisonous, such in reality is not the case.

[57] A mere absurdity, of course.

[58] It would be of no use whatever for the cure of injuries inflicted by the Aplysia vulgaris or Aplysia depilans of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 72, and B. xxxii. c. 3.

[59] See B. xv. c. 7, and B. xxv. c. 22. “Pitch oil,” a volatile oil.

[60] This mention of the berries clearly proves, Fée thinks, that the Cedrelates of Pliny belongs in reality to the genus Juniperus.

[61] Or of the juniper, Fée thinks.

[62] See Note 58 above.

[63] In B. xii. c. 56.

[64] Cartilaginous, clear, and free from ligneous substances.

[65] It is still employed, Fée says, to a small extent, as a topical application for ulcerated sores. Its properties are energetic, but nearly all the uses to which Pliny speaks of it as being applied are hypothetical.

[66] In B. xii. c. 56.

[67] Narcotic poisons.

[68] See B. xii. c. 58. See also c. 16 of this Book.

[69] This statement is entirely fabulous.

[70] In B. xii. c. 49. Gum ammoniac is still used to some small extent in modern medicine, for asthma, boils, tumours, and diseases of the bladder.

[71] In B. xii. c. 55. Fée says that it is of the Amygdalite storax that Pliny is here speaking. It is little employed at the present day for internal maladies.

[72] This is not the fact.

[73] In B. xii. c. 58. It is no longer used in medicine, though possessed of properties of considerable energy. Fée says that most of the assertions here made respecting it are unfounded.

[74] An absurdity, Fée remarks.

[75] In B. xii. c. 50. Various lichens probably were called by this name. No use is made of them in modern medicine.

[76] See B. xiii. c. 12. The leaves and root of the terebinth or turpentine-tree have some medicinal properties, owing to their resin or essential oil; but no use is made of them in modern medicine.

[77] See B. xvi. c. 18.

[78] See B. xvi. c. 19. The leaves of these trees are of an astringent and acid nature, Fée says, but they are no longer employed in medicine. All that Pliny here states relative to them is very problematical.

[79] Fée says that it is still the practice of the Turkish physicians to recommend to their patients the air of the cypress groves of Candia. He states also, that it is a very general supposition that resins, balms, and balsams are good for pulmonary phthisis, but is of opinion that the notion is founded upon no solid basis.

[80] See B. xxxi. c. 33, also Celsus. B. iii. c. 22. Similar to a voyage to Madeira, recommended to our consumptive patients at the present day.

[81] Or “ground-pine.”

[82] From “abigo,” to “drive away,” it would appear.

[83] “Thus terræ.” The Teucrium Iva of Linnæus, Fée says, or Chamæpitys moschata. Fée remarks that Pliny commits a great error in giving to it the blossoms of the pine, and that he assigns larger proportions than really belong to it. The name “incense of the earth,” is very inappropriate; for it has none of the odour of incense, but merely a resinous smell.

[84] The Teucrium chamæpitys of Linnæus, the Chamæpitys lutea vulgaris of C. Bauhin, the ground-pine.

[85] The leaves are imbricated, and the branches bend downwards, like those of the pine, whence the name.

[86] The Teucrium pseudo-chamæpitys of Linnæus, the bastard ground-pine.

[87] To the pine or pitch-tree, mentioned in c. 19.