Chapter IV: Projects (2)

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I cannot but think that Sir William Garstin’s recent objections to the Albert Nile are founded on an oversight. He has, apparently, not kept the flood discharges of the Albert Nile at Gondokoro and above the Sobat mouth sufficiently apart from those of low supply. It is the Sobat flood, combined with the poor carrying capacity of the White Nile, which is the disturbing factor, and not any inherent viciousness in the Albert Nile itself. The Albert Nile has a good section, and, if it were trained in conjunction with the Zeraf river, would, I feel confident, discharge all the water required with a very moderate expenditure of money. This, I always understood, was Sir William’s own opinion. In such projects it is wise to remember Horace’s saying, “Naturam furcâ expellas tamenusque recurrit.”

38. =Project for converting the basin irrigated lands of Upper Egypt into perennially irrigated lands.=--No consideration of this question would be complete without first examining into the changes which would be made in the regimen of the Nile flood by the contemplated conversion of basin irrigation into perennial irrigation. This question was examined very thoroughly by me in 1892 and 1893 and I give here my arguments for not anticipating any serious difficulties.

We have to consider the effect of the introduction of perennial irrigation on the regime of the Nile. The perfection of the perennial irrigation of the Delta north of Cairo will in no way affect the Nile in flood. The canals will continue to run as they do at present, and the question of conversion in Lower Egypt is therefore quite independent of the subject of flood protection. In Upper Egypt, however, we have 1,460,000 acres of basin irrigation; and as each acre receives in a low flood 80 cubic metres of water per day, in an ordinary flood 130 cubic metres per day, and in an extraordinary flood 170 cubic metres per day, while the demands of perennial irrigation are only 25 cubic metres per acre per day, it will readily be understood that we are dealing with a quantity of water which demands the greatest attention.

To foretell with exactitude the anticipated changes in the regime of the Nile, it is necessary to know first the daily gauges of the Nile at Assuân and Cairo for a period of at least twenty years, and the discharges corresponding to these gauges. The difference between these discharges represents the consumption of water. We have next to determine the amount of water which passes into the canals, the amount utilised in filling up the trough of the Nile and covering the berms, and the amounts evaporated and absorbed. We know that the last three items are constant while the canal discharges are variable and depend on the system of irrigation and, if our data are correct, we can tell with moderate certainty what changes in the level of the Nile will follow certain changes in the system of irrigation.

Tables 65 and 67 of Appendix L contain the Assuân and Cairo gauges for typical years in a period of twenty years from 1873 to 1892, and the mean gauges of these twenty years. Finding it impossible to understand the Nile without first referring every gauge to some uniform standard, I have had to choose the line of reference. The mean high water level and the mean low water level are both available. In Egypt the mean high water level varies very considerably whether we take it in August and the early part of September when the basin canals are running full supply, or in the latter half of September when the canals are running only half supply, or in October when the basins are discharging back into the Nile. Early and quick rising floods have a different series of levels from slow and late floods; while again the recent works carried out in Upper Egypt by Col. Ross have so increased the discharging capacity of the canals that the flood gauges have been appreciably affected. All this points to the conclusion that the mean high flood is no satisfactory standard. The mean low flood on the other hand is much less liable to change and is very fairly constant from year to year. High floods are certainly followed by scouring out of the bed, and low floods by a silting up of the channel, but the changes are very moderate compared to those in high flood. I have chosen the mean low water level as the line of reference, and referred all gauges to it. From the mean of twenty years’ observations, this level at Assuân is R. L. 85 metres. By observations along the Nile generally, and by calculations at Cairo, I have fixed it at all important places north of Assuân. Table 46 of Appendix K gives the Reduced Levels at different places, while it is also drawn on the longitudinal section of the Nile in Plate XII. It was on this system that the ancient Egyptian engineers worked the Nile. They however chose the mean high water level during the early part of the flood as their standard of reference and consequently made the so called cubits in the flood reaches of the Cairo gauge half cubits. This means a discharge of 1600 cubic metres per second and fairly represents the discharges of the basin canals in flood. When it is considered that the level of the Nile valley is raised by about 10 centimetres per 100 years it will be seen that the old Cairo gauge, which was a living record 1500 years ago, is to-day a meaningless anachronism. It has also to be compared with the Assuân gauge which was erected in Ismail Pasha’s time with an arbitrary zero some 90 centimetres below mean low water level, and which may be reading 17 cubits while Cairo may be recording 25 cubits. The Cairo gauges in winter and summer are no records of discharge as the afflux from the Barrage affects them. To find the discharge at Cairo during these months, I have added those of the Rosetta and Damietta branches and the Delta canals upstream of the Barrage. When the Nile falls below mean low water level, the gauges are recorded as minus quantities.

Discharge sites having been chosen for the Assuân, Assiout and Cairo gauges on the Nile, a continuous series of surface velocity observations, cross sections and slope measurements were made during 1892 and 1893 and the resulting discharges recorded. Curves of discharge have been drawn and referred to the gauges of twenty years and modified until finally a curve has been found which will suit any year whether it is a maximum or a minimum. In connection with this subject, it must be remembered that the Nile bed is raised by silt during low floods and scoured out during high floods and that consequently August and September discharges vary considerably at times from October and November discharges for the same gauge. In addition to this, it must also be borne in mind that the slope of water surface and that consequently the discharge of a flood during the rise is far greater than during the fall for the same gauge reading. Indeed the Nile often discharges more when it is 30 centimetres below its maximum and rising fast than when it has reached its maximum and begun to fall. It is owing to this fact that we often see the discrepancy of the Assuân gauge reaching its maximum a day before Halfa which is 350 kilometres higher up the river. The discharge depends on gauge and slope, and the gauge only records one element. Keeping these facts in my mind, I saw that it was of no use recording the gauges to two places of decimals and covering paper with useless figures, and consequently I have chosen the higher unit for a rising gauge and the lower for a falling gauge when I have been dealing with discharges.

Flood discharges have been taken of all the canals in Upper Egypt through 1892 and 1893 and have been recorded in Tables 48 and 49 of Appendix K. From these tables, Table 47 has been compiled which gives rough approximate discharges of the canals corresponding to the Assuân gauges in the first half of the flood.

To obtain information about the trough of the Nile, the area exposed to evaporation and the area of absorption, a longitudinal section of the Nile from Assuân to Cairo has been levelled, and cross sections taken at every 3 kilometres. The kilometrage on Plate XII counts from the Assuân gauge and is measured down the centre of discharge of the flood, since it is with flood discharges that we are principally dealing. As the Nile winds about considerably and is often broken into numerous channels, the areas of the cross sections vary very appreciably according as they are taken at right angles to the centre line of discharge or of the deep channel of the river. The former gives the more reliable results. I have taken 8 millimetres per day as the evaporation during flood in Upper Egypt. The absorption has been calculated from the water consumption during the floods of 1892 and 1893, and found to be about 300 cubic metres per second between Assuân and Assiout, where there is practically no perennial irrigation. Between Assiout and Cairo, where there is a considerable length of perennial irrigation on one bank and limestone rock on the other, the absorption is about 100 cubic metres per second.

When perennial irrigation has once established itself in Upper Egypt, we may assume that the absorption during flood will be halved in quantity for the reasons given above, and become 150 cubic metres per second between Assuân and Assiout, and 50 cubic metres per second between Assiout and Cairo. The amount of water expended in irrigation will be about 700 cubic metres per second. The evaporation during flood will be approximately 120 cubic metres per second. The quantity of water needed to fill the trough of the Nile will depend on the gauges and may be calculated from table 43 of Appendix K. The last item will be the only variable one and the others may be approximately tabulated as follows:--

_Expenditure of water in flood in cubic metres per second_:

BETWEEN ASSUÂN BETWEEN ASSIOUT TOTAL
AND ASSIOUT. AND CAIRO.
Perennial irrigation 350 350 700
Evaporation 65 55 120
Absorption 150 50 200
--- --- ----
Total of above 565 455 1020
=== === ====

Taking these quantities and calculating directly for the filling of the trough from the gauges themselves, I have collected in Tables 50 to 52, the Cairo gauges corresponding to the Assuân gauges for the high years 1874 and 1878 and the minimum year 1877. As far as the more important results are concerned, I tabulate them here:--

=Gauges at Assuân and Cairo.=

============+=======================+=======================+
Date. | 1874 | 1878 |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|Assuan.| Cairo | Cairo |Assuan.| Cairo | Cairo |
| | with | with | | with | with |
| | basin | peren-| | basin | peren-|
| | irri- | nial | | irri- | nial |
| |gation.| irri- | |gation.| irri- |
| | |gation.| | |gation.|
------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
August 5| 6·9 | .. | .. | 5·6 | .. | .. |
10| 7·4 | 6·5 | 5·8 | 5·3 | 4·9 | 4·4 |
15| 8·5 | 6·9 | 6·4 | 7·2 | 5·4 | 5·2 |
20| 8·6 | 7·3 | 7·8 | 7·5 | 6·0 | 6·3 |
25| 8·7 | 7·5 | 7·9 | 8·1 | 6·3 | 6·5 |
31| 8·7 | 7·6 | 8·1 | 7·6 | 6·6 | 7·2 |
------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
September 5| 9·0 | 7·7 | 8·2 | 8·1 | 6·5 | 7·5 |
10| 8·8 | 8·0 | 8·3 | 8·5 | 6·8 | 7·5 |
15| 8·7 | 8·2 | 8·4 | 8·9 | 7·2 | 8·0 |
20| 8·4 | 8·3 | 8·5 | 8·9 | 7·6 | 8·5 |
25| 8·4 | 8·4 | 8·2 | 9·0 | 7·9 | 8·5 |
30| 8·2 | 8·4 | 8·2 | 9·1 | 8·2 | 8·5 |
------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
October 5| 7·9 | 8·7 | 7·9 | 8·9 | 8·4 | 8·6 |
10| 7·6 | 8·5 | 7·6 | 8·5 | 8·7 | 8·6 |
15| 7·2 | 8·3 | 7·4 | 7·9 | 8·4 | 8·4 |
20| 6·6 | 8·0 | 7·0 | 7·6 | 8·1 | 8·0 |
25| 6·2 | 7·7 | 6·3 | 7·4 | 7·9 | 7·4 |
31| 5·6 | 7·0 | 5·9 | 6·8 | 7·7 | 7·2 |
============+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+

============+=======================+=======================
Date. | 1892 | 1877
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
|Assuan.| Cairo | Cairo |Assuan.| Cairo | Cairo
| | with | with | | with | with
| | basin | peren-| | basin | peren-
| | irri- | nial | | irri- | nial
| |gation.| irri- | |gation.| irri-
| | |gation.| | |gation.
------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
August 5| 6·3 | .. | .. | 4·9 | .. | ..
10| 6·8 | 5·3 | 5·1 | 5·4 | 4·0 | 3·9
15| 6·7 | 5·8 | 5·8 | 5·8 | 4·7 | 4·6
20| 7·4 | 5·4 | 6·2 | 6·4 | 4·6 | 5·0
25| 8·3 | 5·8 | 6·5 | 6·1 | 5·3 | 5·5
31| 8·3 | 6·6 | 7·7 | 6·2 | 5·3 | 5·6
------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
September 5| 8·6 | 6·9 | 7·7 | 6·3 | 5·2 | 5·2
10| 8·8 | 7·1 | 8·0 | 6·1 | 5·3 | 5·3
15| 8·8 | 7·5 | 8·3 | 6·0 | 5·2 | 5·5
20| 8·9 | 7·9 | 8·3 | 6·0 | 5·2 | 5·4
25| 8·6 | 8·1 | 8·4 | 6·3 | 5·1 | 5·4
30| 8·4 | 8·3 | 8·4 | 6·1 | 5·3 | 5·6
------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------
October 5| 8·2 | 8·4 | 8·3 | 5·6 | 5·2 | 5·4
10| 7·8 | 8·3 | 8·1 | 5·2 | 5·0 | 5·0
15| 7·4 | 8·1 | 7·7 | 4·9 | 4·9 | 4·6
20| 7·2 | 7·9 | 7·2 | 4·6 | 4·6 | 4·4
25| 6·8 | 7·9 | 7·0 | 4·5 | 4·4 | 4·0
31| 6·3 | 7·8 | 6·6 | 4·0 | 4·2 | 3·9
============+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======

To enable one to compare these figures which are in metres and referred to mean low water level, with the gauges as recorded at present, I add the following table:--

=========================++=========================
ASSUAN || CAIRO
----------+--------------++----------+--------------
Real | Gauge || Real | Gauge
gauge | as recorded || gauge | as recorded
in metres.| in cubits ||in metres.| in cubits
| and 24ths. || | and 24ths.
----------+--------------++----------+--------------
| || |
|Cubits. 24ths.|| |Cubits. 24ths.
0.0 | 1 13 || 0.0 | 6 9
.5 | 2 12 || .5 | 7 7
1.0 | 3 10 || 1.0 | 8 5
.5 | 4 8 || .5 | 9 4
2.0 | 5 6 || 2.0 | 10 2
.5 | 6 4 || .5 | 11 0
3.0 | 7 3 || 3.0 | 12 0
.5 | 8 1 || .5 | 13 0
4.0 | 8 23 || 4.0 | 13 23
.5 | 9 21 || .5 | 14 21
5.0 | 10 20 || 5.0 | 15 19
.5 | 11 18 || .5 | 17 12
6.0 | 12 16 || 6.0 | 19 8
.5 | 13 14 || .5 | 21 4
7.0 | 14 12 || 7.0 | 22 12
.5 | 15 11 || .5 | 23 10
8.0 | 16 9 || 8.0 | 24 9
.5 | 17 7 || .5 | 5 7
9.0 | 18 5 || 9.0 | 26 5
----------+--------------++----------+-----------
16 cubits at Assuân corresponds to 7.8 metres.
17 „ „ „ „ „ 8.3 „
18 „ „ „ „ „ 8.9 „

A cubit is known in Egypt as a pic.
-------------------------------------------------
16 cubits at Cairo corresponds to 5.1 metres.
22 „ „ „ „ „ 6.7 „
23 „ „ „ „ „ 7.3 „
24 „ „ „ „ „ 7.8 „
25 „ „ „ „ „ 8.3 „
25¹⁄₂ „ „ „ „ „ 8.6 „
=================================================

The flood of 1874 was an early one and the basins were discharged on a falling Nile, still they raised the Cairo gauge to 8·7 metres on the 5th October while it would have risen to 8·5 on the 15th September with perennial irrigation. The flood of 1878 was an exceedingly late one and the basins had to be discharged while the river was still very high. By the 10th October, the river had risen to 8·7 metres at Cairo when the banks were breached and all future rise stopped. With perennial irrigation, the maximum gauge of 8·6 metres would have been reached on the 10th October. The flood of 1892 was at Assuân 10 centimetres below that of 1874 and 20 centimetres below that of 1878, and midway between them in point of time. It was also under complete control owing to the new regulating works on the basins. It rose to 8·4 metres at Cairo on the 5th October and fell exceedingly slowly. With perennial irrigation, it would have risen to 8·4 at Cairo on the 30th September and then fallen rapidly.

Speaking generally, we may say that with perennial irrigation the very high floods at Cairo will be 15 days in advance of what they are at present, that they will not rise higher, and that they will fall 15 days earlier than what they do now. With low floods there will be no appreciable difference as to date, but the floods will be slightly higher at Cairo. In ordinary floods, there will be an advance of from 20 to 25 days in the date of the maximum flood, and a maximum gauge at Cairo 50 or 60 centimetres under the maximum gauge at Assuân. We have so far considered Cairo only, as the Delta proper depends on the Cairo gauge. We now turn to the Nile in Upper Egypt itself: south of Sohag, there will be no serious change in levels, but the Sohagia and Ibrahimia canals between them carry at present 750 cubic metres per second in excess of what they would carry if there were perennial irrigation in Egypt, and the greater part of this water is not returned to the Nile until the Kushesha escape is reached. The reach of the Nile from Sohag to Kushesha is the one which will experience the greatest changes, and I calculate that there will be a rise of 40 centimetres as compared with the maximum gauges under basin irrigation.

It will be noted that at the beginning of this paragraph I stated that “the perfection of the perennial irrigation of the Delta north of Cairo will in no way affect the Nile in flood.” This had reference only to the quantity of water taken from the Nile in high floods. There is however one very serious aspect of this question. The regulation on the Barrage in low floods, which has gone on steadily since 1899 when Sir Hanbury Brown used the Barrages in flood for the first time, has enormously increased the value of the works, but it has certainly caused the Main Nile to silt, and probably also the branches, owing to a reduced discharge and velocity of the silt-bearing water, whose capacity to carry on that quantity of silt depends on its velocity. It seems to me that unless steps are taken to insure the scouring out of this silt by the clear water of November, December and January the consequences will be very serious. High floods scour out their beds, but if a very high flood were to come early before the silt had been scoured out, it might overflow the banks near Cairo or in the middle reaches of the Nile branches in the Delta.

Sir William Garstin has estimated the cost of converting the existing basins of Upper Egypt into perennially irrigated land at £7,000,000, thus made up:--

Conversion of Upper Egypt basins £ 5,000,000
Two barrages between Assyut and Kena „ 2,000,000
-----------
Total £ 7,000,000
===========

The resulting land tax from the improved irrigation in Upper or Lower Egypt he has estimated as follows:--

Upper Egypt. {Basin land converted 750,000 acres @ £ ·50 = £ 375,000
{Land irrigated by pumps 100,000 „ @ £ ·30 = „ 30,000
Lower Egypt. Reclaimed land 800,000 „ @ £1.00 = „ 800,000
---------
Total £ 1,205,000
=========

39. =Development of the Sudan.=--Lord Cromer’s wise decision to construct the Suakin-Khartoum railway immediately and the Abu Hamed-Dongola railway as soon as possible, is the charter of the development of the Sudan. With these railways and especially the former in working order, we can arrange for irrigation works for the production of cotton and wheat for export, knowing that they can be exported at a cost of transport which will not be absolutely prohibitive. The soil of the Sudan along the Blue Nile, the Atbara, the Main Nile and a great part of the White Nile is the same as that of Egypt itself. It has all come from Abyssinia. When at Khartoum last February, I collected specimens of typical Gezireh soil from points 10 miles south of Khartoum and from near Khartoum itself. They were analysed by Mr. Frank Hughes and reported on by Mr. Foaden.

The specimens were numbered as follows:--

(1) Typical Gezireh soil from a point 10 miles south of Khartoum near the Blue Nile.

(2) Typical Gezireh soil from a point 2 miles south of Khartoum near the White Nile.

(3) White Nile side under cultivation in 1904.

(4) White Nile side below flood level.

(5) Blue Nile side, not so common as (1).

(6) The sandy soil generally within 5 miles of Khartoum.

Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6 are above high flood level of both Niles.

“The nitrogen and salt were determined in the samples, as received, without drying.

Nos. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Nitrogen 0·078 0·059 0·062 0·057 0·056 0·052
Common salt 0·050 0·020 0·010 0·090 0·170 0·020

“All contain abundance of carbonate of lime; Nos. 1 and 2 might almost be called calcareous. All gave a strong reaction for phosphoric acid, and there is therefore every reason to believe that they are rich in this ingredient. So far as the texture of the soils is concerned, little can be said except that they differ from those previously examined for Kena Mudirieh, in containing a large amount of coarse sand 1-3 m.m., which is entirely absent in most Egyptian soils; No. 6 would probably be too light for agricultural purposes in its present condition.

“The nitrogen is as high as one would expect but is lower than is necessary for fertile soils. It would be necessary therefore to encourage the growth of leguminous crops to increase the quantity of nitrogen in the soil and to employ nitrogenous manures. It must be borne in mind that in soils of this class the nitrogen is usually in a highly insoluble and un-nitrifiable form.

“The salt is in no case high; 0.25% is usually considered to be the limit for satisfactory growth; all the samples are well below this limit.”

I had complete analyses made of numbers (1) and (2). The results were as follows:

No. 1 No. 2

Silica etc. insol in mineral acid 74.76 73.85
Lime (Ca.O.) 6.07 4.56
Carbonic Acid (C.O.₂) 3.64 2.40
Equal to Chalk (Ca.C.O.³) 8.27 5.46
Potash 0.23 0.34
Phosphoric Acid 0.14 0.12
Organic Matter 2.88 4.07
Nitrogen 0.075 0.062
Calculated on soil dried at 100°.

Though none of these specimens contained salt in excess, Nile deposit in certain localities has very large proportions of common salt and sulphate of soda. The dark soil near the Atbara mouth at El-Damer is largely exploited for common salt, while similar soil south of Khartoum is free from it.

The extent of this Nile deposit soil is very great indeed and if irrigation could be assured, there would be a great future before the Sudan.

In Mr. Dupuis’s Report which is the last appendix to Sir William Garstin’s Report, he speaks of this soil as being met with on the Blue Nile, on the Rahad, on the Atbara and on the Gaash. From Khartoum northwards the main Nile flows between berms of this soil.

The extent and quality of this soil may therefore be considered as an undisputed asset of the Sudan. We have next to consider the seasons.

A reference to tables 76, 77, and 80 will show how much warmer the Sudan is than Egypt, and any attempt to introduce Egyptian methods into the Sudan without modifications will not at once turn the Sudan into Egypt. I allow that extensive plains of irrigated land greatly moderate the heat as they have already done in Middle Egypt; but we have to begin from the beginning in the Sudan, and there are no extensive plains of irrigated land. Basin irrigation will be a failure in the Sudan unless it is supplemented by two or three waterings in the winter, for all crops except the cheapest and coarsest leguminous crops. Wheat must be irrigated in winter whether sown in a basin or on the Nile berm, except in a few choice, low and damp localities. Cotton, on the other hand, which has to be sown in spring in Egypt and reaped in autumn will need such an extraordinary quantity of water to pull it through the summer that it will be found preferable to grow it in June with the rising flood and reap it at the end of the winter. Irrigation therefore from June to October for Indian corn, from June to February for cotton, and from November to February for wheat will be essentials of a good harvest in the Sudan.

We now come to the question of the water supply. Unless permits are given for pumps to work from the 15th June to the 15 February, the cultivation of cotton and wheat on any scale in the northern part of the Gezireh, along the main Nile between Khartoum and Dongola, and on the lower reaches of the Atbara will be out of the question. Maize and millets and some of the coarser leguminous plants might be developed by pumps with permits to work from 15th June to 15th October, but it would pay no one to put up pumps on these terms.

Fortunately for the joint interests of Egypt and the Sudan, though Egypt cannot spare water between the 15th March and 30th June, which would correspond to 1st March and 15th June in the Sudan; she has enough to spare for pumps at other times, though she has not always enough to spare for large free flow schemes in the Sudan. Free flow schemes in the Sudan, except during high and good floods, have however yet to be found.

Speaking generally we may say that the agricultural success of the Sudan will depend on permits for pumping engines to work between the 1st June and the end of February. There should be no difficulty in the way of such permits being given. We have spoken so far of schemes within the power of individuals and companies. Of schemes which the Government alone could carry out by itself or in conjunction with powerful companies, the most promising seem to be those which are connected with the 6th cataract. This cataract seems well suited for the construction of a solid dam to create power and develop electricity to work pumps between it and Khartoum, and some 30 kilometres up the Blue Nile; and if possible to allow of a canal down the left bank of the Nile as far as Berber. This project might be studied with advantage and a greater amount of water storage for summer use be also obtained.

SKETCH PLAN OF

COUNTRY ABOUT DELGI

N.W. OF L. TSANA

_Scale 1 : 50.000_

Lith. Sur. Dep. Cairo.]

Another scheme is the construction of a double barrage and weir near Wad Medani on the Blue Nile, with canals irrigating the Gezireh and the right bank of the Blue Nile and the Nile to Shabluka. Unfortunately no cross sections have been taken of the Blue Nile showing how high the Gezireh is above the bed and water surface of the Blue Nile at Wad Medani. A weir further south would, as Mr. Dupuis states, entail very expensive canals to irrigate the lands south of Khartoum.

Mr. Dupuis’s report on the Atbara is not very hopeful. Without reservoirs this torrential river could insure no crop except millets and Indian corn. The same may be said for the Gaash. Basins without winter irrigation would, I think, be most unsatisfactory.

Examining Mr. Dupuis’s figures and sections for the outlet of lake Tsana, I calculate that this reservoir would not supply a fraction of the water estimated by Mr. Dupuis. If I were wrong, and I should be pleased indeed to be wrong here, a tunnel along the alignment roughly surveyed by Mr. Dupuis, Plate XX, leading the waters of Lake Tsana into the Rahad river, and from there under the Blue Nile by a syphon, and branch canals irrigating both banks of the Rahad and both banks of the Blue Nile to Khartoum, would be one of the boldest projects in the world.

It will be noted that no mention has been made of the tracts between the foothills of Abyssinia and Wad-el-Medani which can produce good crops of Indian corn, millets and even cotton in nine years out of ten with the aid of rain without irrigation. If the land could lend itself to basins similar to those of Bundelkund or to river fed pans as in Madras, a development of this country would be possible. Ordinary Egyptian basin irrigation would be, I think, of no use.

The following quotations from a letter written by Messrs. Choremi, Benachi and Co., of Alexandria, to Mr. Foaden on the 8th February 1904, will give an idea of the estimation in which Sudan grown cotton is held in Alexandria:--

“The cotton generally is good and superior to any Sudan cotton I have yet seen. Last year the best I saw was sent by the Sudan Government and grown in Miralai Stanton Bey’s garden, with artificial irrigation and quality was (first picking) class “good”, equal to Beni-Suef or Minieh cotton, but more woolly. In any case it is saleable cotton for coarse Nos. of Yarn, not what we call Bolton Spinners’ cotton.

“I now give you the following classification and values compared to Standard of Full Good Fair Lower Egypt which is the basis of “Futures” in our Market and Liverpool.

“On Upper Egypt the outturn in ginning on basis 315 lbs. per cwt. in seed runs from 100 to 104, and Lower Egypt 105-110 according to province grown and quality of seed.

No. 1 Outturn 96 Class “good”, value P.T. 5 over Delta fully good
fair--colour rather light--good staple, better
than Beni-Suef Ashmouni or even Afifi.

No. 2 „ 98¹⁄₂ Long staple and finish does not look grown from
afifi seed but from superior quality, value about
P.T. 15 over F.G.F.

No. 3 „ 99 Class “good”, the seed of this is from
Delta because mixed--there is also some
Abassi in and does not look as from afifi
seed because finer than any afifi grown in
Minieh and Beni-Suef, value 5 to 10 over
F.G.F.

No. 4 „ 102¹⁄₂ “Good” in class, from mixed seed--some looks
afifi, other better, probably Yannovich
seed. There are traces of abassi--and is
irregular in strength, value P.T. 15 to 20 over
F.G.F.

No. 5 „ 100 Also from mixed seed--I can trace afifi quality
and Yannovich, also some abassi. Value over
F.G.F. about 7 to 10 P.T.

No. 6 „ 103¹⁄₂ About same as No. 5 and with same mixture.

“From the above report you will see that quality generally is good--but I regret the seed got mixed--probably through mistakes in transport or if in single bags some broke and seed became mixed.

“The outturn in ginning I consider good and the seed I notice deteriorates but very little as you can see--though with that of Stanton Bey’s I examined with you last year, the deterioration was, if I remember right, something like 10% in one year. The seed from the non irrigated Sudan (I suppose near Khartoum) though from good Afifi seed, almost becomes unfit for sowing and the quality of this cotton had a very poor outturn of about 73%.

“Rain crops cannot be depended on, because if no rain for some time the quality will be totally spoilt.

“I fail to find any trace of sand in the samples--though the common Sudan non-irrigated cotton was very dirty and sandy.”

The following extracts from a letter written to me by Ibrahim Effendi Fahmy, originally a student of the Cairo Agricultural College and at the time of writing Government agriculturist at Khartoum and on leave in Cairo, will be found interesting.

“There are three seasons in the Sudan, which are different from those in Egypt. The seasons are:--1st the winter which extends from the 1st November to the end of February, in this season wheat, beans, barley, onions, Indian corn and millets are planted: 2nd, the summer which extends from 1st March to the 15th June, in this season, practically speaking, nothing is planted except a small quantity of millets, and in the middle of the season from the 1st May to the 15th June all agricultural work is stopped owing to the great heat and deficiency of water: and 3rd, the flood season or “Demera” from the 15 June to the end of October; in this season the rains fall, the Nile rises and the heat is decreased, two crops of millets can be taken and cotton, sesame and earthnuts are sown.

“Manures are the same as in Egypt.

“Cotton sown in March, April and May needs so much water through the summer that its cost is prohibitive. In the really hot weather it must be irrigated every three days. High winds and rain hurt the first open pods, and the pickings are on the 20th August, 20th September and 15th October. After 22 waterings a good field will give 4¹⁄₂ cwt. per acre.

“Cotton sown in June and July has an even, regular growth. The rains and moisture in the air encourage the growth of the plant. The height of the flood permits of easy irrigation even when it is lift. The plants grow to a great size but have many bolls. The following table will show the growth of the plants.

“The yield of a good field is 5¹⁄₂ cwt. per acre. The fibre is better than that of the cotton sown in March and April.

“I consider that June and July are the best months for sowing, and that cotton sown from well-selected seed and well cultivated will prove itself a cotton of superior quality, ranking with Egyptian cottons.

“The following table gives the kinds of crops, other than cotton which can be profitably grown in the Sudan:--

=================+===========+==========+=========+=================
Crop | Time of | Time of | N^{o} of| Produce
| sowing. |ripening. |waterings|
-----------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------------
Egyptian wheat |Nov. & Dec.| April | 3 | 5¹⁄₂ ardebs
Indian wheat | December | » | 3 | 5 »
Egyptian barley | » | March 31 | 2 | 11 »
Australian barley| » | » | 2 | 5 »
Beans | » | » | 3 | 5 »
Lentils | » | » | 3 | 3¹⁄₂ »
Earthnuts | July | January | 9 | 9 »
Indian corn | » |September | 4 | 6 »
American maize | » | October | 7 | 4 »
Potatoes | November | March | 3 | 150 kantars
Lucerne | March |March year| 12 | 1800 »
| | | |in 12 cuttings of
| | | |150 kantars each.
=================+===========+==========+=========+=================

“Fodder crops such as birseem and vetches (gilban) when well watered are satisfactory.

“If the land is not well tilled, manured and looked after, wheat will require 6 waterings and barley 4 waterings.

“If water can be obtained in the Sudan, the agricultural problem is very easy.”

I cannot do better than close this chapter with this thoroughly Egyptian remark of Ibrahim Effendi Fehmy.

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The Nile in 1904Chapter IV: Projects (2)

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