Chapter M: M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C (1)

THOMAS G. WRIGHT, LL.B., Professor of Mercantile Law, University of Glasgow.

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

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The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne, G_oe_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger. M_ue_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

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THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME I

A, the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly belonging to it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is heard in _father_, pronounced short or long. In English the letter is made to represent at least seven sounds, as in _father_, _mat_, _mate_, _mare_, _many_, _ball_, _what_, besides being used in such digraphs as _ea_ in _heat_, _oa_ in _boat_.--A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C, and stands when in perfect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 3/5 to 1. The second string of the violin is tuned to this note.

A 1, a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in Lloyd's register of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to the rigging and whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A 1, 90 A 1, the number denotes that the vessel is built according to certain specifications. See _Shipbuilding_.

AA ([:a]) (Old Ger. _aha_, water; allied to Lat. _aqua_, water), the name of a great many streams of Central and Northern Europe.

AACHEN ([:a]'_h_[.e]n). See _Aix-la-Chapelle_.

AALAND ISLANDS. See _Aland Islands_.

AALBORG ([=o]l'bor_h_: 'eel-town'), a seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, on the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with iron-founding, distilling, fishing, &c. Pop. 33,449.

AALEN ([:a]'l[.e]n), a town of Germany in Wuerttemberg, which manufactures woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works and tanneries. Pop. 11,347.

AALESUND ([=o]'le-s[u:]nd), seaport and fishing centre on the west coast of Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.

AALI PASHA. See _Ali Pasha_.

AALST ([:a]lst). See _Alost_.

AAR, or AARE ([:a]r), the name of several European rivers, of which the chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to it and the Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from the Upper and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses Lakes Brienz and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On it are Interlaken, Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the canton of Aargau, it gives its name.

AARAU ([:a]'rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in Switzerland, capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.

AARD-VARK ([:a]rd'v[.a]rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a burrowing insect-eating animal of South Africa, _Orycter[)o]pus capensis_, order Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It is called also _ground-hog_ and _Cape pig_.

les crist[=a]tus_)]

AARDWOLF ([:a]rd'w[u:]lf: earth-wolf) (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_), a burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied to the hyenas and civets. It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, &c.

AARE. See _Aar_.

AARGAU ([:a]r'gou), or ARGOVIE ([.a]r-go-v[=e]), a northern canton of Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, abundantly watered by the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. Pop. 236,860. German is almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau.

AARHUUS ([=o]r'h[:o]s), a seaport and ancient town of Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a good harbour, and manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. Pop. 65,858.

AARON ([=a]'ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of Moses. At Sinai, when the people became impatient at the long-continued absence of Moses, he complied with their request by making a golden calf, and thus became involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The office of high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his family. He died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his son Eleazer.

AARON'S BEARD. See _Saint John's Wort_ and _Toad-flax_.

AARON'S ROD. See _Golden-rod_ and _Mullein_.

AASEN ([=o]'zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and philologist, was born in 1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous poems and a drama, but he is chiefly known as the originator of the patriotic movement known as the _Maulstroev_. He endeavoured to give Norway a literary language distinct from the Danish, which has long served as the literary and official language of the country. This he attempted to do mainly by the help of the native dialects, which he studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar in special works and embodying their vocabulary in his _Norsk Ordbog med Dansk Forklaring_ (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873), supplemented by the _Norsk Ordbog_ of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of poems, tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen was in a sense the inventor.

AASVAER ([=o]s'v[=a]r), a group of small islands off the Norwegian coast, under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important herring-fishery.

AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the ecclesiastical, year--part of July and part of August.

ABABDA, or ABABDEH (abab'de) (GEBADEI of Pliny), a nomadic African race inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, between the Nile and the Red Sea, dark-brown in colour. Their language is Arabic and they are Mahommedans in religion. They number about 40,000.

AB'ACA, or MANILLA HEMP, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a kind of plantain (_Musa text[)i]lis_) which grows in the Indian Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. The outer fibres of the leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable ropes, the inner into various fine fabrics.

AB'ACO, GREAT and LITTLE, two islands of the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop. about 4000.

AB'ACUS, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in elementary schools for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, &c.--The uppermost member or division of the capital of a column, immediately under the architrave.

ABAD'DON (Heb. destruction), the name given in _Rev._ ix. 11 as that of the angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise called _Apollyon_. In _Job_, xxvi, 6, it designates the underworld, or Hades.

ABAKANSK', a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper Yenisei, founded by Peter the Great in 1707.

ABALONE (ab-a-l[=o]'ne), a name in California for a species of ear-shell (Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.

AB'ANA, or AMANAH, one of the two rivers of Damascus mentioned in the Bible (2 _Kings_, v, 12). See _Barada_.

ABAN'DONMENT, a term of marine insurance, employed to designate the case where the party insured gives up his whole interest in the property to the insurer, and claims as for a total loss.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. G. Phillimore, _Marine Insurance_, in _Encyclopedia of the Laws of England_, vol. viii; C. R. Tyser, _Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance_.

AB'ANO, a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, famous for its mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the birthplace of Livy.

ABA'RIM, a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including Nebo, on which Moses died.

ABATEMENT, in law, has various significations. _Abatement of nuisances_ is the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or private nuisance, of destroying or removing it himself. A _plea in abatement_ is brought forward by a defendant when he wishes to defeat or quash a particular action on some formal or technical ground. Abatement, in mercantile law, is an allowance, deduction, or discount made for prompt payment or other reason.

AB'ATTIS, or ABATIS, in field engineering, a mass of trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the enemy in such a way as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them.

ABATTOIR (ab-at-w[:a]r'). See _Slaughter-house_.

ABAUZIT, Firmin ([.a]-b[=o]-z[=e]), a French Protestant scholar, was born in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, but visited England and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him not unfit to be judge between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to the invention of the integral and differential calculus. Collections of his works were published at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).

ABBA, a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being applied in the Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave rise to the word _abbot_. In the Syriac and Coptic Churches it is given to bishops.

ABBADIE ([.a]b-[.a]-d[=e]), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 respectively. They lived for years in Abyssinia, and published valuable works on that country: Arnaud, _Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_; Antoine, _Geodesie de la Haute-Ethiopie_, &c. Arnaud died in 1893, Antoine in 1897.

ABBAS I, the _Great_, Shah or King of Persia, born in 1557, ascended the throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of Usbek Tartars had made great encroachments on the country. Having defeated the Usbeks, recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced a great part of Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 defeated them near Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He extended his rule beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his dominions stretched from the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by the Persians as their greatest sovereign.

ABBAS II, HILMI, ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is the eldest son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During his reign he adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he failed in his attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th Dec., 1914, the British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas Hilmi and conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, eldest living prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who died in 1917. See _Egypt_.

ABBAS MIRZA, a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the shah Feth Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in the wars against Russia.

ABBASIDS, or ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz), the name of the second Arabian dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its descent from Abbas (born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave thirty-seven caliphs to Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a member of this dynasty. See _Caliphs_.

ABBATE ([.a]b-b[:a]'t[=a]), the Italian term corresponding to _Abbe_.

ABBE ([.a]b-[=a]), a French word for abbot, or for anyone regularly wearing the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, all who had studied theology, either with the view of becoming ordained clergymen or merely of obtaining some ecclesiastical appointment or benefice, were generally so designated. Marked out by their special dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were seen everywhere--at court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families, where they acted sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential advisers. Others, again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers in the higher educational establishments.

ABBE, Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at New York in 1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in connection with observatories and other institutions in America, and was for some time chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He wrote much on meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His works include: _The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere_; _Relations between Climates and Crops_, &c.

ABBEOKU'TA, a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province of S. Nigeria, on the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. Nigeria, 45 miles north of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall. Pop. 50,000 to 100,000.

AB'BESS. See _Abbey_ and _Abbot_.

ABBEVILLE (ancient ABBATIS VILLA), a town of France, department of the Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 miles N.N.W. of Paris. The town is first mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the Abbey of St. Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the fifteenth century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a magnificent west front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens, sail-cloth, chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373.

AB'BEY, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, governed by an _abbot_, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community, superintended by an _abbess_. An abbey invariably included a church. A priory differed from an abbey only in being scarcely so extensive an establishment, and was governed by a _prior_. In the English conventual cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, &c., the archbishops or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate governor of the monastery being called a prior. Some priories sprang originally from the more important abbeys, and remained under the jurisdiction of the abbots; but subsequently any real distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. The greater abbeys formed most complete and extensive establishments, including not only the church and other buildings devoted to the monastic life and its daily requirements, such as the refectory or eating-room, the dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the room for social intercourse, the school for novices, the scribes' cells, library, &c., but also workshops, storehouses, mills, cattle and poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans, labourers, and other servants, infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most famous abbeys on the continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the most noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland, Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.

ABBIATEGRASSO ([.a]b-b[=e]-[:a]'t[=a]-gr[.a]s-s[=o]), a town in the north of Italy, 15 miles W.S.W. of Milan. Pop. 13,148.

AB'BOT (from the Syriac _abba_, father), the head of an abbey (see _Abbey_), the lady of similar rank being called _abbess_ (_abbatissa_). An abbess, however, was not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthood, such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did abbesses ever succeed in freeing themselves from the control of their diocesan bishop. In the early age of monastic institutions (_circ._ A.D. 300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply laymen who retired from the world to live in common, and the abbot was also a layman. In the course of time the abbots were usually ordained, and when an abbey was directly attached to a cathedral the bishop was also the abbot, but the functions devolving on the head of a monastery were, in this case, performed by a prior. At first the abbeys were more remarkable for their numbers than for their magnitude, but afterwards many of them were large and richly endowed, and the heads of such establishments became personages of no small influence and power, more especially after the abbots succeeded (by the eleventh century) in freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop of their diocese. Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly striving to obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The great object was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for this purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of trust, or, as it was called, _in commendam_. According to the original idea, the abbot _in commendam_, or 'commendator', was merely a temporary trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues during a vacancy, and was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but ultimately the commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the appointment for life, and was allowed to apply the whole or a large portion of the revenues to his own private use. Many of the abbots vied with the bishops and nobility in rank and dignity. In England abbots long sat in the House of Lords, ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them were present on 28th June, 1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a body sat in Parliament. The Reformation introduced vast changes, not only in Protestant countries, where abbeys and all other monastic establishments were generally suppressed, but even in countries which still continued Roman Catholic; many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the Roman Catholic Church by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to imitate them in the confiscation of Church property.

ABBOT (or Lord) OF MISRULE, the personage who took the chief part in the Christmas revelries of the English populace before the Reformation. In Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.

ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and died in 1633. He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the Bible, was made Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, and in 1611 Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I to the last, but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court was superseded by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly theological, and _A Brief Description of the Whole World_ (1599).

AB'BOTSFORD, the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of the Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in the Scottish baronial style of architecture.--_Abbotsford Club_, a club established at Edinburgh for printing works throwing light on matters of history or literature connected with the writings of Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.

AB'BOTT, Rev. Edwin, D.D., prolific writer on theological, educational, and other subjects, born in London, 1838, was educated at the City of London School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished himself; he was head master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889, when he retired. His _Shakespearian Grammar_ (1870) is one of his best contributions to English philology. Among his theological and kindred writings are: _Through Nature to Christ_; _Bible Lessons_; _Cambridge Sermons_; _Oxford Sermons_; the elaborate article _Gospels_ in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th edition); _From Letter to Spirit_. Other works are: _Philochristus_ and _Onesimus_, both romances on the history of the Early Christian Church; _Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works_; _St. Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles_; _The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman_ (a very depreciatory estimate); _Flatland, a Romance of Many Dimensions_. He also wrote: _Johannine Grammar_ (1906), _The Message of the Son of Man_ (1909), _The Fourfold Gospel_ (1913-7).

AB'BOTT, Jacob, a popular American writer, especially of entertaining and instructive books for the young. He was born in 1803 and died in 1879. For a time he was a teacher and later a clergyman.

AB'BOTT, Thomas Kingsmill, D.D., biblical scholar and writer on philosophic and other subjects, born at Dublin, 1829, died 18th Dec., 1913. He studied with distinction at Trinity College, and was successively professor in Dublin University of moral philosophy, 1867-72; of biblical Greek, 1875-88; and of Hebrew, 1879-1900; he was at one time librarian of the College. He has written _Sight and Touch_, directed against the Berkeleian theory of vision; _Elements of Logic_; _Essays, chiefly on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments_; _Notes on some Epistles of St. Paul_; _Elementary Theory of the Tides_; _Translation of Kant's Theory of Ethics_; _Kant's Introduction to Logic_; _Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians_; &c.

ABBREVIA'TIONS, devices used in writing and printing to save time and space, consisting usually of curtailments effected in words and syllables by the removal of some letters, often of the whole of the letters except the first. The following is a list of the more important:--

A.B., _artium baccalaureus_, bachelor of arts (more commonly B.A.);
also, able-bodied seaman. Abp., archbishop. A.C., _ante Christum_,
before Christ. Ac., acre. Acc., A/c, or Acct., account. A.D., _anno
Domini_, in the year of our Lord: used also as if equivalent to 'after
Christ', or 'of the Christian era'. A.D.C., aide-de-camp. Ad lib., _ad
libitum_, at pleasure. A.D.O.S., assistant director of ordnance stores.
A.D.V.S., assistant director of veterinary services. Aet. or Aetat.
_aetatis_ (_anno_), in the year of his age. A.G., attorney-general,
adjutant-general. A.H., _anno Hegirae_, in the year of the Hegira.
A.I.A., associate of the Institute of Actuaries. A.Inst.C.E., associate
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A.I.Mech.E., associate of the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers. A.M., _ante meridiem_, forenoon;
_anno mundi_, in the year of the world; _artium magister_, master of
arts. A.M.I.E.E., associate member of the Institute of Electrical
Engineers. A.M.I.Mech.E., associate member of the Institute of
Mechanical Engineers. A.M.Inst.C.E., associate member of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. Anon., anonymous. A.P.D., army pay
department. A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy (London). A.R.A.M.,
associate of the Royal Academy of Music. A.R.C.O., associate of the
Royal College of Organists. A.R.I.B.A., associate of the Royal
Institute of British Architects. A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal
Scottish Academy. A.U.C., _ab urbe condita_, from the building of Rome
(753 B.C.). A.V., authorized version; artillery volunteers.

B.A., bachelor of arts. Bart, or Bt., baronet. B.C., before Christ.
B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. B.D., bachelor of divinity. B.L.,
bachelor of law. B.M., bachelor of medicine. Bp., bishop. B.S.,
bachelor of surgery. B.Sc., bachelor of science. B.V.M., blessed Virgin
Mary.

C., cap., or chap., chapter. C.A., chartered accountant. Cantab.,
_Cantabrigiensis_, of Cambridge. Cantuar., _Cantuariensis_, of
Canterbury. C.B., companion of the Bath. C.B.E., commander of the
British Empire. C.C., Catholic curate; county councillor. C.D.V.,
_carte de visite_. C.E., civil engineer. Cf., _confer_, compare. Ch.B.,
_chirurgiae baccalaureus_, bachelor of surgery. C.I., order of the
Crown of India. C.I.E., companion of the order of the Indian Empire.
C.J., chief justice. C.M., _chirurgiae magister_, master in surgery;
common metre. C.M.G., companion of the order of St. Michael and St.
George. C.M.S., Church Missionary Society. Co., company or county.
C.O.D., cash on delivery. Col., colonel, colony. Coll., college. Cr.,
creditor. C.S., civil service; clerk to the signet. C.S.I., companion
of the Star of India. C.T.C., Cyclists' Touring Club. Curt., current,
the present month. C.V.O., commander of the Royal Victorian Order.
Cwt., hundredweight.

d., _denarius_, penny or pence. D.C.L., doctor of civil law. D.C.M.,
Distinguished Conduct Medal. D.D., doctor of divinity. Del.,
_delineavit_, drew it. D.F., defender of the faith. D.G., _Dei gratia_,
by the grace of God. D.L., deputy lieutenant. D.Lit., D.Litt., _doctor
litterarum_, doctor of letters or literature. Do., _ditto_, the same.
D.O.M., _Deo Optimo Maximo_, to God, the best and greatest. D.P.H.,
diploma in public health. D.Phil., doctor of philosophy. Dr., doctor,
also debtor. D.Sc., doctor of science. D.S.O., Distinguished Service
Order. D.V., _Deo volente_, God willing. Dwt., pennyweight.

E., east. Ebor., _Eboracensis_, of York. E.C., Established Church.
E.C.U., English Church Union. E.E., errors excepted. e.g., _exempli
gratia_, for example. Etc. or &c., _et cetera_, and the rest.

F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermometer. F.A., Football Association.
F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.A., fellow of the
British Academy. F.C., Free Church. F.C.P., fellow of the College of
Preceptors. F.C.S., fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D., _fidei
defensor_, defender of the faith. Fec., _fecit_, he made or did it.
F.F.A., fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries. F.F.P.S., fellow of the
Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S., fellow of the
Geological Society. F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural Society.
F.I.A., fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Fl., flourished. F.L.S.,
fellow of the Linnaean Society. F.M., field-marshal. F.O.B., free on
board (goods delivered). F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astronomical
Society. F.R.C.O., fellow of the Royal College of Organists. F.R.C.P.,
fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S., fellow of the
Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geographical
Society. F.R.I.B.A., fellow of the Royal Institute of British
Architects. F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. F.R.S.E., fellow of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts
or Antiquaries. F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft., foot or
feet. F.Z.S., fellow of the Zoological Society.

Gal., gallon. G.B.E., (knight) grand cross of the British Empire.
G.C.B., (knight) grand cross of the Bath. G.C.I.E., (knight) grand
commander of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G., (knight) grand cross of St.
Michael and St. George. G.C.S.I., (knight) grand commander of the Star
of India. G.C.V.O., (knight) grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order.
G.R., Georgius Rex, King George. G.R.I., Georgius Rex Imperator;
George, King and Emperor. G.P.O., general post office.

H.B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. H.E.I.C.S., honourable East India
Company's service. Hhd., hogshead. H.I.H., his or her imperial
highness. H.M.I.S., his majesty's inspector of schools. H.M.S., his or
her majesty's ship. Hon., honourable. H.Q., Head-quarters. H.R.H., his
(her) royal highness. H.S.H., his (her) serene highness.

Ib. or Ibid., _ib[=i]dem_, in the same place. Id., _idem_, the same.
i.e., _id est_, that is. +I.H.S., _Jesus hominum salvator_, Jesus the
Saviour of men: originally it was [Greek: IES], the first three letters
of [Greek: IESOUS] (_I[=e]sous_), Greek for _Jesus_. Incog.,
_incognito_, unknown. Inf., _infra_, below. I.N.R.I., _Iesus Nazarenus
Rex Iudaeorum_, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst., instant, or
of this month; institute. Inv., _invenit_, designed, invented.
I.O.G.T., Independent Order of Good Templars. I.O.U., I owe you.
I.S.O., Imperial Service Order.

J.P., justice of the peace. Jr., junior. J.U.D., _juris utriusque
doctor_, doctor both of the civil and the canon law.

K.B.E., knight commander of the British Empire. K.C., king's counsel.
K.C.B., knight commander of the Bath. K.C.M.G., knight commander of St.
Michael and St. George. K.C.I.E., knight commander of the Indian
Empire. K.C.S.I., knight commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O.,
knight commander of the Royal Victorian Order. K.G., knight of the
Garter. K.P., knight of St. Patrick. K.T., knight of the Thistle. Kt.
or Knt., knight.

L., l, or L, pounds sterling. L.A., literate in arts. L.A.S.,
licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. Lat., latitude; Latin. Lb. or
lb., _libra_, a pound (weight). L.C., _loco citato_, in the place
cited. L.C.J., lord chief-justice. L.C.P., licentiate of the College of
Preceptors. Ldp., lordship. L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery.
Litt.D., _litterarum doctor_, doctor of literature. L.L., Low Latin.
L.L.A., lady literate in arts. LL.B., _legum baccalaureus_, bachelor of
laws. LL.D., _legum doctor_, doctor of laws (that is, the civil and the
canon law). LL.M., _legum magister_, master of laws. Lon. or long.,
longitude. Loq., _loquitur_, speaks. L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College
of Physicians (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.S., licentiate Royal
College of Surgeons (with E., of Edinburgh). L.R.C.V.S., licentiate of
the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. L.S., _locus sigilli_, the
place of the seal (on documents). L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of
Apothecaries. L.S.D., _librae, solidi, denarii_, pounds, shillings,
pence.

M.A., master of arts. M.B., _medicinae baccalaureus_, bachelor of
medicine. M.B.E., member of the British Empire. M.D., _medicinae
doctor_, doctor of medicine. M.E., mining engineer. Messrs., messieurs,
gentlemen. M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. M.Inst.C.E., member of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. M.I.E.E., member of the Institute of
Electrical Engineers. M.I.M.E., member of the Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers. M.I.Mech.E., member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. Mlle., mademoiselle. Mme., madame. M.P., member
of Parliament. M.R.C.S., member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal College of Veterinary surgeons.
M.R.I.A., member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript; MSS.,
manuscripts. Mus.D., _musicae doctor_, doctor of music. M.V.O., member
of the Royal Victorian Order.

N., north. N.B., _nota bene_, take notice; also North Britain, New
Brunswick. N.D., no date. Nem. con., _nemine contradicente_, no one
contradicting, unanimously. No., _numero_, number. N.P., notary public.
N.S., new style, Nova Scotia. N.S.W., New South Wales. N.T., New
Testament. N.Y., New York. N.Z., New Zealand.

Ob., _obiit_, died. O.B.E., officer of the British Empire. Obs.,
obsolete. Obt., obedient. O.C., officer commanding. O.H.M.S., on his
majesty's service. O.M., Order of Merit. O.P., out of print. Op. cit.,
_opere citato_, in the work quoted. O.S., old style. O.T., Old
Testament. Oxon., _Oxoniensis_, of Oxford. Oz., ounce or ounces.

P., page; pp., pages. Par., paragraph. P.C., privy-councillor. P.E.,
Protestant Episcopal. Per cent., _per centum_, by the hundred. Ph.D.,
_philosophiae doctor_, doctor of philosophy. Pinx., _pinxit_, painted
(it). P.M., _post meridiem_, afternoon. P.O., post office. P.O.O., post
office order. P.P., parish priest. P.P.C., _pour prendre conge_, to
take leave. Prox., _proximo (mense)_, next month. P.R.A., president of
the Royal Academy. P.R.S.A., president of the Royal Scottish Academy.
P.S., postscript. P.T.O., please turn over (the leaf).

Q., question, queen. Q.E.D., _quod erat demonstrandum_, which was to be
demonstrated. Q.E.F., _quod erat faciendum_, which was to be done.
Q.M., quarter-master. Q.M.G., quarter-master-general. Qu., query.
Quant. suff., _quantum sufficit_, as much as is needful. Q.V., _quod
vide_, which see.

R., _rex, regina_, king, queen. R.A., royal academician; Royal
Artillery. R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. R.A.M.C., Royal Army Medical
Corps. R.A.O.D., Royal Army Ordnance Department. R.A.S.C., Royal Army
Service Corps. R.C., Roman Catholic. R.C.P., Royal College of
Physicians. R.C.S., Royal College of Surgeons. R.E., Royal Engineers.
Rev., reverend. R.I.P., _requiescat in pace_, may he rest in peace.
R.M., Royal Marines. R.N., Royal Navy. R.S.A., royal Scottish
academician. R.S.E., Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L., Royal Society
of Literature. R.S.V.P., _repondez s'il vous plait_, reply, if you
please. Rt. Hon., right honourable. Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. R.V.,
revised version.

S., south. S. or St., saint. Sc., _scilicet_, namely, viz. S.J.,
Society of Jesus (Jesuits). S.P.C.A., Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C., Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children. S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. S.P.G.,
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.P.Q.R., _senatus
populusque Romanus_, the senate and people of Rome. S.S.C., solicitor
before the supreme courts. S.S.M., Society of the Sacred Mission. St.,
saint, street. S.T.D., _sacrae theologiae doctor_, doctor of divinity.
S.T.P., _sacrae theologiae professor_, an old-fashioned equivalent of
D.D.

T.C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. T.O., telegraph office.

U.F.C., United Free Church. U.K., United Kingdom. Ult., _ultimo_, last
(month). U.P., United Presbyterian. U.S., United States. U.S.A., United
States of America. U.S.N., United States Navy.

V., _vide_, see; also _versus_, against. V.C., Victoria Cross. Viz.,
_videlicet_, to wit, or namely. V.P., vice-president. V.S., veterinary
surgeon. W., west. W.I., West Indies. W.L.F., Women's Liberal
Federation. W.O., War Office. W.S.P.U., Women's Social and Political
Union. W.S. writer to the signet (Scotland).

Xmas, Christmas.

Y.M.C.A., Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A., Young Women's
Christian Association.

In LL.D., LL.B., &c., the letter is doubled, according to the Roman
system, to show that the abbreviation represents a plural noun.

ABD-EL-KA'DER, an Arab chief, born in Algeria, 1807; died at Damascus, 1883. He was the chief opponent of the French in their conquest of Algeria, but at last surrendered to them in 1847, and was imprisoned till set at liberty by Napoleon III in 1852. He afterwards resided chiefly at Damascus, but made various journeys, and visited the Paris exhibition of 1867. He wrote a religious philosophical work in Arabic which has been translated into French.

ABDE'RA, an ancient Greek city on the Thracian coast, the birthplace of Democritus (the laughing philosopher), Anaxarchus, and Protagoras. Its inhabitants were proverbial for stupidity.

ABDICA'TION, properly the voluntary, but sometimes also the involuntary, resignation of an office or dignity, and more especially that of sovereign power. Abdication does not necessarily require the execution of a formal deed, but may be presumed from facts and circumstances, as in the case of the English Revolution in 1688, when, after long debate, it was resolved by both Houses of Parliament that King James II, having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, had "_abdicated_ the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant". Yet the sovereign of Great Britain cannot constitutionally abdicate without the consent of both Houses of Parliament. The principal abdications in recent years were: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, 14th March, 1917; King Constantine of Greece, 11th June, 1917; King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 6th Oct., 1918; Wilhelm II of Germany, 9th Nov., 1918; Karl I of Austria, 13th Nov., 1918; and Marie Adelaide, Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg, 15th Jan., 1919.

ABDO'MEN, in man, the belly, or lower cavity of the trunk, separated from the upper cavity or thorax by the diaphragm or midriff, and bounded below by the bones of the pelvis. It contains the viscera belonging to the digestive and urinary systems. What are called the _abdominal regions_ will be understood from the accompanying cut, in which 1 is the _epigastric_ region, 2 the _umbilical_, 3 the _pubic_, 4 4 the right and left _hypochondriac_, 5 5 the right and left _lumbar_, 6 6 right and left _iliac_. The name is given to the corresponding portion of the body in other animals. In insects it comprises the whole body behind the thorax, usually consisting of a series of rings. See _Alimentary Canal_.

ABDOM'INAL FISHES (Abdomin[=a]les), a group of the soft-finned (or malacopterous) fishes, having fins upon the abdomen, and comprising the herring, pike, salmon, carp, &c.

ABDUC'TION, a legal term, generally applied to denote the offence of carrying off a female either forcibly or by fraudulent representations. Such a delinquency in regard to a man is styled _kidnapping_. There are various descriptions of abduction recognized in criminal jurisprudence, such as that of a child, of an heiress, or of a wife.

AB'DUL-AZ'IZ, Sultan of Turkey, was born in Feb., 1830, and succeeded his brother Abdul-Mejid, in June, 1861. He concluded treaties of commerce with France and England, both of which countries he visited in 1867. Deposed in May, 1876, he committed suicide, or more probably was assassinated, in June of the same year. He was succeeded by his son Murad V. See next article.

AB'DUL-HAM'ID, Sultan of Turkey, younger son of Abdul-Mejid, born 22nd Sept., 1842, succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed on proof of his insanity in 1876. At that time Turkey, which was at war with Serbia, was compelled to agree to an armistice at the demand of Russia. The persecution and oppression of the Christian population of Bulgaria had roused remonstrances from other European countries, and a congress met at Constantinople to consider a constitution which the Porte had proclaimed. The conference was a failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by Russia. During the sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with great bravery, but they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was signed at San Stefano in Feb., 1878, but its provisions were modified by a congress of the Great Powers which met at Berlin. The island of Cyprus was ceded to Britain. Serbia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed from Turkish suzerainty altogether; Bulgaria was left in nominal dependence; whilst Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian administration. In 1881 Thessaly was transferred to Greece; in 1885 E. Roumelia became united to Bulgaria. Ever since the treaty of Berlin, Abdul Hamid saw in Germany the future friend of Turkey. He therefore entrusted Germans with the reorganization of his army and finances. Subsequently there were massacres of Christians, a war with Greece (1897), and troubles in Crete and Macedonia. In April, 1909, the Sultan was deposed, and his brother, Rashid Effendi, proclaimed sultan as Mohammed V. Abdul Hamid died in captivity 10th Feb., 1918.

ABD-UL-LAT'IF, an Arab writer and physician, was born at Bagdad in 1161 and died there in 1231. He was patronized by the celebrated Saladin, and published an excellent description of Egypt, which is still extant. It was translated into English by White, Oxford, 1800.

AB'DUL-MEJ'ID KHAN, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, succeeded his father, Mahmud II, 1st July, 1839. At the time of his accession Mehemet, Pasha of Egypt, had risen a second time against the Turkish yoke; his son Ibrahim had inflicted a severe defeat on the Turks at Nizib (24th June, 1839), and was advancing on Constantinople. But the intervention of the leading European Powers checked the designs of Mehemet Ali, and saved the Turkish empire. Abdul-Mejid was desirous of carrying out reforms, but most of them were not enforced, or caused bloody insurrections where attempts were made to carry them out. Owing to disputes between the Latin and Greek Churches regarding the rights of precedence and possession of the 'holy places' in Palestine, and to demands made by the Tsar virtually implying the right of protectorate over the Christian subjects of the Sultan, war broke out between Turkey and Russia in 1853. In the following year the Porte effected an alliance with France and England (hence the Crimean War), and later on with Sardinia. (See _Crimean War_.) Abdul-Mejid died 25th June, 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abdul-Aziz.

ABECEDA'RIAN, a term formed from the first four letters of the alphabet, and applied to the followers of Storch, a German Anabaptist (1522), because they rejected all worldly knowledge, even the learning of the alphabet.

A BECKET, Thomas. See _Becket_.

A BECK'ETT, Gilbert Abbott, English writer, born near London in 1811. He studied for the bar, and became one of the original staff of _Punch_, was long a leader-writer to the _Times_ and the _Morning Herald_, and contributed articles to the _Illustrated London News_. He wrote _Comic History of England_, _Comic History of Rome_, and _Comic Blackstone_, and between fifty and sixty plays. In 1849 he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, which office he retained till his death in 1856.

ABEL, properly _Hebel_ (Heb. breath, vapour, vanity), the second son of Adam. He was a shepherd, and was slain by his brother Cain from jealousy because his sacrifice was accepted while Cain's was rejected. Several of the fathers, among others St. Chrysostom and Augustine, regard him as a type of the new, regenerate man.

ABEL, Sir Frederick Augustus, chemist, was born in London, 1827; died 1902. Having adopted chemistry as a profession, he studied under Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, became professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy in 1851, and was chemist to the War Department and chemical adviser to the Government from 1854 to 1888. He did useful work in connection with the chemistry of explosives (especially gun-cotton), the flash-point of petroleum, &c.; was joint-inventor of cordite along with Dewar; and was also an authority on the manufacture of steel. He was honoured with a baronetcy, and was also a K.C.B. and a K.C.V.O. He wrote works on gunpowder, gun-cotton, and explosives generally, and on electricity as applied to explosive purposes. His works include: _The Modern History of Gunpowder_; _Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes_, &c.

ABELARD (ab'e-l[:a]rd), or ABAILARD, Peter, a celebrated scholastic teacher, born near Nantes, in Brittany, in 1079. He made extraordinary progress with his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing his teachers, he opened a school of scholastic philosophy near Paris, which attracted crowds of students from the neighbouring city. His success in the fiery debates which were then the fashion in the schools made him many enemies, among whom was Guillaume de Champeaux, his former teacher, chief of the cathedral school of Notre-Dame, and the most advanced of the Realists. Abelard succeeded his adversary in this school (in 1113), and under him were trained many men who afterwards rose to eminence, among them being the future Pope Celestin II, Peter Lombard, and Arnold of Brescia. While he was at the height of his popularity, and in his fortieth year, he fell violently in love with Heloise--then eighteen years of age--niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris. They obtained a home in Fulbert's house under the pretext of teaching Heloise philosophy, and their intercourse at length became apparent. Abelard, who had retired to Brittany, was followed by Heloise, who there gave birth to a son, named Astrolabius. A private marriage took place, and Heloise returned to her uncle's house, but, refusing to make public her marriage (as likely to spoil Abelard's career), she was subjected to severe treatment at the hands of her uncle. To save her from this Abelard carried her off and placed her in a convent at Argenteuil, a proceeding which so incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians who broke into Abelard's chamber and subjected him to a shameful mutilation. Abelard, filled with grief and shame, became a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil. When time had somewhat moderated his grief, he resumed his lectures; but trouble after trouble overtook him. His theological writings were condemned by the Council of Soissons, and he retired to an oratory called the Paraclete, subsequently becoming head of the abbey of St. Gildas-de-Rhuys in Brittany. For a short time he again lectured at Paris (1136), but his doctrines once more brought persecution on him, and St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the most powerful man in the Church in those days, had him condemned by the Council of Sens and afterwards by the Pope. Abelard did not long survive this, dying at St. Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, 21st April, 1142. Heloise, who had become abbess of the Paraclete, had him buried there, where she herself was afterwards laid by his side. Their ashes were removed to Paris in 1800, and in 1817 they were finally deposited beneath a mausoleum in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. According to John of Salisbury, Abelard is credited with the invention of a new philosophical system, midway between Realism and Nominalism. In Ethics, Abelard seems to have attached importance to the psychological element in the action, rather than to the action itself. "The intention of sinning", he maintained, "is worse than the actual physical sin." A complete edition of his works was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris, 1849-59), and the letters of Abelard and Heloise have been often published in the original and in translations. Pope's _Eloisa to Abelard_ is founded on them. Abelard's autobiography, entitled _Story of my Calamities_, is still extant.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charles de Remusat, _Abelard_ (2 vols.); J. McCabe, _Life of Abelard_.

ABELE (a-b[=e]l'), a name of the white poplar.

A'BELITE, or Abe'lian, a member of a religious sect in Africa which arose in the fourth century after Christ. They married, but lived in continence, after the manner, as they maintained, of Abel, and attempted to keep up the sect by adopting the children of others.

ABELMOSCHUS (-mos'kus), a genus of tropical plants of the mallow family. _A. esculentus_, cultivated in India, Algeria, &c., yields edible pods and also a valuable fibre. The fruit, called _okro_ or _ochro_, is used in soups.

ABENCERRAGES (ab-en-ser'a-jez), a powerful and distinguished Moorish family of Granada, the chief members of which, thirty-six in number, are said to have been massacred in the Alhambra by the king Abu-Hassan (latter half of the fifteenth century) on account of the attachment of his sister to one of them. There is a room in the Alhambra which is still called 'the hall of the Abencerrages'. The legend has furnished the subject of many poems both Arabic and Spanish (_Las Guerras Civiles de Granada_, by Gines Perez de Hita), and formed the basis for Chateaubriand's _Aventures du dernier des Abencerages_.

AB'EN EZRA (Ibn Ezra), a celebrated Jewish rabbi, born at Toledo about 1093, travelled in pursuit of knowledge in England, France, Italy, and Greece, and is supposed to have died in Rhodes about 1167. He is best known as a commentator on Scripture.

ABENSBERG ([:a]'b[.e]ns-ber_h_), a village of Bavaria, in the Danube valley, below Ingolstadt, celebrated for Napoleon's victory over the Austrians, 20th April, 1809.

ABEOKU'TA. See _Abbeokuta_.

AB'ER, a prefix in Celtic geographical proper names signifying the mouth or entrance of a river into the sea, or into another stream. It is used chiefly in Wales and Scotland, having the same meaning as _inver_.

ABERA'VON, a municipal borough of Wales in Glamorganshire, near the mouth of the Avon in Swansea Bay, embracing Aberavon proper and its harbour Port Talbot. There are collieries, ironworks, copper-works, &c. Since 1918 Aberavon gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal borough) (1921), 15,370.

ABERBROTH'OCK. See _Arbroath_.

ABERCARN', an urban district or town of England, Monmouthshire, 10-1/2 miles north-west of Newport, with collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 20,123.

AB'ERCROMBIE, John, M.D., a Scottish writer on medical and moral science, and an eminent physician, born in Aberdeen, 1781, died at Edinburgh in 1844. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh in 1803, and subsequently pursued his studies in London, returning to Edinburgh in 1804, where he acquired an extensive practice as a physician. Apart from medical treatises, he is known from his _Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers_ and his _Philosophy of the Moral Feelings_.

AB'ERCROMBIE, Patrick, a Scottish historical writer and antiquary, born at Forfar, 1656; date of death uncertain. Educated at St. Andrews and abroad, he took the degree of M.D., and practised as a physician in Edinburgh. In 1685 he was appointed physician to James II. His chief work is _Martial Atchievements of the Scots Nation_, 2 vols. folio, 1711-6.

AB'ERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, a British general, born in 1734 in Clackmannanshire, Scotland. He entered the army in 1756 as cornet in the 3rd Dragoon Guards; and he gradually passed through all the ranks of the service until he became a major-general in 1787. He served as lieutenant-general in Flanders, 1793-5, and was then appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in the West Indies, where he captured the islands of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad, with the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo. On his return in 1798 he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland; and he afterwards held a corresponding command in Scotland. His next and concluding service was in the expedition to Egypt, of which he was commander-in-chief. He landed, after a severe fight, at Aboukir, 8th March, 1801; and on the 21st of the same month the battle of Alexandria was fought, in which Sir Ralph was mortally wounded.

ABERDARE (-d[=a]r'), a town of South Wales, in Glamorganshire, pleasantly situated at the junction of the Cynon and Dare, 4 miles south-west of Merthyr-Tydfil, with extensive coal and iron mines in the vicinity. It belongs to the parliamentary borough of Merthyr-Tydfil. Pop. (1921), 55,010.

ABERDEEN', a university city and royal, municipal, and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, capital of the county of same name, mainly on the north bank of the Dee at its entrance into the North Sea, and between this river and the Don, with a part also on the south bank of the Dee, while the municipal limits include the adjacent Woodside. The site is in places somewhat hilly. Aberdeen is one of the oldest towns in Scotland, and was constituted a royal burgh by William the Lion in 1179. The streets are generally spacious and regular, the houses built of fine grayish-white granite. There are many handsome public buildings, as the County and Municipal Buildings, Marischal College, Grammar School, Infirmary, Arts School, Art Gallery, Music Hall Buildings, public library, &c. The finest street, Union Street, made in 1800, is carried over a valley by a granite bridge having an arch of 132 feet span. The small portion of the city called Old Aberdeen, long a separate town, consists mainly of a single street, stretching northwards to the River Don. Its chief buildings are King's College and St. Machar's Cathedral. Noteworthy features of the college buildings are the crown-tower and the chapel, the latter containing some very fine old carved woodwork. The cathedral, now used as a parish church, was commenced about 1357. There are several bridges over the Dee and Don. Over the latter is a fine old bridge (Brig o' Balgownie) of one arch, erected according to some accounts by Robert Bruce. There are docks 34 acres in area, an extensive tidal harbour and basin, and a graving-dock. The shipping trade is extensive. The industries embrace wool, jute, linen, combs, soap, preserved provisions, chemicals, paper, shipbuilding, engineering, and especially the cutting and polishing of granite. The fishing industry is of great importance. The city of Aberdeen returns two members to Parliament. Pop. 158,969.--_The County of Aberdeen_ forms the north-eastern portion of Scotland, and is bounded on the east and north by the North Sea. Area, 1,261,521 acres. It is divided into six districts (Mar, Formartine, Buchan, Alford, Garioch, and Strathbogie), and is generally hilly, there being in the south-west some of the highest mountains in Scotland, as Ben Macdhui (4295 feet), Cairntoul (4245), Cairngorm (4090), Lochnagar, &c. Its most valuable mineral is granite, large quantities of which are exported. The principal rivers are the Dee and the Don, both of which enter the sea at the town of Aberdeen. Cereals (except wheat) and other crops succeed well, and the number of acres under cultivation is nearly double that of any other Scottish county. Great numbers of cattle are fattened and sent to London and the south. On the banks of the upper Dee is situated Balmoral, a favourite residence of Queen Victoria. Aberdeenshire and Kincardine unite in sending three members to Parliament. Pop. 300,980.--_Aberdeen University_, as now constituted, derives its origin from two different foundations; one, the University and King's College (Old Aberdeen), founded in 1494 by Bishop Elphinstone (who was bishop of Aberdeen from 1483-1514) under the authority of a papal bull obtained at the instance of James IV; the other, Marischal College and University (New Aberdeen), founded in 1593 by Geo. Keith, Earl Marischal, by a charter ratified by act of Parliament. The two foundations existed as separate universities, both having the right of conferring degrees, till 1860, when they were united and incorporated into one university, the University of Aberdeen. Holding the funds of both colleges and dating as from the foundation of King's College in 1494, the university has about 300 bursaries or exhibitions, mostly open to public competition, and a number of money prizes and scholarships. The classes for arts and divinity are held in King's College, and those for law and medicine in Marischal College. There is a full teaching staff in the faculties of arts, medicine, science, and divinity, and two professors in that of law. There are in all 25 professors and some 900 matriculated students. The constitution of the university is similar to that of Edinburgh and the other Scottish universities. The library contains over 80,000 volumes. The university unites with those of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews in sending three members to Parliament.

ABERDEEN', George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, British statesman, born 28th Jan., 1784, died 14th Dec., 1860. He began his diplomatic life in 1801 as attache to Lord Cornwallis's embassy to France, which resulted in the signing of the treaty of Amiens. In 1806 he entered Parliament as a Scottish representative peer, and in 1813 was entrusted with a successful mission to Austria for the purpose of inducing the emperor to join the coalition of sovereigns against Bonaparte. In 1814 he was created a British peer, and in 1828 he became foreign secretary in the Duke of Wellington's administration. During the short premiership of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-5 he acted as colonial secretary, and when Sir Robert again became premier in 1841 he took office as Secretary for Foreign Affairs. He was a warm supporter of Catholic Emancipation, and endeavoured, though without result, to bring in a compromise bill in 1846, during the struggle which divided the Established Church of Scotland. Quitting office with his chief in 1846, he came, on the death of Peel in 1850, to be regarded as the leader of the Conservative free-trade party. On the Derby ministry failing to maintain its place, Lord Aberdeen returned to office in the end of 1852 as head of a coalition ministry. The principal event which marked his administration was the Crimean war; but the bad management of this irritated the country, and the ministry resigned in 1855. This event marks the close of Lord Aberdeen's public career. From his travels and his acquaintance with Greece and its antiquities he was called by Byron "the travelled thane, Athenian Aberdeen".

AB'ERDEVINE. See _Siskin_.

ABERGAVEN'NY (sometimes pron. ab-[.e]r-ge'ni, the Roman GOBANNIUM), a municipal borough and market town of England, in Monmouthshire, situated amid delightful scenery in the beautiful valley of the Usk. It manufactures woollens and shoes, and has considerable trade. Pop. (1921), 9252.