Chapter C: D E F G a B C' D' E' F' G' (1)

1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2 9/4 5/2 8/3 3

G A` B C' D' E' F'# G'
1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2

A = 10/9 G. F' = 16/9 G.
A`= 9/8 G. F'# = 15/8 G.
A`= 81/80 A. = 15/8 X 9/16 F'.
= (1 + 1/18{2/7}) F'.

* * * * *

ACRI ([=a]'kr[=e]), a town of S. Italy, province of Cosenza. Pop. 4000.

AC'RITA (Gr. _akritos_, undistinguishable, doubtful), a name sometimes given to the animals otherwise called Protozoa.

ACROCEPH'ALI, tribes of men distinguished by pyramidal or high skulls.

ACROCERAU'NIA (thunder-smitten peaks) (now CAPE GLOSSA or LINGUETTA), a promontory of Western Greece, in Epirus, running into the Adriatic.

ACROCORIN'THUS, a steep rock in Greece, nearly 1900 feet high, overhanging ancient Corinth, and on which stood the acropolis or citadel, the sacred fountain of Pir[=e]n[=e] being also here. This natural fortress has proved itself of importance in the modern history of Greece.

AC'ROGENS (-jenz), lit. summit-growers, a term applied to the ferns, mosses, and lichens (cryptogams), as growing by extension upwards, in contradistinction to endogens and exogens.

AC'ROLITH, an early form of Greek statuary in which the head, hands, and feet only were of stone, the trunk of the figure being of wood draped or gilded.

ACROP'OLIS (Gr. _akros_, high, and _polis_, a city), the citadel or chief place of a Grecian city, usually on an eminence commanding the town. That of Athens contained some of the finest buildings in the world, such as the Parthenon, Erechth[=e]um, &c.

ACROS'TIC, a poem of which the first or last, or certain other, letters of the line, taken in order, form some name, motto, or sentence. A poem of which both first and last letters are thus arranged is called a double acrostic. In Hebrew poetry, the term is given to a poem of which the initial letters of the lines or stanzas were made to run over the letters of the alphabet in their order, as in _Psalm_ cxix.--Acrostics have been much used in complimentary verses, the initial letters giving the name of the person eulogized. They were very popular among French poets of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In modern times Edgar Allen Poe has written quite remarkable acrostic verses.

ACT, in special senses: (1) In dramatic poetry, one of the principal divisions of a drama, in which a definite and coherent portion of the plot is represented; generally subdivided into smaller portions called _scenes_. The Greek dramas were not divided into acts. The dictum that a drama should consist of five acts was first formally laid down by Horace, and is generally adhered to by modern dramatists in tragedy. In comedy, especially since the time of Moliere, more freedom is allowed, and a division into two or three acts is common.--(2) Something formally done by a legislative or judicial body; a statute or law passed.--(3) In universities, a thesis maintained in public by a candidate for a degree. See _Act of God_, _of Parliament_, _of Settlement_.

ACTA DIUR'NA (Lat., proceedings of the day), a daily Roman newspaper which appeared under both the republic and the empire.

ACTAE'A. See _Baneberry_.

ACTAE'ON, in Greek mythology, a great hunter, turned into a stag by Art[)e]mis (Diana) for looking on her when she was bathing, and torn to pieces by his own dogs.

ACTA ERUDITO'RUM (Lat., acts of the learned), the first literary journal that appeared in Germany (1682-1782). It was started by Otto Mencke, after the model of the _Journal des Savants_. Among the contributors, the most distinguished was Leibnitz.

ACTA SANCTORUM (Lat., acts of the saints), a name applied to all collections of accounts of ancient martyrs and saints, both of the Greek and Roman Churches, more particularly to the valuable collection begun by John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, in 1643, and which, being continued by other divines of the same order (_Bollandists_), now extends to sixty volumes, the lives following each other in the order of the calendar.

ACTIN'IA, the genus of animals to which the typical sea-anemones belong. See _Sea-anemone_.

AC'TINISM, the property of those rays of light which produce chemical changes, as in photography, in contradistinction to the light rays and heat rays. The actinic property or force begins among the green rays, is strongest in the violet rays, and extends a long way beyond the visible spectrum.

ACTINIUM, an element or elementary substance obtained in minute quantities in connection with the study of radioactivity. It was discovered by Debierne in 1899. In 1902 Giesel discovered another substance which he called _emanium_, and which was considered to be identical with _actinium_. Marckwald, however, came to the conclusion that these two substances are not identical but closely related to each other. See _Radium_, _Chemistry_.

ACTIN'OLITE, a mineral nearly allied to hornblende.

ACTINOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the intensity of the sun's actinic rays. See _Actinism_.

ACTINOZO'A (lit. ray-animals), a class of animals belonging to the sub-kingdom Coelenterata, and including sea-anemones, corals, &c., all having rayed tentacles round the mouth.

ACTION, the mode of seeking redress at law for any wrong, injury, or deprivation. Actions are divided into civil and criminal, the former again being divided into real, personal, and mixed.

AC'TIUM (now LA PUNTA), a promontory on the western coast of Northern Greece, not far from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of Arta), memorable on account of the naval victory gained here by Octavianus (afterwards the Emperor Augustus) over Antony and Cleopatra, 2nd Sept., 31 B.C., in sight of their armies encamped on the opposite shores of the Ambracian Gulf. Soon after the beginning of the battle Cleopatra escaped with sixty Egyptian ships, and Antony basely followed her, and fled with her to Egypt. The deserted fleet was not overcome without making a brave resistance. Antony's land forces soon went over to the enemy, and the Roman world fell to Octavianus. In 1538 a victory was gained at Actium by the Turks over the Spanish and Venetian fleets.

ACT OF GOD, a legal term defined as "a direct, violent, sudden, and irresistible act of nature, which could not, by any reasonable cause, have been foreseen or resisted". No one can be legally called upon to make good loss so arising.

ACT OF PARLIAMENT, a law or statute proceeding from the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in both houses, and having received the royal assent. Before it is passed it is a _Bill_ and not an Act. Acts are either public or private, the former affecting the whole community, the latter only special persons and private concerns. The whole body of public Acts constitutes the _statute law_. An Act of Parliament can only be altered or repealed by the authority of Parliament. Acts are usually cited in this way, "13 and 14 Vict. c. (or chap.) 21", which means the 21st Act in succession passed in year 13th-14th of the queen's reign (that is, 1850). Short titles, such as "the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854", are also used. Up to the time of Edward I Acts of Parliament were in Latin; then French was introduced, and for some time was exclusively employed. It was not till Henry VII's reign that all Acts were in English.

ACT OF SETTLEMENT, an Act passed by the English Parliament in 1700, by which the succession to the throne of the three kingdoms, in the event of King William and Princess (afterwards Queen) Anne dying without issue, was settled on the Princess Sophia, electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being Protestants. The Princess Sophia was the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I. By this act George I, son of the Princess Sophia, succeeded to the crown on the death of Queen Anne.--Another Act of Settlement was that by which, under Cromwell's government, a new allotment was made of almost all landed property in Ireland, in 1652.

ACT OF TOLERATION, an Act of Parliament Passed in 1689, by which Protestant dissenters from the Church of England, on condition of their taking the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and repudiating the doctrine of transubstantiation, were relieved from the restrictions under which they had formerly lain with regard to the exercise of their religion according to their own forms.

ACT OF UNIFORMITY, an English Act passed in 1662, enjoining upon all ministers to use the _Book of Common Prayer_ on pain of forfeiture of their livings. See _Nonconformity_.

ACTON, a kind of padded or quilted vest or tunic formerly worn under a coat of mail to save the body from bruises, or used by itself as a defensive garment. Jackets of leather or other material plated with mail were also so called. _Gambeson_ was an equivalent term.

ACTON, a name of various places in England, one of them a western suburb of London, pop. (1921), 61,314. Since 1918 Acton gives its name to a parliamentary division of Middlesex, returning one member to Parliament.

ACTON, John Emerich Edward Dalberg, first Baron Acton, born 1834, died 1902, was son of Richard Acton (seventh baronet) and the daughter of the Duc de Dalberg, afterwards wife of Earl Granville, Mr. Gladstone's colleague. As a Roman Catholic he was educated at Oscott, and afterwards on the Continent, partly under Doellinger, and acquired a special taste for and profound knowledge of history. He conducted the _Home and Foreign Review_ from 1862 to 1864, and, in doing so, showed himself a strong opponent of ultramontane pretensions. He next edited the _North British Review_, which under him was rather overweighted with learning, and soon came to an end. In 1869 he was raised to the peerage. He strongly opposed the papal-infallibility movement, and took the side of Mr. Gladstone in his attacks on Vaticanism. In 1895 he accepted the professorship of modern history at Cambridge, delivered lectures, and planned and undertook the editorship of the great work on modern history, _The Cambridge Modern History_, comprising a series of contributions by various scholars, and issued by the university press. Except essays, letters, or articles for periodicals, he himself wrote little. Since his death have been published: _Lectures in Modern History_ (1906); _The History of Freedom and other Essays_ (1907); _Lectures on the French Revolution_ (1910). His library of 60,000 volumes he left to Mr. (now Lord) Morley, who handed it over to the University of Cambridge.

ACTOR, one who represents some part or character on the stage. Actresses were unknown to the Greeks and Romans in the earliest times, men or boys always performing the female parts. They appeared under the Roman empire, however. Charles II first encouraged the public appearance of actresses in England; in Shakespeare's time there were none. See _Drama_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. F. Armstrong, _Century of Great Actors_; H. Simpson, _Century of Great Actresses_.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, fifth of the books of the New Testament, written in Greek and assigned to the author of the gospel of St. Luke. Its date is probably A.D. 63 or 64. It embraces a period of about thirty years, beginning immediately after the resurrection, and extending to the second year of the imprisonment of St. Paul in Rome. Very little information is given regarding any of the apostles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, and the accounts of them are far from being complete. It describes the gathering of the infant Church; the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to his apostles in the descent of the Holy Ghost; the choice of Matthias in the place of Judas, the betrayer; the testimony of the apostles to the resurrection of Jesus in their discourses; their preaching in Jerusalem and in Judea, and afterwards to the Gentiles; the conversion of Paul, his preaching in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, his miracles and labours.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. T. Knowling, _The Expositor's Greek Testament_; J. Moffatt, _The Historical New Testament_; J. M. Wilson, _Origin and Aim of the Acts of the Apostles_.

AC'TUARY, an accountant whose business is to make the necessary computations in regard to a basis for life assurance, annuities, reversions, &c.

ACU'LEUS, in botany, a prickle, or sharp-pointed process of the epidermis, as distinguished from a thorn or spine, which is of a woody nature.

ACUPRESS'URE, a means of arresting bleeding from a cut artery introduced by Sir James Simpson in 1859, and consisting in compressing the artery above the orifice, that is, on the side nearest the heart, with the middle of a needle (Lat. _acus_, a needle) introduced through the tissues.

ACUPUNC'TURE, a surgical operation, consisting in the insertion of needles into certain parts of the body for alleviating pain, or for the cure of different species of rheumatism, neuralgia, eye diseases, &c. It is easily performed, gives little pain, causes neither bleeding nor inflammation, and seems at times of surprising efficacy.

ADAGIO (It. [.a]-d[:a]'j[=o]), a musical term, expressing a slow time, slower than _andante_ and less so than _largo_, _lento_, and _grave_.

ADAL', a country in Africa, east of Abyssinia and north-westward of Tajurrah Bay, inhabited by a dark-brown race of the same name, a tribe of the Danakils, Mahommedans in religion; towns Aussa and Tajurrah. Part of the coast here is held by the French.

AD'ALBERT OF PRAGUE, called the apostle of the Prussians, son of a Bohemian nobleman named Slavnik, born about 939. His real name was Voitech, but he assumed the name of the Archbishop Adalbert, under whom he studied at Magdeburg. He was appointed Bishop of Prague in 983, laboured in vain among the heathenish Bohemians, resolved to convert the pagans of Prussia, but was murdered in the attempt (997). _Boga-Rodzica_, a Polish war-song, is said to have been composed by him.

ADA'LIA, a seaport on the south coast of Asia Minor. Pop. 28,000. The district of Adalia has a population of over 200,000.

ADAM ([.a]-d[.a][n.]), Adolphe Charles, a French composer, more especially of comic operas; born 1803, died 1856. Wrote _Le postillon de Longjumeau_, _Le Brasseur de Preston_ (Brewer of Preston), _La Rose de Peronne_, _Le roi d'Yvetot_, &c.

ADAM, Albrecht, a German painter of battles and animals, born 1786, died 1862. Three sons of his have also distinguished themselves as painters, especially Franz, born 1815, died 1886, among whose best pictures are several representing scenes of the Franco-Prussian war.

ADAM, Alexander, a Scottish classical scholar, born in 1741; became in 1768 rector of the High School of Edinburgh, and died there in 1809. Wrote _Principles of Latin and English Grammar_; _Roman Antiquities_, a useful school-book; _Summary of Geography and History_; _Classical Biography_, &c.

ADAM, Robert, an eminent Scottish architect, born in 1728, a son of William Adam, architect. He resided several years in Italy, visited Spalatro, in Dalmatia, and published a work on the ruined palace of Diocletian there. In conjunction with his brother James he was much employed by the English nobility and gentry in constructing modern and embellishing ancient mansions. Among their works are the Register House and the University Buildings, Edinburgh, and the Adelphi Buildings, London. Robert Adam died in 1792, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his brother James died in 1794.

ADAM AND EVE, the names given in Scripture to our first parents, an account of whom and their immediate descendants is given in the early chapters of _Genesis_. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all their sons that are mentioned by name; but we are told that they had other sons as well as daughters. There are numerous Rabbinical additions to the Scripture narrative of an extravagant character, such as the myth of Adam having a wife before Eve, named _Lilith_, who became the mother of giants and evil spirits. Other legends or inventions are contained in the Koran.

ADAM DE LA HALE, an early French writer and musician, born 1235, died 1287. His _Jeu de Robin et de Marion_ (first produced at Naples), may be regarded as the first comic opera ever written. Cf. H. Guy, _Bibliographie Critique du Trouvere_, Paris, 1900.

AD'AMANT, an old name for the diamond; also used in a vague way to imply a substance of impenetrable hardness.

ADAMAN'TINE SPAR, a name of the mineral corundum or of a brownish variety of it.

ADAMA'WA (also called FUMBINA), a region of West Africa, between lat. 6deg and 10deg N., and lon. 11deg and 17deg E. Much of the surface is hilly or mountainous, Mount Atlantika being 9000 or 10,000 feet. The principal river is the Benue. A great part of the country is covered with thick forests. The oil palm and bananas are staple products. Chief town Yola (Nigeria).

ADAMELLO. See _European War_.

AD'AMITES, a religious sect dating from the second century, probably of Gnostic origin. It was so called because both men and women were said to appear naked in their assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the state of innocence or to prove the control which they possessed over their passions. Practices similar to those of the Adamites arose several times in later ages. See _Beghards_.

ADAM'NAN, St., born in Ireland about 624, was elected abbot of Iona in 679, and died there about 703 or 704. He is best known from his _Life of St. Columba_, valuable as throwing light on the early ecclesiastical history of Scotland. (There are editions by Reeves, 1857; reissued with English translation 1874; and by Fowler, 1895.) His feast is celebrated on 23rd Sept.

ADAMS, Charles Francis, American litterateur and statesman, was a son of John Quincy Adams, and was born in 1807. His boyhood was spent in Europe, partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard, and afterwards studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts legislature he was sent to Congress in 1859. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England as American minister, and here he remained for seven years, performing the arduous duties of his office with the utmost tact and ability. Between 1874 and 1877 he edited a complete edition of his grandfather's works in 12 vols. He was one of the arbitrators on the _Alabama_ claims. Died in 1886.

ADAMS, John, second president of the United States, was born at Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, 19th Oct., 1735. He was educated at Harvard University, and adopted the law as a profession. His attention was directed to politics by the question as to the right of the English Parliament to tax the colonies, and in 1765 he published some essays strongly opposed to the claims of the mother country. As a member of the new American congress in 1774, 1775, and 1776 he was strenuous in his opposition to the home Government, and in organizing the various departments of the colonial Government. On 13th May, 1776, he seconded the motion for a declaration of independence proposed by Lee of Virginia, and was appointed a member of committee to draw it up. The declaration was actually drawn up by Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought it through Congress. In 1778 he went to France on a special mission, but soon came back and again returned, and for nine years resided abroad as representative of his country in France, Holland, and England. After taking part in the peace negotiations he was appointed, in 1785, the first ambassador of the United States to the Court of St. James. He was recalled in 1788, and the following year elected vice-president of the republic under Washington. In 1792 he was re-elected vice-president, and at the following election in 1797 he became president in succession to Washington. The commonwealth was then divided into two parties, the Federalists, who favoured aristocratic and were suspected of monarchic views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party, with which his views of government had always been in accordance, but the real leader of the party was Hamilton, with whom Adams did not agree, and who tried to prevent his election. His term of office proved a stormy one, which broke up and dissolved the Federalist party. His re-election in 1801 was again opposed by the efforts of Hamilton, which ended in effecting the return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Thus it happened that when Adams retired from office his influence and popularity with both parties were at an end, and he sunk at once into the obscurity of private life. He had the consolation, however, of living to see his son president. He died 4th July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. His works have been ably edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.

ADAMS, John Couch, English astronomer, born 1819, died 1892, studied at Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 1843. His investigations into the irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus led him to the conclusion that they must be caused by another more distant planet, and the results of his labours were communicated in September and October, 1845, to Professor Challis and Airy the Astronomer Royal. The French astronomer Leverrier had by this time been engaged in the same line of research, and had come to substantially the same results, which, being published in 1846, led to the actual discovery of the planet Neptune by Galle of Berlin. In 1858 Adams was professor of mathematics at Aberdeen University, and in 1859 was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge.

ADAMS, John Quincy, sixth president of the United States, son of John Adams, second president, was born 11th July, 1767. Accompanying his father to Europe he received part of his education there, but graduated at Harvard in 1788. Having adopted the legal profession, in 1791 he was admitted to the bar. He now began to take an active interest in politics, and some letters that he wrote having attracted general attention, in 1794 Washington appointed him minister to the Hague. He afterwards was sent to Berlin, and also on a mission to Sweden. In 1798 he received a commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. On the accession of Jefferson to the presidency in 1801 he was recalled. The Federalist party (that of his father), which was now declining, had sufficient influence in Massachusetts to elect him to the senate in 1803. On an important question of foreign policy, that of embargo, he abandoned his party, and having lost his re-election on this account, he retired to the professorship of rhetoric at Cambridge, which he held from 1806 to 1809. In 1809 he went as ambassador to Russia. He assisted in negotiating the peace of 1814 with England, and was afterwards appointed resident minister at London. Under Monroe as president he was secretary of state, and at the expiration of Monroe's double term of office he succeeded him in the presidency (1825). He was not very successful as president, and at the end of his term (1829) he was not re-elected. In 1831 he was returned to Congress by Massachusetts, and continued to represent this State till his death, his efforts being now chiefly on behalf of the Abolitionist party. He died 21st Feb., 1848.

ADAMS, Samuel, an American statesman, second cousin of President John Adams, was born in Boston, 27th Sept., 1722, and was educated at Harvard College. He early devoted himself to politics, and in connection with the dispute between America and the mother country he showed himself one of the most unwearied, efficient, and disinterested assertors of American freedom and independence. He was one of the signers of the declaration of 1776, which he laboured most indefatigably to bring forward. He sat in congress eight years; from 1789-94 was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts; from 1794-7 governor, when he retired from public life. He died 2nd Oct., 1803.

ADAM'S APPLE, the popular name of the prominence seen in the front of the throat in man, and which is formed by the portion of the larynx known as the _thyroid cartilage_. It is much smaller and less visible in females than in males, and is so named from the supposition that it was caused by a piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in Adam's throat. In botany it is the name given to the plantain tree and the _Citrus pomum_. It is the Heb. _Ethrog_, which, according to Hebrew legend, was the fruit Adam and Eve ate in the garden of Eden.

ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of reefs, sandbanks, and islands stretching between India and Ceylon; so called because the Mohammedans believe that when Adam was driven from paradise he had to pass by this way to Ceylon (where is also Adam's Peak). The Brahmans call it the bridge of Rama, the hero of the Indian Epic, the _Ramayana_.

ADAM'S NEEDLE, a popular name of the Yucca plant.

ADAM'S PEAK, one of the highest mountains in Ceylon, 45 miles east-south-east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 7420 feet high. On the top, a rocky area of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 5 feet long bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot, which the Brahmans believe to be the footprint of Siva; the Buddhists, who call it Sri-pada (sacred footmark), that of Buddha; the Mahommedans that of Adam. The last-named believe that Adam stood here on one foot for a thousand years, lamenting his exclusion from Eden. Devotees of all creeds meet here and present their offerings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint. The ascent is very steep, and towards the summit is assisted by steps cut and iron chains riveted in the rock.

ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish divine and Latin poet, born 15th March, 1536, died 19th Feb., 1592. He was educated at St. Andrews, lived some years in France, was minister of Paisley, and afterwards Archbishop of St. Andrews, in which position he made himself very obnoxious to the Presbyterian party. Deprived of the revenues of the see, he died in indigence. He turned portions of the Bible into Latin verse.

AD'ANA, town and capital of Adana vilayet, Asia Minor, on the Seihun-Irmak; served by the Bagdad Railway. The district is claimed by Armenia. Cotton, rice, wine, and fruit are exported. Pop. (town), 70,000; (vilayet), 1,000,000.

ADANSON ([.a]-d[.a]n-s[=o][n.]), Michel, French naturalist and traveller (of Scottish extraction), born 1727; died 1806. He lived five years in Senegal, and wrote a natural history of this region as well as works on botany. The baobab genus is named _Adansonia_ after him. Adanson's statue was erected in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in 1856.

ADANSO'NIA. See preceding article and _Baobab_.

ADAPTATION (from the Lat. _ad_, to, and _apt[=a]re_, to fit), the process of modification or alteration of a thing so as to change its original purpose and adapt it to other uses. Adaptation in biology is the power and process by which an organism or species of animals or plants changes and becomes modified, so as to suit the conditions of its life. In other words it is the adjustment, or favourable reaction, of the living world to its environment, the advantageous variation of animals and plants under changed conditions. The term now includes both that which is hereditary and that which is acquired. The powers of lower forms of life to adapt themselves to changes of environment are limited, and frequently, when the conditions vary suddenly, they are either arrested in their development or die altogether.--In literature it is the process by which an author modifies the work of another not in its essence but in its form and details, either in the original or in a foreign language.

A'DAR, the twelfth month of the Hebrew sacred and sixth of the civil year, answering to part of February and part of March.

ADDA (ancient ADDUA), a river of North Italy, which, descending from the Rhaetian Alps, falls into Lake Como, and leaving this joins the Po, after a course of about 170 miles. On the banks of the Adda Napoleon won the battle of Lodi in 1796.

ADDA, a species of lizard, more commonly called Skink.

AD'DAX, a species of antelope (_Hippotr[)a]gus nasomacul[=a]tus_) of the size of a large ass, with much of its make. The horns of the male are about 4 feet long, beautifully twisted into a wide-sweeping spiral of two turns and a half, with the points directed outwards. It has tufts of hair on the forehead and throat, and large broad hoofs. It inhabits the sandy regions of Nubia and Kordofan, and is also found in Caffraria.

ADDER, a name often applied to the common viper as well as to other kinds of venomous serpents. See _Viper_.

ADDER-PIKE (_Trach[=i]nus vip[)e]ra_), a small species of the weever fish, called also the Lesser Weever or Sting-fish. See _Weever_.

ADDER-STONE, the name given in different parts of Britain to certain rounded perforated stones or glass beads found occasionally, and supposed to have a kind of supernatural efficacy in curing the bites of adders. They are believed to have been anciently used as spindle-whorls, that is, a kind of small fly-wheels to keep up the rotatory motion of the spindle.

ADDER'S-TONGUE, a species of British fern (_Ophioglossum vulg[=a]tum_), whose spores are produced on a spike, supposed to resemble a serpent's tongue.

ADDER'S-WORT, a name of snakeweed or bistort (_Polyg[)o]num Bistorta_), from its supposed virtue in curing the bite of serpents.

AD'DINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, born 1757, died 1844. Entered Parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter of Pitt. Was elected speaker of the House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 invited by the king to form an administration, chiefly signalized by the conclusion of the Peace of Amiens. Quarrelled with Pitt, whom he bitterly attacked. Was home secretary from 1812 till 1822, his repressive policy making him remarkably unpopular with the nation at large. Retired from official life in 1824.

ADDIS ABE'BA, or ADIS ABBA'BA, a town in the south of Abyssinia, in Shoa, ranking as capital of the country, being chief residence of the negus or sovereign. It stands among mountains, at the height of 10,000 feet, and is a primitive place, but now has telegraphic connection with Jibouti and Massawa, and since 1917 is the terminus of the railway running inland from Jibouti by way of Harar. Pop. 50,000.

AD'DISON, Rt. Hon. Christopher, P.C., M.D., Cabinet Minister. Dr. Addison was born 19th June, 1869, and educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, where he was a lecturer for a time. He was elected Member of Parliament for the Hoxton Division, Shoreditch, in 1910, and was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education from 1914 to 1915. From 1916 to 1917 he was Minister of Munitions; he was President of the Local Government Board from January to June, 1919, when he became Minister of Health. He has written and edited several works on medical subjects.

AD'DISON, Joseph, an eminent English essayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison, afterwards Dean of Lichfield, born at Milston, Wiltshire, 1st May, 1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was educated at the Charterhouse, where he became acquainted with Steele, and afterwards at Oxford. He held a fellowship from 1697 till 1711, and gained much praise for his Latin verse. He secured as his earliest patron the poet Dryden, who inserted some of his verses in his _Miscellanies_ in 1693. A translation of the fourth _Georgic_, with the exception of the story of _Aristaeus_, by Addison, appeared in the same collection in 1694, and he subsequently translated for it two and a half books of Ovid. Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on Virgil's _Georgics_ to his own translation of that poem, which appeared in 1697. An early patron of his was Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax; another was Lord Somers, who procured him a pension of L300 a year to enable him to qualify for diplomatic employments by foreign travels. He spent from the autumn of 1699 to that of 1703 on the Continent, where he became acquainted with Malebranche, Boileau, &c. During his residence abroad his tragedy of _Cato_ is supposed to have been written. During his journey across Mont Cenis he wrote his _Letter from Italy_, esteemed the best of his poems, and in Germany his _Dialogues on Medals_, which was not published till after his death. His _Remarks on Several Parts of Italy in the Years 1701-3_ was published in 1705. His political friends lost power on the death of William III, but _The Campaign_, a poem on the battle of Blenheim, procured him an appointment as a commissioner of appeal on excise. In 1706 he received an under-secretaryship, in 1707 accompanied Halifax on a mission to Hanover, in 1709 became secretary to the Viceroy of Ireland, and keeper of the records. In 1708 he was elected Member of Parliament for Lostwithiel, a seat he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury, which place he continued to represent till his death. From Oct., 1709, to Jan., 1711, he contributed 75 papers to the _Tatler_, either wholly by himself or in conjunction with Steele, thus founding the new literary school of the Essayists. For the _Spectator_ (2nd Jan., 1711, to 6th Dec., 1712) he wrote 274 papers, all signed by one of the four letters C., L., I., O. His tragedy of _Cato_, produced April, 1713, ran for twenty nights, and was translated into French, Italian, German, and Latin. His other contributions to periodicals included 51 papers to the _Guardian_ (May to Sept., 1713), 24 papers to a revived _Spectator_ conducted by Budgell, and 2 papers to Steele's _Lover_. On the death of Queen Anne he successively became secretary to the lords justices, secretary to the Irish viceroy, and one of the lords commissioners of trade. He published the _Freeholder_ (23rd Dec., 1715, to 9th June, 1716), a political _Spectator_. In August, 1716, he married the Countess of Warwick, a marriage which did not increase his happiness. He retired from public life, March, 1718, with a pension of L1500 a year. He formed a close friendship with Swift, and was chief of a distinguished literary circle. He had literary quarrels with Pope and Gay, the former of whom in revenge wrote the satire contained in his lines on Atticus in the _Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot_. He also had a paltry quarrel over politics with his old friend Steele. His death took place at Holland House, its cause being dropsy and asthma. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing remains to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson: "Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison". He had great conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the strongest terms of the enjoyment derived from his society, but he was extremely reserved before strangers. His _Dialogues on Medals_ and _Evidences of the Christian Religion_ were published posthumously in Tickell's collected edition of his works.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Courthope, _Addison_ (English Men of Letters Series); _Essays from the Spectator_, edited by Henry Morley.

ADDISON'S DISEASE (from Dr. Addison, Guy's Hospital, London, who traced the disease to its source), a fatal disease, the seat of which is the two glandular bodies placed one at the front of the upper part of each kidney, and called _suprarenal capsules_. It is characterized by anaemia or bloodlessness, extreme prostration, and the brownish or olive-green colour of the skin. Death usually results from weakness, and commonly takes place within a year.

ADDLED PARLIAMENT, a Parliament called 5th April, 1614, in order to legalize the customs duties imposed by James I, but which, proceeding to the redress of grievances instead of granting supply, was dissolved, 7th June, without passing a single Bill.

ADDRESS, a document containing an expression of thanks, congratulation, satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, &c. It is the custom of the British Parliament to return an address to the speech delivered by the Sovereign at the commencement of every session.

ADDRESS, Forms of. The following are the principal modes of formally addressing titled personages or persons holding official rank in Great Britain:--

_The King or Queen._--Address in writing: To the King's (Queen's) most
excellent Majesty. Say: Sire or Madam, Your Majesty.

_The Royal Family._--His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) the Prince of Wales,
His Royal Highness the Duke of C----, His Royal Highness Prince A----.
A royal duke should be addressed as Sir, not My Lord Duke; and referred
to as Your Royal Highness. A princess is addressed Her Royal Highness
the Duchess of ----, Her Royal Highness Princess A----; and personally
as Madam, Your Royal Highness.

_Duke and Ducal Family._--His Grace the Duke of ----; My Lord Duke,
Your Grace. Her Grace the Duchess of ----; Madam, Your Grace. The
duke's eldest son is in law only an esquire, but in courtesy takes a
secondary title of his father, and is addressed as if he held it by
right. A younger son is addressed Lord J---- B----; My Lord, Your
Lordship; a daughter, Lady M---- B---- (Christian and surname); Madam,
Your Ladyship. A duke's, marquis's, or earl's daughter marrying a
commoner simply changes her surname for his.

_The Lord-lieutenant of Ireland_ is styled His Excellency, or, if a
duke, His Grace, and addressed according to his titular rank.

_Marquess._--The Most Honourable the Marquess of ----; My Lord
Marquess, My Lord. The eldest son has a secondary title of his father,
as in the case of a duke's eldest son; the younger sons and the
daughters are all addressed as the younger sons and daughters of a
duke.

_Earl._--The Right Honourable the Earl of ----; My Lord, Your Lordship.
The Right Honourable the Countess of----; Madam, Your Ladyship. The
eldest son is addressed by a secondary title of his father; younger
son, The Honourable G---- T----; Sir; the daughter, as duke's and
marquess's daughter.

_Viscount._--The Right Honourable the Viscount ----; My Lord, Your
Lordship. The Right Honourable the Viscountess ----; Madam, Your
Ladyship. Son: The Honourable A---- B---- (Christian and surname); Sir.
Daughter: The Honourable J---- C---- (Christian and surname); Madame;
if married, The Honourable Mrs. ---- (married name).

_Baron._--The Right Honourable Lord ----; My Lord, Your Lordship. The
Right Honourable the Lady ----; Madam, your Ladyship. Son: The
Honourable J---- C----; Sir. Daughter: The Honourable M---- H----; if
married, The Honourable Mrs. ----, same as viscount's daughter.

_Baronet._--Sir A---- B----, Baronet; Sir; more familiarly Dear Sir
A----.

_Knight._--Sir C---- D----, Kt., or K.C.S.I., K.C.B., G.C.B., &c.,
according to rank. The wives of baronets and knights are styled Lady,
Lady ----.

_Archbishop._--His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ----; My Lord
Archbishop; Your Grace. An archbishop is also styled Most Reverend.

_Bishop._--The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of ----; My Lord. The wives
of prelates have no special title. Bishops not connected with the
English established church may be addressed--The Right Reverend Bishop
----; Right Reverend Sir.

_Dean._--The Very Reverend; Sir; Mr. Dean.

Members of the Privy Council, members and ex-members of cabinet, the
Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief
Justice and the Lords Justices, the Lord Advocate, the lords of the
treasury and admiralty, are called Right Honourable; the justices (not
being _lords_ justices) are styled Honourable. Ambassadors, governors
of colonies, &c., are styled Excellency.

The Lord Mayors of London, York, Dublin, &c., and the Lord Provost of
Edinburgh, are styled Right Honourable; the Lord Provost of Glasgow,
Honourable. A Mayor is addressed as Right Worshipful. Lords of Session
(Scotland) have the courtesy title of Lord, are addressed as My Lord,
Your Lordship, and also called Honourable. Sheriffs and their
substitutes are addressed in their courts in Scotland as My Lord.

In the United States persons holding official rank are similarly
addressed; thus the President is styled His Excellency, as are also
governors of states and foreign ministers; the vice-president,
lieutenant-governors, senators, representatives, judges, and mayors are
styled Honourable.

ADDUC'TOR, a muscle which draws one part of the body towards another: applied in zoology to one of the muscles which bring together the valves of the shell of the bivalve molluscs.

ADEL'. See _Adal._

ADELA, born 1062, died 1137, fourth daughter of William the Conqueror, wife of Stephen, Count of Blois and Chartres, and mother of Stephen, King of England. She proved herself an able ruler and a generous patroness of learning while her husband was abroad with the First Crusade; and after his death she acted as regent for his sons.

ADELAIDE (ad'e-l[=a]d), the capital of South Australia, 6 miles east from Port Adelaide (on St. Vincent Gulf), its port, with which it is united by railway, founded in 1837, and named after the queen of William IV. Situated on a large plain, it is built nearly in the form of a square, with the streets at right angles, and is divided into North and South Adelaide, separated by the river Torrens, which is crossed by several bridges, and by means of a dam is converted into a fine sheet of water. The public buildings comprise the Government House, the town hall, the post and telegraph offices, the Government offices, court-houses, the houses of legislature, the University, South Australian Institute, &c. There is a good service of tramway cars. Adelaide is connected by railway with Melbourne, and is the terminus of the overland telegraph to Port Darwin. It has a large trade. Pop. (including suburbs), (1919), 256,660.

ADELAIDE, daughter of George, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Meiningen, and wife of the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV, King of England; born 1792, died 1849; married 11th July, 1818, had two daughters, who died in infancy. She became queen-consort on William attaining the throne in 1830, and was for a time unpopular from being supposed to be averse to reform. On the death of William she passed into private life, with an allowance of L100,000 a year.

ADELARD OF BATH, an English philosophical writer of the twelfth century. He travelled through Spain, the north of Africa, Greece, and Asia Minor, and acquired from the Arabs much knowledge, which he put in systematic shape. Chief works, _Perdifficiles Quaestiones Naturales_ and _De Eodem et Diverso._

ADELSBERG ([:a]'d[.e]lz-ber_h_), a small town of North Italy, in Carniola, midway between Trieste and Laibach, remarkable for the wonderful stalactite cave in its vicinity. The most extended of the ramifications which compose it reaches to over 2 miles from the entrance, at which the River Poik disappears, and is heard rushing below. The stalactites and stalagmites are of the most varied and often beautiful forms, and have received fanciful appellations, as they resemble columns, statues, &c.

ADELUNG ([.a]d'e-l[u:]ng), Friedrich von, nephew of J. C. Adelung, was a distinguished philologist. He was tutor to the Grand-duke Nicholas, afterwards Emperor of Russia, and became president of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg (now Petrograd). Born 1768, died 1843.

ADELUNG, Johann Christoph, a German philologist, born 1732, died 1806. In 1759 he was appointed professor in the Protestant academy at Erfurt, and two years after removed to Leipzig, where he applied himself to the works by which he made so great a name, particularly his German dictionary, _Grammatisch-kritisches Woerterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart_ (Leipzig, 1774-86), and his _Mithridates_, a work on general philology. In 1787 he was appointed librarian of the public library in Dresden--an office which he held till his death.

A'DEN, a seaport town and territory belonging to Britain, on the south-west coast of Arabia, in a dry and barren district, the town being almost entirely closed in by an amphitheatre of rocks, and possessing an admirable harbour. Occupying an important military position, Aden is strongly fortified and permanently garrisoned. It is of importance also as a coaling station for steamers, and carries on a great amount of commerce, forming an entrepot and place of transhipment for goods valued at L6,000,000 a year. Its greatest drawback is the scarcity of fresh water, which is obtained partly from wells, partly from rock-cisterns that receive the rain, and partly by condensation from salt water--the only unfailing means of supply. The peninsula on which it stands somewhat resembles the rock of Gibraltar, and could be rendered as formidable. Aden was a Roman colony, and in the Middle Ages it was a great entrepot of the Eastern trade. It was acquired by Britain in 1839, after which it was attacked repeatedly by the Arabs. With the additional territory latterly acquired, the total British area is 75 sq. miles (or with the island of Perim, 80); while a large tract is under British influence. Aden is attached to the Bombay Presidency. Pop. 46,165.

ADENANTHE'RA, a genus of trees and shrubs, natives of the East Indies, nat. ord. Leguminosae. _A. pavon[=i]na_ is one of the largest and handsomest trees of India, and yields hard solid timber called red sandal-wood. The bright scarlet seeds, from their equality in weight (each=4 grains), are used by goldsmiths in the East as weights.

ADENI'TIS (Gr. _ad[=e]n_, a gland), in medicine, inflammation of one or more of the lymphatic glands.

AD'ENOIDS, small growths often occurring in the back wall of the throat in children, blocking the nostrils and commonly causing deafness. They can be removed by a simple operation.

ADERER'. See _Adrar_.

ADERNO', a town of Sicily, 18 miles N.W. of Catania and about 10 miles W.S.W. of Mount Etna. Pop. 25,000.

ADESSENA'RIAN, one of a sect of Christians which holds that there is a real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but denying that it is effected by transubstantiation.

ADHESION, the tendency of two bodies to stick together when put in close contact, or the mutual attraction of their surfaces; distinguished from _cohesion_, which denotes the mutual attraction between the particles of a homogeneous body. Adhesion may exist between two solids, between a solid and a fluid, or between two fluids. A plate of glass or of polished metal laid on the surface of water and attached to one arm of a balance will support much more than its own weight in the opposite scale from the force of adhesion between the water and the plate. From the same force arises the tendency of most liquids, when gently poured from a jar, to run down the exterior of a vessel or along any other surface they meet.

ADIAN'TUM, a genus of ferns; the maiden-hair fern.

ADIAPH'ORIST (Gr. _adiaphoros_, indifferent), a name given in the sixteenth century to Melanchthon's party, who held some opinions and ceremonies to be indifferent which Luther condemned as sinful or heretical.

ADIGE ([:a]'d[=e]-j[=a]), Ger. _Etsch_ (ancient ATH[)E]SIS), a river of Northern Italy, which rises in the Rhaetian Alps, and after a south and east course of about 180 miles, during which it passes Verona and Legnago, falls into the Adriatic, forming a delta connected with that of the Po.

AD'IPOCERE (-s[=e]r) (Lat. _adeps_, fat, and _cera_, wax), a substance of a light-brown colour formed by animal matter when protected from atmospheric air, and under certain circumstances of temperature and humidity. It was first observed by Fourcroy, and a quantity discovered at the Cimetiere des Innocents, Paris. A similar substance is found in peat-bogs in Wales and Ireland.

AD'IPOSE TISSUE, the cellular tissue containing the oily or fatty matter of the body. It underlies the skin, surrounds the large vessels and nerves, invests the kidneys, &c., and sometimes accumulates in large masses.

ADIRON'DACK MOUNTAINS, in the United States, a group belonging to the Appalachian chain, extending from the N.E. corner of the State of New York to near its centre. The scenery is wild and grand, diversified by numerous beautiful lakes, and the whole region is a favourite resort of sportsmen and tourists.

AD'IT, a more or less horizontal opening, giving access to the shaft of a mine. It is made to slope gradually from the farthest point in the interior to the mouth, and by means of it the principal drainage is usually carried on. See _Mine_.

AD'JECTIVE, in grammar, a word used to denote some quality in the noun or substantive to which it is accessory. The adjective is indeclinable in English (but has _degrees_ of comparison), and generally precedes the noun, while in most other European languages it follows the inflections of the substantive, and is more commonly placed after it, though in German it precedes it, as in English.

ADJUDICA'TION, in English law, is the decree of the court in bankruptcy declaring a person bankrupt.

ADJUST'MENT, in marine insurance, is the settling of the amount of the loss which the insurer is entitled under a particular policy to recover, and if the policy is subscribed by more than one underwriter, of the amounts which the underwriters respectively are liable to pay.

AD'JUTANT, an officer appointed to each regiment or battalion, whose duty is to assist the commander. He is charged with instruction in drill, and all the interior discipline, duties, and efficiency of the corps. He has the charge of all documents and correspondence, and is the channel of communication for all orders.

lus arg[)a]la_)]

ADJUTANT-BIRD (_Leptopt[)i]lus arg[)a]la_), a large grallatorial or wading bird of the stork family, native of the warmer parts of India, where it is known as Hurg[)i]la or Arg[)a]la. It stands about five feet high, has an enormous bill, nearly bare head and neck, and a pouch hanging from the under part of the neck. It is one of the most voracious carnivorous birds known, and in India, from its devouring all sorts of carrion and noxious animals, is protected by law. From underneath the wings are obtained those light downy feathers known as _marabou_ feathers, from the name of an allied species of bird (_L. marabou_) inhabiting Western Africa, and also producing them.

ADJUTANT-GENERAL, in Great Britain the second military member of the Army Council, and styled Adjutant-general to the Forces. He is a general officer, and at the head of his department at the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to personnel.--Among the Jesuits this name was given to a select number of fathers, who resided with the general of the order, and had each a province or country assigned to him.

AD'JUTATORS, in English history, representatives elected by the parliamentary forces in 1647 to act with the officers in compelling Parliament to satisfy the demands of the army.

ADLER, Victor, Austrian socialist leader, born in 1852. Educated as a physician, he gave up his profession for socialist propaganda. He visited England, and wrote a book on factory inspection in this country. He was the founder and editor of the _Arbeiter-Zeitung_; was a member of the Lower Austrian Diet and of the Imperial Council in 1907. His son, Dr. Friedrich Adler, assassinated Count Stuergkh, the Austrian premier, on 20th Oct., 1916. He died in 1918.

AD'LINGTON, a straggling place in Lancashire to the south-east of Chorley, engaged in the cotton manufacture. Pop. (1921), 4393.

ADME'TUS, in Greek mythology, King of Pherae, in Thessaly, and husband of Alcestis, who gave signal proof of her attachment by consenting to die in order to prolong her husband's life. See _Alcestis_.

ADMINISTRA'TION, in politics, the executive power or body, the ministry or cabinet.

ADMIN'ISTRATOR, in law, the person to whom the goods of a man dying intestate are committed by the proper authority, and who is bound to account for them when required.

AD'MIRAL, the commander-in-chief of a squadron or fleet of ships of war, or of the entire naval force of a country, or simply a naval officer of the highest rank. In the British navy admirals are of four ranks--admiral of the fleet, admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral. They were also divided formerly into three classes, named after the colours of their respective flags, admirals of the _red_, of the _white_, and of the _blue_. In 1864, however, this distinction was given up, and now there is one flag common to all ships of war, namely, the white ensign divided into four quarters by the cross of St. George, and having the union in the upper corner next the staff.--The title _admiral of the fleet_ is conferred on a few admirals, and carries an increase of pay along with it.--A _vice-admiral_ is next in rank and command to the admiral: he carries his flag at the foretop-gallant-mast head, while an admiral carries his at the main. A _rear-admiral_, next in rank to the vice-admiral, carries his flag at the mizzentop-gallant-mast head.--_Lord high admiral_, in Great Britain, an officer who (when this rare dignity is conferred) is at the head of the naval administration of Great Britain. There have been few high admirals since 1632, when the office was first put in commission. James Duke of York (afterwards James II) held it for several years during Charles II's reign. In the reign of William and Mary it was vested in lords commissioners of the admiralty, and since that time it has been held for short periods only by Prince George of Denmark (1702-8) in the time of Queen Anne, and by William IV, then Duke of Clarence, in 1827-8.

AD'MIRALTY, that department of the Government of a country that is at the head of its naval service. In Britain the board of Admiralty now consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty and seven other commissioners, four of them being Sea Lords, and one a Civil Lord. The First Lord is always a member of the cabinet, and it is he who principally exercises the powers of the department. Under the 1912 Admiralty Organization Scheme, the various members of the board are responsible for special business. Several changes in Admiralty organization were made during the European War, but after the cessation of hostilities the system reverted to that of peace time.