Chapter C: D E F G a B C' D' E' F' G' (2)

ADMIRALTY CHARTS are charts issued by the hydrographic department of the Admiralty of Britain; they are prepared by specially appointed surveyors and draughtsmen, and besides being supplied to every ship in the fleet, are sold to the general public at prices much less than their cost. In connection with these charts there are published books of sailing directions, lists of lights, &c. The navigating charts are generally on the scale of half an inch to a mile, and show all the dangers of the coasts with sufficient distinctness to enable the seamen to avoid them; the charts of larger size exhibit all the intricacies of the coast.

ADMIRALTY COURT, a court which takes cognizance of civil and criminal causes of a maritime nature, including captures made in war, and offences committed on the high seas, and has to do with many matters connected with maritime affairs. In England the Admiralty Court was once held before the Lord High Admiral, and at a later period was presided over by his deputy or the deputy of the Lords Commissioners. It now forms a branch of the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. There is a separate Irish Admiralty Court. In Scotland Admiralty cases are now prosecuted in the Court of Session, or in the Sheriff Court. In the United States, Admiralty cases are taken up in the first instance by the district courts.

ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island belonging to the United States off the north-west coast of North America, 80 or 90 miles long and about 20 broad, covered with fine timber and inhabited by Sitka Indians.

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of 40 islands, north of New Guinea, in what was once called the Bismarck Archipelago. Discovered by the Dutch explorer Shouten in 1616, they were in German possession from 1884 to 12th Sept., 1914, when they were occupied by an Australian force. They have since been in British occupation. The largest is about 60 miles in length; the rest are much smaller. They are covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and possess dense groves of coco-nut trees. There are valuable pearl and other shell fisheries. Capital, Lorengau. Pop. (native), 4000; (European), 50.

AD'NATE, in botany, applied to a part growing attached to another and principal part by its whole length, as stipules adnated to the leaf-stalk.

ADOBE ([.a]-d[=o]'b[=a]), the Spanish name for a brick made of loamy earth, containing about two-thirds fine sand and one-third clayey dust, sun-dried; in common use for building in Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Building material in ancient Egypt and Assyria was adobe.

ADOL'PHUS, John, 1768-1845, an able English criminal lawyer, and author of the _History of England from the Accession of George III_ and _Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution_.

ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU, elected Emperor of Germany, 1292. In 1298 the college of electors transferred the crown to Albert of Austria, but, Adolphus refusing to abdicate, a war ensued in which he fell, after a heroic resistance, 2nd July, 1298.

ADONAI (ad'o-n[=i]), a name bestowed upon God in the Old Testament. See _Jehovah_.

ADO'NI, a town and district in Madras; pop. of former 30,416, of latter 179,418. It is well known for excellent silk and cotton fabrics.

ADO'NIS, son of Myrrha, a mythological personage, originally a deity of the Phoenicians, but borrowed into Greek mythology. He was represented as being a great favourite of Aphrodit[=e] (Venus), who accompanied him when engaged in hunting, of which he was very fond. He received a mortal wound from the tusk of a wild boar, and when the goddess hurried to his assistance she found him lifeless, whereupon she caused his blood to give rise to the anemone. The worship of Adonis, which arose in Phoenicia, was afterwards widely spread round the Mediterranean. He is the reproductive principle, nature's decay in winter and its revival in spring. The name Adonis is akin to the Heb. _Adonai_, Lord. See _Tammuz_.

ADO'NIS, a small river rising in Lebanon and flowing to the Mediterranean. When in flood it is tinged with a red colour, and so is connected with the legend of Adonis.

ADO'NIS, a genus of ranunculaceous plants. In the corn-adonis or pheasant's eye (_A. autumn[=a]lis_) the petals are bright scarlet like the blood of Adonis, from which the plant is fabled to have sprung.

ADOPTIANISM, the theory according to which Christ as a man is the adopted Son of God. Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of Urgella, asserted this double sonship in Christ, maintaining that He was indeed the Son of God in His divine nature, but as man He was the Son of God only by grace and adoption. 'The Man Christ' is therefore only the adopted and not the natural Son of God. The doctrine was vigorously opposed by Alcuin, and condemned by the councils of Ratisbon (792) and Frankfort (794). The theory, however, found advocates during the Middle Ages, and has given rise to theological disputes in modern times. Adoptianism was attributed both to Abelard and Duns Scotus.

ADOP'TION, the admission of a stranger by birth to the privileges of a child. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and also some modern nations, adoption is placed under legal regulation. In Rome the effect of adoption was to create the legal relation of father and son, just as if the person adopted was born of the blood of the adopter in lawful marriage. The adopted son took the name of his adopter, and was bound to perform his new father's religious duties. Adoption is not recognized by the law of England and Scotland; there are legal means to enable a person to assume the name and arms, and to inherit the property of another. In some of the United States adoption is regulated by laws not very dissimilar to those which prevailed among the Romans.

ADOUR ([.a]-d[:o]r), a river of France, rising in the Hautes Pyrenees, and falling into the sea a little below Bayonne; length about 200 miles; partly navigable.

ADO'WA, a town of Abyssinia, in Tigre, at an elevation of 6270 feet; the chief commercial depot on the caravan route from Massawa to Gondar. Pop. about 4000. Here the Italians suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Abyssinians, 1st March, 1896.

ADRA ([:a]'_d_r[.a]), a seaport of Southern Spain, in Andalusia, near the mouth of the Adra, on the Mediterranean; with marble quarries and lead works. Pop. 9000.

ADRAMIT'TI (ancient ADRAMYTTIUM; Turk. _Edremid_), a town of Turkey in Asia, near the head of the gulf of the same name, 80 miles north of Smyrna. Pop. about 5000.

ADRAR', a district in the Western Sahara, peopled by Berbers possessing camels, sheep, and oxen, and cultivating dates, wheat, barley, and melons. Chief towns, Wadan and Shingit, which has inexhaustible beds of rock-salt.

ADREN'ALIN, or SUPRARENIN, a crystalline substance obtained from the adrenals or suprarenal capsules of cattle and sheep, which possesses the property of checking bleeding by its styptic or contractive powers, and is used in medical practice, more especially in the case of bleeding at the nose and nervous catarrh.

ADRIA ([:a]'dri-[.a]), a cathedral city of Northern Italy, province of Rovigo, between the Po and the Adige, on the site of the ancient town of same name, whence the Adriatic derives its appellation. Owing to alluvial deposits the sea is now 17 miles distant. Pop. 11,878.

A'DRIAN, the name of six Popes. The first, a Roman, ruled from 772-795; a contemporary and friend of Charlemagne. He expended vast sums in rebuilding the walls and restoring the aqueducts of Rome.--ADRIAN II, a Roman, was elected Pope in 867, at the age of seventy-five years. He died in 872, in the midst of conflicts with the Greek Church.--ADRIAN III, a Roman, elected 884, was Pope for one year and four months only. He was the first Pope who changed his name on the occasion of his exaltation.--ADRIAN IV, originally named NICOLAS BREAKSPEAR, the only Englishman who ever occupied the papal chair, was born about 1100, and died 1159. He is said to have been a native of Hertfordshire, studied in France, and became abbot of St. Rufus in Provence, cardinal and legate to Norway. Chosen Pope in 1154, his reign is chiefly remarkable for his almost constant struggle for supremacy with Frederick Barbarossa, who on one occasion had been forced to hold his stirrup, and had been crowned by him at Rome (1155). He issued the famous bull (1158) granting the sovereignty of Ireland, on condition of the payment of Peter's pence, to Henry II.--ADRIAN V, previously called OTTOBUONO FIESCHI, of Genoa, settled, as legate of the Pope, the dispute between King Henry III of England and his nobles, in favour of the former; but died a month after his election to the papal chair (1276).--ADRIAN VI (the last pontifice barbaro), born at Utrecht in 1459, was elected to the papal chair, 9th Jan., 1522. He tried to reform abuses in the Church, but opposed the zeal of Luther with reproaches and threats, and even attempted to excite Erasmus and Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after a reign of one year and a half.

A'DRIAN, a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70 miles W.S.W. of Detroit. Its extensive water-power is employed in works of various kinds. Pop. 9654.

A'DRIAN, Publius Aelius Hadrianus. See _Hadrian_.

ADRIANO'PLE (Turk. _Edreneh_), an important city in the Balkans, about 135 miles W.N.W. from Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient _Hebrus_), at its junction with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the most magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &c., and an important trade. Adrianople received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian (Hadrian). In 1361 it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of the Turkish sovereigns till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In 1829 it was taken by the Russians, and here was then concluded the peace of Adrianople, by which Russia received important accessions of territory in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied it also in 1878. Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in Feb., 1913, and fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under Enver Bey, 20th July. Pop. 83,000.

ADRIAN'S (or HADRIAN'S) WALL. See _Roman Walls_.

ADRIAT'IC SEA, or GULF OF VENICE, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching in a north-westerly direction from the Straits of Otranto, between Italy and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length, about 480 miles; average breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq. miles. The rivers which it receives, particularly the Po, its principal feeder, have produced, and are still producing, great geological changes in its basin by their alluvial deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and the Adige, which gives the sea its name, though once a flourishing seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An oceanographic investigation of the Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and March, 1911. The principal trading ports on the Italian side are Brindisi, Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume, Pirano, Pola, and Trieste (Italian).

ADSCRIPTI GLEBAE (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term applied to a class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and transferred with the land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in Scotland were in a similar position till 1775.

ADULA'RIA, a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of the common felspar, called by lapidaries _moonstone_, on account of the play of light exhibited by the arrangement of its crystalline structure. It is found on the Alps, but the best specimens are brought from Ceylon. It is so called from _Adula_, one of the peaks of St. Gothard, where fine specimens are got.

ADUL'LAM, CAVE OF, a cave to which David fled when persecuted by Saul, and whither he was followed by "every one who was in distress, in debt, or discontented" (1 _Sam._ xxii, 1, 2).--The name _Adullamites_ was given to an English political party, consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other Liberals, who opposed the majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of 1866. The term originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.

ADULTERA'TION, a term applied to the fraudulent mixture of articles of commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &c., with inferior ingredients, and also to any accidental impurity found in a substance. The chief objects of adulteration are to render a substance more pleasing in appearance, to increase the weight, to make an inferior article appear as good as the article of superior quality. Any substance added to an article to increase its bulk, weight, colour, &c., is spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often adulterated with water and with colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated by mixing with it other fats or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly every article of food can be adulterated in some way to make it appear of finer quality. _Preservatives_ added to foods and drugs generally may be classed as adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities of boric acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a preservative. Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent decomposition. Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to render it unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must be present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as preservative or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is adulterated in some way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker, _The Food Inspector's Encyclopaedia_.

ADUL'TERY, the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with any other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed between two married persons, the offence is called double, and when between a married and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek, and early Roman law only recognized the offence when a married woman was the offender. By the Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the laws against it were severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers, when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. In early Rome the punishment was left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans, adulterers were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea; under Justinian the wife was to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration of two years the husband might take her again; if he refused she was shaven and made a nun for life. By the ancient laws of France this crime was punishable with death. In Spain personal mutilation was frequently the punishment adopted. In several European countries adultery is regarded as a criminal offence, but in none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a short period, accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable with fine and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a capital offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is punishable only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however, can obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain a dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws of France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the co-respondent.

AD VALO'REM (Lat., according to the value), a term applied to customs or duties levied according to the worth of the goods, as sworn to by the owner, and not according to number, weight, measure, &c.

ADVANCE-NOTE, a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for one month's wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing the articles of agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors was made illegal by an Act passed in 1880.

AD'VENT (Lat. _adventus_, an arrival, 'the coming of our Saviour'), the name applied to the holy season which occupies the four or, according to the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas, and which forms the first portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed by the Anglican, the Roman Catholic, and the Greek Church.

AD'VENTISTS, a group of six American religious sects who believe in the speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult immersion. The first sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in 1831.--There is also a sect called _Seventh-day Adventists_, who hold that the coming of Christ is at hand, and maintain that the Sabbath is still the seventh day of the week.

AD'VERB, one of the parts of speech used to limit or qualify the signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as, _very cold_, _naturally brave_, _much more clearly_, _readily agreed_. Adverbs may be classified as follows: (1) Adverbs of time, as, _now_, _then_, _never_, &c.; (2) of place, as, _here_, _there_, _where_, &c.; (3) of degree, as, _very_, _much_, _nearly_, _almost_, &c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or doubt, as, _yes_, _no_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, &c.; (5) of manner, as, _well_, _badly_, _clearly_, &c.

ADVERTIS'ING. Advertising on a small scale is a practice as old as commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be dated further back than 1785, when the _Times_ was founded. The last thirty years have witnessed a great increase in the importance of advertisements as part of the policy of a progressive business. Much more intelligence and vastly more money is now spent on advertising than ever was before. America led the way, but the British are not now far behind in the number and ingenuity of their advertisements.

There are roughly speaking five distinct types of advertisement:--

(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and weekly newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories, &c.

(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters, catalogues.

(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small posters, on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &c.

(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &c.

(5) Cinema advertising--a recent development which has proved extremely effective.

Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm wishing to advertise must first of all settle how much money it is willing to spend on this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed proportion of the profits--at least five per cent--to advertising. The firm must then carefully consider the period of time over which the expenditure agreed upon is to be spread. Occasional or spasmodic advertising does not produce satisfactory results; advertising must be constant and must move with the times in order to be effective. A firm not uncommonly reviews the results of its advertising every six months, when it also arranges its plans for future advertisements. Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and successful schemes can be readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any large scale must be handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted yearly by firms which hand over this work to a director who has no knowledge of how to advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it wishes to enter upon a campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient advertising staff or to employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents in many cases obtain their profits from the commission given to them by newspapers--this often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space booked. In return for this they give their advice and copy--everything, indeed, except blocks and sketches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry Sampson, _A History of Advertising_; _Edinburgh Review_, Feb., 1843, _On the Advertising System_. A good account of the more recent developments of advertising is to be found in H. G. Wells's novel _Tono-Bungay_; T. Russell, _Commercial Advertising_.

AD VITAM AUT CULPAM (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula often used in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that they are held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some fault or misdeed.

AD'VOCATE (Lat., _advocatus_--_ad_, to, _voco_, to call), a lawyer authorized to plead the cause of his clients before a court of law. It is only in Scotland that this word seems to denote a distinct class belonging to the legal profession, the advocates of Scotland being the pleaders before the supreme courts, and corresponding to the _barristers_ of England and Ireland. These advocates all belong to the _Faculty of Advocates_, Edinburgh, to whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the most part limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the inferior Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from the Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the sheriffs of the various counties, are always selected from among them. Candidates for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in general scholarship and the other in law.--The _Lord-Advocate_, called also the _King's_ or _Queen's Advocate_, is the principal law officer of the crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes in the Supreme Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes. Being appointed by the crown, he goes out of office with the administration to which he belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted by the solicitor-general and by four junior counsel called advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the solicitor-general, in addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary bar practice.

ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, the chief library in Scotland, located in Edinburgh, and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was increased by donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to time. As the donations were not confined to advocates the library was considered a kind of public library, and it has continued to retain this character. In 1709 it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the right to demand a copy of every new book published in Britain, which right it still possesses. The number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS. over 3200.

ADVOCA'TUS DIAB'OLI (Devil's advocate), in the Roman Catholic Church, a functionary who, when a deceased person is proposed for canonization, brings forward and insists upon all the weak points of the character and life of the deceased, endeavouring to show that he is not worthy of sainthood. The first formal mention of such an officer occurs under Pope Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by the _Advocatus Dei_ (God's advocate).

ADVOW'SON, in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice, or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant church. Those who have this right are styled _patrons_. Advowsons are of three kinds--_presentative_, _collative_, and _donative_: _presentative_, when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted; _collative_, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or _collates_ his clerk by a single act; _donative_, when a church is founded by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot be held by either a Roman Catholic or an alien.

AD'YTUM, a secret place of retirement in the ancient temples, esteemed the most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or shrine. From this place the oracles were given, and none but the priests were permitted to enter it. The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of the Temple at Jerusalem was of a similar character.

ADZE, a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of timber, somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming a portion of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles to the length of the handle.

AEDILES ([=e]'d[=i]lz), Roman magistrates who had the supervision of the national games and spectacles; of the public edifices, such as temples (the name comes from _aedes_, a temple); of private buildings, of the markets, cleansing and draining the city, &c.

AE'DUI, one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between the Liger (Loire) and the Arar (Saone). On the arrival of Julius Caesar in Gaul (58 B.C.) they were subject to Ariovistus, but their independence was restored by Caesar. Their chief town was Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).

AEGADE'AN ISLANDS, a group of small islands lying off the western extremity of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana, Levanso, and Le Formiche.

AEGAG'RUS, a wild species of ibex (_Capra aegagrus_), found in herds on the Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to be the original source of at least one variety of the domestic goat.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, a term applied to the pre-Hellenic civilization of south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the Cyclades, and the Danubian or Mid-European area. See _Crete_ and _Danubian Civilization_.

AEGEAN SEA ([=e]-j[=e]'an), that part of the Mediterranean which washes the eastern shores of Greece, and the western coast of Asia Minor. See _Archipelago_.

AE'GILOPS, a genus of grasses, very closely allied to wheat, and somewhat remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation one of the species becomes a kind of wheat.

AEGINA ([=e]-j[=i]'na), a Greek island in the Gulf of Aegina, south of Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles; pop. 8500. It forms part of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia. Except in the west, where the surface is more level, the island is mountainous and unproductive. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the chief crops being almonds, olives, and grain. The greater number of them reside in the seaport town of Aegina. Aegina was anciently colonized by Dorians from the opposite coast of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the sixth century B.C. it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and was the seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480 B.C.) the Aeginetans behaved with great valour. In 456 the island fell under the power of the Athenians, and in 431 the Aeginetans were expelled to make room for Athenian settlers, but were afterwards restored. On a hill are the remains of a splendid temple of Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of which are still standing. Here was found in 1811 a considerable amount of sculpture from the pediments (the _Aeginetan marbles_), which is now at the Glyptothek at Munich, and is prized as throwing light on the early history of Greek art. Though in these figures there is a wonderfully exact imitation of nature, yet there is a certain stiffness about them and an unnatural sameness of expression in all. They should probably be assigned to the period 500-480 B.C.

AEGIS ([=e]'jis), the shield of Zeus, according to Homer, but according to later writers and artists a metal cuirass or breastplate, in which was set the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with which Athena (Minerva) is often represented as being protected. In a figurative sense the word is used to denote some shielding or protecting power.

AEGLE ([=e]'gl[=e]), a genus of plants. See _Bel._

AEGOSPOT'AMI ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont, of some note in Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely defeated in 405 B.C. by the Spartan Lysander, thus ending the Peloponnesian war.

AELFRIC (al'frik), Abbot, called _Grammaticus_ (the grammarian), was a celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He became a monk of Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and died Abbot of Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a _Treatise on the Old and New Testaments_, a translation and abridgment of the first seven books of the Bible, a _Latin Grammar and Glossary_, &c. He has been frequently confounded both with Aelfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Aelfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta, who lived about the same time. There was also an Aelfric of Malmesbury.

AELIA'NUS, Claudius, often called simply AELIAN, a Roman author who lived about A.D. 221, and wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes and a natural history of animals.

AELIA'NUS TACTICUS, so called to distinguish him from Claudius Aelianus, lived at Rome, and wrote a work _On the Military Tactics of the Greeks_, which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who was emperor from A.D. 117 to 138. This book was closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

AELST ([:a]lst), Belgian town, same as ALOST.

AENE'AS, the hero of Virgil's _Aen[=e]id_, a Trojan, who, according to Homer, was, next to Hector, the bravest of the warriors of Troy. When that town was taken and set on fire, Aeneas, according to the narrative of Virgil, with his father, son, and wife Creusa, fled, but the latter was lost in the confusion of the flight. Having collected a fleet he sailed for Italy, but after numerous adventures he was driven by a tempest to the coast of Africa, where Queen Dido of Carthage received him kindly, and would have married him. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Aeneas, and commanded him to sail to Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile, Aeneas set sail with his companions, and after further adventures by land and sea reached the country of King Latinus, in Italy. The king's daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to wed a stranger, this stranger being Aeneas, but was promised by her mother to Turnus, King of the R[)u]t[)u]li. This occasioned a war, which was ended by Aeneas slaying Turnus and marrying Lavinia. His son by Lavinia, Aeneas Sylvius, was the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome.

AEOLIAN HARP, or AEOLUS' HARP, a musical instrument, generally consisting of a box of thin fibrous wood (often of deal), to which are attached from eight to fifteen fine catgut strings or wires, stretched on low bridges at either end, and tuned in unison. Its length is made to correspond with the size of the window or other aperture in which it is intended to be placed. When the wind blows athwart the strings it produces very beautiful sounds, sweetly mingling all the harmonic tones, and swelling or diminishing according to the strength or weakness of the blast.

AEOLIANS (Gr. _Aioleis_), one of the four races into which the ancient Greeks were divided, originally inhabiting the district of AE[)o]lis, in Thessaly, from which they spread over other parts of Greece. In early times they were the most numerous and powerful of the Hellenic races, chiefly inhabiting Northern Greece and the western side of Peloponnesus, though latterly a portion of them went to Lesbos and Tenedos and the north-west shores of Asia Minor, where they possessed a number of cities. Their language, the Aeolian dialect, was one of the three principal dialects of the Greek. It was cultivated for literary purposes chiefly at Lesbos, and was the dialect in which Alcaeus and Sappho wrote.

AEOL'IPILE (Lat. _AE[)o]li pila_, the ball of AE[)o]lus), a spherical vessel of metal, with a pipe of small aperture, through which the vapour of heated water in the ball passes out with considerable noise; or having two nozzles so placed that the steam rushing out causes it to revolve on the principle of the Barker's mill. It was known to the ancient Greeks.

AE'OLUS, in Greek mythology, the god of the winds, which he kept confined in a cave in the Aeolian Islands, releasing them when he wished or was commanded by the superior gods.

AE'ON, a Greek word signifying life, an age, and sometimes eternity, but used by the Gnostics to express spirits or powers that had emanated from the Supreme Mind before the beginning of time. They held both Christ and the Holy Spirit to be aeons; but as they denied the divine origin of the books of Moses, they said that the spirit which had inspired him and the prophets was not that exalted aeon whom God sent forth after the ascension of Christ, but an aeon very much inferior, and removed at a great distance from the Supreme Being.

AEPYOR'NIS, a genus of gigantic birds whose remains have been found in Madagascar, where they are supposed to have lived perhaps not longer than 200 years ago. It had three toes, and is classed with the cursorial birds (ostrich, &c.). Its eggs measured 14 inches in length, being about six times the bulk of those of the ostrich. The bird which laid them may well have been the roc of Eastern tradition.

AE'QUI, an ancient people of Italy, conspicuous in the early wars of Rome, and inhabiting the mountain district between the upper valley of the Anio (Teverone) and Lake Fuc[)i]nus. They were probably akin to the Volscians, with whom they were in constant alliance. They were defeated by Cincinnatus in 458 B.C., and again by the dictator Postumius Tubertus in 428 B.C., and were finally subdued about 304-302 B.C. Soon after they were admitted to Roman citizenship.

A'ERATED BREAD, bread which receives its sponginess or porosity from carbonic acid supplied artificially, and not produced by the fermentation caused by leaven or yeast.

A'ERATED WATERS, waters impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and forming effervescing beverages. Some mineral waters are naturally aerated, as Vichy, Apollinaris, Rosbach, &c.; others, especially such as are used for medicinal purposes, are frequently aerated to render them more palatable and exhilarating. Water simply aerated, as soda-water, or aerated and flavoured with lemon or fruit syrups, is largely used, especially in summer, as a refreshing beverage. There are numerous varieties of apparatus for manufacturing aerated waters. The essential parts of an aerated-water machine are a generator in which the gas is produced, a vessel containing the water to be impregnated, and an apparatus for forcing the gas into the water. This last may be effected by force-pumps or by the high pressure of the impregnating gas itself. The quantity of gas with which the water is charged is usually equal to a pressure of 5 atmospheres. See also _Mineral Waters_.--Cf. W. Kirkby, _Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters_.

AERIAL ROPEWAYS or CABLEWAYS, a means of transport or carriage in which a great rope or cable, elevated above the ground on fixed supports, is made use of in conveying from place to place materials or articles of various kinds. Such a cable may be said to serve the purpose of a rail, from which are suspended the carriages, buckets, or carriers of whatever sort are employed to convey the materials dealt with, the cable being actuated by means of a steam-engine and winding-gear of suitable construction. Such cables are now much used in carrying materials over a comparatively short space, as in quarries, excavations for canals, docks, &c.; in the construction of bridges, in shipbuilding, &c. Besides being employed in such works--not to mention the coaling of a battleship at sea from a coal transport standing by--elevated ropeways miles in length have also been constructed between places where no roads exist, or where road carriage is much more expensive. The greatest aerial line yet in existence is in the Argentine Republic, being built to connect a mining locality in the Andes, about 15,000 feet above sea-level, with a station on the Northern Railway 11,500 feet lower down and about 22 miles off, the line running across deep chasms and hollows, and being in places supported on iron towers 130 feet high. The wire rope is said to have a length of 87 miles.

AE'RIANS, the followers of Aerius of Pontus, who in the fourth century originated a small heretical sect, objecting to the established feast-days, fasts or abstinences, the distinction between bishops and presbyters, prayers for the dead, &c.

AERODYNAM'ICS, a branch of physical science which treats of the properties and motions of elastic fluids (air, gases), and of the appliances by which these are exemplified. This subject is often explained in connection with hydrodynamics. See also _Meteorology_.

AEROE, or ARROE ([:a]r'eu-e), an island of Denmark, in the Little Belt, 15 miles long by 5 broad, with 12,000 inhabitants. Though hilly, it is very fertile.

A'EROLITE, a meteoric stone, meteorite, or shooting-star. See _Meteoric Stones_.

AERONAU'TICS, the art or science of navigating the air, including Aviation (see _Aeroplane_ and _Sea-planes_) and Aerostation (see _Balloons_ and _Air-ships_). From the days of the mythical exploit of Daedalus and Icarus, students of 'experimental philosophy', or scientists, of all ages, turned their thoughts and inventive genius to the evolution of a machine by means of which man could fly. Most of the early schemes of which any details have survived were based upon the observation of birds and embodied the flapping of wings affixed to the arms or legs. Among the very early experimenters may be mentioned the monk Oliver of Malmesbury (A.D. 1050), de Perouse (1420), who is said to have succeeded in flying over Lake Trasimene, and the great Leonardo da Vinci. All these produced designs for what are known as Ornithopters, or flapping-wing machines. There was, however, another school which believed in the future of machines which would be themselves lighter than air. The idea in the minds of the experimenters of this school was in the early days the replacing of the air in brass globes by a vacuum. If the brass were thin enough it was believed that the globe would then be sufficiently light to rise. It was, however, not realized that under such circumstances the globe would inevitably collapse under the pressure of the atmosphere with no corresponding internal pressure to withstand it. Among this 'lighter-than-air' school of experimenters were the famous Roger Bacon (twelfth century), Robert Hooke of the Royal Society (1644), and Francesco de Lana, a Jesuit priest (1660). It was this school which ultimately achieved success by providing the first machine of any sort to leave the ground and rise into the air. On 5th June, 1783, the first balloon ascended from the village of Annonay in France. It owed its inception to the genius of two brothers, paper-makers by trade, named Etienne and Joseph Montgolfier. Struck by the sight of smoke ascending from a chimney, after many failures with flapping-wing models, they conceived the idea of filling a receptacle with smoke and seeing if it would rise. They built a balloon or 'globe' of paper and canvas, and lit a fire of wood and straw below the aperture in it. The balloon gradually filled and rose into the air to a height reported to be 6000 feet, though this is probably an exaggeration. It remained in the air for ten minutes and landed 1-1/2 miles away. This was the forerunner of the 'Montgolfieres', or hot-air balloons, which are a feature of fetes and Guy Fawkes' Day celebrations. It was followed by the sending up of a 'Montgolfiere' from Versailles on 18th Sept. of the same year, carrying a basket containing a sheep, a cock, and a duck. The first human beings to make an ascent were Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlande, who went away from Paris on 21st Nov., 1783. They passed right over Paris, and were in the air for twenty-five minutes, during which time they replenished the fire suspended in a brazier below the neck of the balloon.

The real genesis of the balloon, or air-ship as we know it to-day, was due to the discovery of hydrogen as the lightest gas, which discovery was made in 1766 by an English chemist, Henry Cavendish. Various people claim the credit of having been the first to call attention to the possibilities of this gas for aerial navigation. In 1781 Dr. Joseph Black of Edinburgh suggested to his pupils that a thin bladder filled with 'the inflammable gas' (hydrogen) would rise into the air, but it appears doubtful whether he ever actually made the experiment. Tiberius Cavallo the same year, before the Royal Society, demonstrated that soap-bubbles filled with hydrogen would rise and float in the air. The honour of building the first hydrogen balloon belongs, however, to three Frenchmen--the brothers Robert, and Charles, a physicist. They sent up a hydrogen-filled balloon of varnished silk from the Champ de Mars, Paris, on 7th Aug., 1783. One of the Roberts and Charles themselves made the second human ascent in their balloon--the first in a hydrogen balloon as opposed to a Montgolfiere (as above)--on 1st Dec. the same year. In 1784 the same Frenchmen constructed the first 'air-ship' or navigable balloon to the order of the Duc de Chartres (Philippe Egalite). The gas container of this was elongated in form, and it could be propelled to some small extent by means of oars, and steered by a rudder. In the same year a French military officer, named Meusnier, produced a completely detailed design for an air-ship. This embodied the first suggestion of screw-propellers, to be worked by man-power, and also provided for a 'ballonet' into which air could be driven to replace hydrogen lost owing to expansion during the ascent. Meusnier's design was the genesis of the modern non-rigid air-ship, all the essential features remaining. This air-ship was, however, never built.

The first ascent in the British Isles was made in a Montgolfiere by James Tytler at Edinburgh, on 27th Aug., 1784, though he travelled only a few hundred yards. He was followed by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, who ascended from the artillery ground in London three weeks later (Sept., 1784), landing near Ware in Hertfordshire. The first Channel crossing by air was made in a hydrogen balloon from Dover to Calais on 7th Jan., 1785, by Blanchard and Dr. Jeffries.

Subsequent developments in air-ships are due to the pioneer work of Giffard (1852) (the first steam-driven air-ship), Dupuy de Lome (1872), the brothers Tissandier (electric propulsion) (1883), Renard and Krebbs (1884), Woelfert (1897), Santos Dumont (1898-1905), Zeppelin (1900), Lebaudy (1903), Barton (English) (1905), Willows (English) (1910).

In the meantime experimental work was being carried on by the exponents of the heavier-than-air school, who soon abandoned the flapping-wing principle and eventually evolved the modern aeroplane. The modern aeroplane was evolved from the brain of an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, who in 1809 contributed an article to _Nicholson's Journal_ in which he outlined the outstretched wings, vertical and horizontal steering surfaces, screw-propeller, 'explosion' motor, and 'stream-line' form of the modern aeroplane. In 1842 Henson and Stringfellow, both Englishmen, constructed a steam-driven model on this principle, which is now in the South Kensington Museum. Wenham in 1866 contributed a valuable paper to the Royal Aeronautical Society on the subject. In 1896 Lillienthal in Germany carried out a number of glides with rigid wings, provided with a movable tail, fixed to his body. He was followed by Chanute, who in America emphasized the biplane principle in his glider. In 1896 Ader, a Frenchman, built an 'avion' which is claimed to have risen from the ground at Satory, but this is doubtful. In 1895 a huge steam-propelled aeroplane built by Sir Hiram Maxim burst the rails holding it down and lifted for a few feet.

The real credit for the evolution of a man-carrying aeroplane is, however, due to the American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio. Encouraged by the advice of Chanute, they commenced experimenting with biplane gliders on the sand-hills at Kittyhawk. Meeting with considerable success, they fitted a petrol motor of their own design in 1903 and made several straight flights during the same year. In 1904 they succeeded in making the first turn in the air. These experiments were carried out in great secrecy, and it was not until 1908 that their first public flights were made in France, the first taking place in October of that year. The first aviator to fly in Europe was Santos Dumont, who, on 12th Nov., 1906, covered 220 metres, having previously in the same year flown for shorter distances. At this time and during the two or three ensuing years many experiments were carried out, and flights made, by Farman, Voisin, Esnault-Pelterie, and Bleriot in France; Wright and Curtiss in America; and Roe, Ogilvie, and Moore-Brabazon in England. A prize of L2000 offered by MM. Deutsch de la Meurthe and Ernest Archdeacon for the first circular flight over a distance of 1 kilometre, returning to the point of starting, was won in Jan., 1908, by Henry Farman.

The second crossing of the Channel, and the first by a 'heavier-than-air' machine, was effected by Louis Bleriot in a machine of his own construction with an Anzani engine from Calais to Dover on 25th July, 1909. From that date the science of aviation (flight by heavier-than-air machines) may be said to have begun, and progress was merely a record of improvements. By the end of 1919 the Atlantic had been crossed four times; once by sea-plane, once by a non-stop aeroplane flight, and twice (outward and return) by non-stop air-ship flights. Aeroplanes had achieved a speed of 190 miles an hour, had attained to a height of over 34,000 feet, and had covered upwards of 1900 miles in one non-stop flight.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: De St. Fond, _Description de la Machine Aerostatique_; Cavallo, _History and Practice of Aerostation_; Lunardi, _The First Aerial Voyage in England_; Moedebeck, _Pocket Book of Aeronautics_; Santos Dumont, _My Air-ships_; _The Aeronautical Classics_ (Aeronautical Society); G. Tissandier, _Histoire des Ballons_; A. Berget, _The Conquest of the Air_.

AEROPLANE, a flying-machine deriving its power of sustentation from the reaction of the air driven downwards by the rapid transit of fixed wings or 'planes' through the air. The term 'plane' for the wing of an aeroplane is strictly a misnomer, as the word implies a flat plate, whereas a wing is 'cambered' or curved in section from front to back. This is due to the discovery of Lillienthal (see _Aeronautics_) that a cambered 'aerofoil' when set at an angle to a wind current gives more 'lift' than a flat plane. The wing of an aeroplane is normally set at an angle horizontally (or rather at an angle to the relative wind) varying from 0deg to 4deg. This angle is known as the 'angle of incidence'. As the wing is driven through the air under the influence of the propeller, the air meets the 'leading' or 'entering' edge and is divided into two streams along the top and bottom surfaces. It does not, however, follow the surface closely, but in the case of the lower stratum is deflected downwards at an angle to the surface, which results in an upward reaction. The upper of the two streams of air is correspondingly deflected upwards at an angle to the surface for a short distance. This causes an 'area of discontinuity of flow', or eddy, which results in 'negative pressure', causing an upward suction. This fact was first discovered by Sir Hiram Maxim, though it was G. Eiffel who measured the effects of the positive pressure on the lower surface and the negative pressure on the upper surface, and found, contrary to all expectation, that the latter is responsible for three-quarters of the total lifting effect of the wing. In addition to the lift, the wings offer resistance to progress through the air, which effect is known as 'drag'. The ratio of lift to drag is a measure of the efficiency of a wing-section. A well-designed wing will have a L/D ratio at an angle of incidence of 4deg of about 16, i.e. the lift effect in pounds will be 16 times that of the drag. The fundamental equation of an aeroplane is R = KSV^2, where R = the resistance, K = a constant (usually 0.003), S = area of surface, and V = the velocity in feet per second. From this it will be seen that the resistance for the same area increases as the square of the speed, which shows the importance of reducing the resistance to the lowest possible degree if high speeds are to be obtained. For this purpose it is necessary that the flow of air round the component parts of the aeroplane caused by its passage should be as little disturbed and broken up into eddies as possible. It is found that the best theoretical shape for this purpose is a body of circular cross-section tapering from front to rear, with the maximum cross-section toward the _front_. The 'fineness ratio' (ratio of length to maximum diameter) should be about 6 to 1, and the maximum cross-section situated about one-third of the distance from the nose. Such a form will offer only about 1/20 the resistance of a flat plate of similar cross-section, and is known as a 'stream-line form'. The width of a wing from side to side at right angles to the wind is known as the 'span', and the breadth from front to back as the 'chord'. The ratio of span to chord is the 'aspect ratio'. Owing to the increase in drag resulting from low aspect ratio (large chord relative to span) the higher the aspect ratio the more efficient the wing. This is in practice about 6, owing to structural difficulties in constructing a wing of larger relative span. The essential parts of an aeroplane are the wings, fuselage (body), tail (comprising fixed vertical and horizontal surfaces behind which are hinged movable rudders and elevators), and chassis, or landing-carriage. The majority of modern machines are biplanes, i.e. with one set of wings superposed on the other and connected by upright wooden members called 'struts'. Aeroplanes with one set of wings only are called 'monoplanes'; those with three, 'triplanes'; with four, 'quadruplanes'; and with more than four, 'multiplanes'. Aeroplanes are also divided into 'tractor' and 'pusher', according to whether the propeller is situated in front or rear of the wings.

When the engine is started, the revolution of the propeller causes the aeroplane to move along the ground until such a speed is reached (usually about 35-50 miles per hour) that it is able to support its own weight in the air when it leaves the ground. When in the air it is made to ascend or descend by moving the elevators, which are operated by a vertical stick in front of the pilot through control cables or levers. Steering to right or left is effected by the rudder, which is operated by a foot-bar through cables or levers. Lateral balance is obtained by means of 'ailerons' or flaps on the outer extremities of the wings. If one wing tends to dip, the aileron on that side is depressed. This increases the resistance of that wing and so causes it to rise. By a combination of movements of the elevators, rudder, and ailerons almost any evolution can be performed with a modern aeroplane. A well-designed machine will, on cutting off the engine-power, turn its nose slightly down and automatically assume its own 'gliding-angle' to the ground. The gliding-angle is the ratio of descent to forward travel and is usually 1 in 12 to 1 in 14.

Speeds of 190 miles per hour have been attained and a height of 34,600 feet reached. The greatest distance covered in one flight is the crossing of the Atlantic--slightly more than 1900 miles--while an aeroplane has remained in the air for 24 hours. Aeroplanes range in size from small single-seater 'scouts' with a duration of only some three hours, to large multiple-engined machines with a weight, fully loaded, of from 15 to 20 tons. The essential feature of the aeroplane is, as already stated, that it is heavier than air and therefore subject to the laws of gravity in the event of engine failure. Its choice of a landing-ground is then dependent upon its height at the moment and gliding-angle.

Aeroplanes are normally constructed throughout of wood, though steel is occasionally used. The wings are built of wooden 'spars', of which there are usually two along the length of each wing, connected together by wooden 'ribs'. The wings of a biplane are braced by the struts (see above) and by wires. 'Landing-wires' support the weight of the wing on the ground, while 'flying-wires' prevent them folding upwards under the influence of the lift in flight. 'Drift-wires' are to prevent the wings folding backwards under the pressure of the air in flight. See also _Aeronautics_, _Sea-planes_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Barber, _The Aeroplane Speaks_; H. Barber, _Aerobatics_; Hamel and Turner, _Flying_; Borlase Mathews, _Aviation Pocket Book_; Pippard and Pritchard, _Aeroplane Structures_; Judge, _Design of Aeroplanes_; Judge, _Properties of Aerofoils_; Loening, _Military Aeroplanes_.

AEROSTATIC PRESS, a contrivance for extracting the colouring matter from dye-woods and for similar purposes. A liquid intended to carry with it the extract is brought into contact with the substance containing it, and a vacuum being made by an air-pump suitably applied, the pressure of the atmosphere forces the liquid through the intervening mass, carrying the colour or other soluble matter with it.

AEROSTAT'ICS, that branch of physics which treats of the weight, pressure, and equilibrium of air and gases. See _Air_; _Air-pump_; _Barometer_; _Gases, Properties of_; _Hydrostatics_; _Meteorology_; &c.

AEROTHERAPEUTICS is the treatment of disease by atmospheres artificially prepared and differing from the normal in compression or pressure or temperature. It is divided into: