Chapter XIX: Appendix: 407 (2)

[18] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_. He does not approve wholly of these terminations.

[19] _Seventh Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of Ethnology_, contains complete list of American race stocks, north of Mexico, as far as known. See Appendix.

[20] _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 35.

[21] Hopi is the singular; Hopituh the plural. Dr. Fewkes and others having decided in favour of the singular form, it is so given here.

[22] They have intermarried with the Hopi and Navajo till Fewkes believes that in “the next generation the percentage of pure Tañoan blood will be so small that we cannot regard the stock as Tañoan.”—_American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, p. 167.

[23] See Chap. XVI.

[24] _The American Race_ and _Chronicles of the Maya_.

[25] For further coincidences see Payne, _History of the New World Called America_, vol. ii., p. 78, _et seq._

[26] See the _American Anthropologist_, July, 1894, vol. vii., “The Chinook Jargon,” by Myron Eells.

[27] _Snake Dance of the Mokis_, p. 190.

[28] There are analogies between the Nahuatl and some languages of the North-west and Alaska, especially that of the Koluschan, or Tlinkit, living along the sea from Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound.

[29] The Maya, however, has been found a useful language by Europeans. Dr. Berendt met “whole families of pure white blood” who used this language and did not know Spanish. This is not the usual fate of the Amerind tongues.

[30] This word was popularly written Esquimaux, after the French. Then the Bureau of Ethnology wrote it Eskimo, and this has been the accepted spelling and pronunciation. But it is from the Abnaki dialect of Algonquin, according to Brinton (_The American Race_, p. 59), and is properly Eskimwhan. This is better represented by Eskimä than by Eskimo.

[31] See the list of stocks in the Appendix.

[32] “Their language was reduced to writing some sixty years ago and has now a considerable literature. Nearly all the men of the tribe are able to conduct personal correspondence in their own language.”—Mooney, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, p. 137, 1899.

[33] The “l” like “cl” in “exclaim.”

[34] See also Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 96 _et seq._, for an excellent discussion of Amerind languages.

[35] “Cherokee Formulas,” Mooney, _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[36] For a complete presentation of the subject of sign-language, see paper by Garrick Mallery, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, and for that of picture-writing see _Tenth Ann. Rept._, a paper by same author, and one in _Fourth Ann. Rept._

[37] Note in Preface and last chapter statement as to irregularity of culture progress.

[38] The Mayas, however, had passed the zenith of their development.

[39] “Etching” is the word commonly used, but as etching is a totally different thing it has no place in this connection, and only adds to the incongruities already existing in writings on the Amerind subject.

[40] _Painted_ characters are found in southern California, west and south-west of Sierra Nevada; _painted_ and _scratched_, from Colorado River to Georgia, north to West Virginia and along the Mississippi. Remaining parts of United States show rock scratchings almost exclusive of paintings, according to Mallery.

[41] The name applied by the Pai Utes to the old Puebloans.

[42] That is, the rock faces change slowly. Other changes may occur, as, for instance, the foothold from which the pictures were made. I remember seeing in Keam’s Canyon, Arizona, some pictographs on a cliff wall that were far above reach, ten or twelve feet above my head. My explanation was that the ground had been washed away after they were made.

[43] I say “type,” because the Pueblo culture was not confined to one stock. “Puebloan” may be used to designate them.

[44] A rock near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, is inscribed with characters supposed to be Runic, which have been translated by Phillips, “_Harkussenmen varu_” = “Harko’s son addressed the men.” The Dighton inscription was read as an account of the party of Thorfinn, while other interpreters have made out Scythian and Phœnician characters. It is possible that there may have been a few Runic characters mingled with the Algonquian on the Dighton Rock.

[45] For a full account of the Walam Olum, see Brinton’s “The Lenapé and their Legends,” in vol. v. of his _Library of American Aboriginal History_.

[46] The pronunciation of this word always sounded to me “_kat-chee´-nah_,” but Dr. Fewkes eliminates the “h” sound from this and other words, and as he has devoted much attention to the subject I follow his spelling.

[47] See Brinton, _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 213.

[48] At Newark, Ohio, a business was carried on in the manufacture of inscribed stones, buried and dug up to suit occasion.

[49] See “A Remarkable Counterfeiter” by A. E. Jenks, _American Anthropologist_, April-June, 1900.

[50] J. T. Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.

[51] The Sauk, of Algonquian stock, “have a syllabic alphabet, apparently the work of some early French missionary, by means of which they keep up a correspondence with friends on their various scattered reservations.”—Mooney, _American Anthropologist_, January, 1899, p. 143.

[52] For an explanation of the Lost Tribes theory see Payne’s _History of the New World Called America_, vol. ii., p. 75 _et seq._

[53] Finally, after 1714, the machine-made beads grew in favour, because the supply of native beads diminished with the diminution of the number of Amerinds. These machine-made beads were of uniform size, while the native beads varied considerably. See Horatio Hale, _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, February, 1897.

[54] “The best blanket-makers, smiths, and other artisans among the Navajos are the descendants of captives from Zuñi and other Pueblos.”—J. G. Bourke, _Jour. Am. Folk-Lore_, p. 115.

[55] Garrick Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[56] Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[57] See “The Mountain Chant,” by Washington Matthews, _Fifth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._ The dry-paintings also occur in the “Yebitchai” ceremony, described by James Stevenson, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[58] “Pictographs of the feathered, horned serpent are also found on the cliff to the south-west of Walpi. These pictographs have the head, with a representation of a horn and feathers, and the same conventionalised markings of parallel lines and arrow-points which are found on the kilts of the Snake priests.”—Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology_, vol. ii., p. 38.

[59] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. of Eth._, p. 92.

[60] By Dr. Nicolas Leon. _Science_, Jan. 27, 1899, p. 156. Still another lately turned up in possession of an English gentleman.

[61] “They may have passed through some of the same stages of growth, but the general consensus of opinion is that the Mayan is the older of the two classes, and that these two classes have developed independently.”—Thomas, _Study of American Archæology_, p. 360.

[62] P. 213 _et seq._

[63] Several have recently been splendidly reproduced and may be found at large libraries.

[64] Suggested by the Abbé Brasseur.

[65] Egypt had three kinds of writing.

[66] _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.

[67] For a fac-simile of part of the Landa MS. and bibliographic notes on Mayan and Mexican writing see _Winsor’s Nar. and Crit. Hist. of the U. S._, vol. i., p. 197.

[68] See the Preface, p. vii., and the last chapter.

[69] Cyrus Thomas, Introduction to _Study of American Archæology_, p. 361.

[70] _Ibid._, p. 343.

[71] _Queen Moo_, by A. Le Plongeon, p. xv.

[72] Pp. 95 and 100.

[73] The “Codex Cortesianus is considered to furnish a connecting link between Maya and Mexican symbols.”—Powell.

[74] Written in 1558. An abridgment of an older book.

[75] Goodman gives these three signs for 20 [symbol symbol symbol] and remarks, “the last of the three being drawn with a great variety of detail.”—_Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., p. 64.

[76] _Sixth Ann. Rep. Bu. Eth._, p. 337.

[77] See the monumental work on basketry by Otis T. Mason, and other writings on this subject by the same author.

[78] See the _American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, vol. vii., “The Basket Drum,” by Washington Matthews, as an illustration of how a certain specialty in an art may survive after the art itself is neglected.

[79] Murdoch found fragments of a cooking pot at Point Barrow.—_Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 91. Rude cups were also sometimes made.

[80] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 276.

[81] W. H. Holmes, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, “Pottery of the Ancient Pueblos.”

[82] The Amerind paste was generally quite dark, a light surface colour being obtained by a “slip.” But I have found fragments of a pinkish-white ware in Arizona the same colour all the way through.

[83] The earthenware of the Greeks and Romans was not glazed, but covered with wax, bitumen, etc.

[84] With all the differences, however, an examination of pottery from all over North America will convince any close observer of its general homogeneity.

[85] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Pottery of the Mississippi Valley,” _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 372.

[86] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 56.

[87] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Death-Masks in Ancient American Pottery,” _American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.

[88] In this connection it may be mentioned that Swallow found a human skull enclosed in an earthen jar, the opening of which was too small to admit of the skull’s extraction.

[89] W. H. Holmes, “Prehistoric Textile Fabrics,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; _Ibid._, “Prehistoric Textile Art,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[90] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Fabric-Marked Pottery,” _Popular Science Monthly_, March, 1898.

[91] Brinton states that the art of the potter was extensively practised by the Lenapé, but if this were accurate fragments of pottery ought to be commoner than they are in the region formerly their home.

[92] Compare Preface and last chapter.

[93] M. H. Saville, “Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern Mexico,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899.

[94] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., 1899, i., p. 355.

[95] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[96] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[97] Rib is the term applied by our potters to the small thin pieces of wood used for smoothing the ware. The Moki “rib” corresponds closely in size, shape, and use to that I have seen employed by our potters.

[98] For soapstone or steatite vessels, see Chap. X.

[99] Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 260.

[100] Holmes, _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 22.

[101] Boas, _Report U. S. Nat. Museum_, p. 319.

[102] Gibbs, _U. S. G. S., Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. i., part ii., p. 219.

[103] National Academy of Sciences, _Bones of the Hemenway Expedition_, Introduction by Washington Matthews, p. 157.

[104] See for description of kiva the chapter in this book on Architecture, etc., and also Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[105] Dr. Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers.” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 375.

[106] Washington Matthews, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 377.

[107] Some of the finest Navajo blankets command high prices. A two faced blanket is described by Matthews in the _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 4.

[108] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 158.

[109] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. i., pp. 439, 442.

[110] _Ibid._, vol. ii., p. 13.

[111] _Ibid._, p. 71.

[112] The _timatli_ or _tilmatli_ for men was a piece of cloth, according to Biart, “four feet long, which enveloped the body, and two corners of which were knotted upon the breast or upon the shoulder.”

[113] _Ibid._, p. 73.

[114] Du Pratz, _Hist. de la Louisiane_, vol. ii., pp. 191, 192.

[115] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. ii., pp. 133, 134.

[116] Lucien Biart, _The Aztecs_.

[117] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 289.

[118] _The History of Erie County, N. Y._, pp. 58, 59, edited by H. Perry Smith.

[119] Quoted in Captain Simpson’s _Report_, p. 494.

[120] Buckingham Smith’s translation.

[121] Lieutenant Mowry, _Report_, p. 587, Ex. Doc. No. 11, 35th Cong., 1st Session.

[122] John W. De Forrest, _History of the Indians of Connecticut_, pp. 9–11.

[123] Catlin had wonderful success in persuading Amerinds to pose for him. When I went amongst the Navajos and Mokis in 1884–85 I found it next to impossible to get them to sit for me. Only one solitary specimen in the whole region was willing to run the risk. It was considered very “bad medicine.”

[124] The Crows, Sioux, Mandans, and Assiniboins are the same stock—the Dakota or Siouan.

[125] Catlin, _Smithsonian Report_, 1885, pp. 450, 451.

[126] Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 310.

[127] Geo. Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and North-western Oregon,” _U. S. G. S. Contrib._, vol. i., part ii., p. 220.

[128] _Ibid._, p. 219.

[129] _Ibid._, p. 176.

[130] The same kind of a wicker cap is worn by many California Amerinds.

[131] Cushing says of the early Zuñis: “They wore but scant clothing besides their robes and blankets—breech-cloths and kilts, short for the men, long for the women, and made of shredded bark and rushes or fibre; sandals also of fibre.... The hair was bobbed to the level of the eyebrows in front, but left long and hanging at the back, etc.”—_Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.

[132] “Coronado Letter,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 562.

[133] “Narrative of Jaramillo,” _Ibid._, pp. 586, 587.

[134] “Relación Postrera de Sívola,” _Ibid._, p. 569.

[135] C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 486.

[136] _Memoirs Long Island Hist. Soc._, vol. i., p. 99, “Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679–80.”

[137] See chapter on Weapons, and note also the quotation from Prescott—pp. 134 and 136.

[138] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 789, 790; see also Chap. IX., this work.

[139] Murdoch, “The Point Barrow Eskimo,” _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; Turner, “Hudson Bay Eskimo,” _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[140] Murdoch.

[141] Dr. Kane, _Arctic Exploration_, vol. i., p. 203.

[142] John D. Hunter, _Memoirs of a Captive among the Indians of North America_, London, 1823, pp. 289, 290.

[143] Sometimes two high poles are set up, between which, at a potlatch or “grease feast,” the piles of blankets forming payment for a “copper” are laid. These are called “blanket-poles.”

[144] There is a fine specimen in the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

[145] See _Tenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 478.

[146] W. H. Dall, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 112.

[147] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp. 323, 324.

[148] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp. 370, 371.

[149] _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[150] _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[151] Chap. V., and _American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.

[152] _Prehistoric Art_, p. 477.

[153] Joseph D. McGuire, “American Aboriginal Pipes,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1897, p. 468.

[154] H. W. Henshaw, “Animal Carvings,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 166.

[155] Warren K. Moorehead, _The Bird-Stone Ceremonial_ (pamphlet).

[156] The Pai Utes make rude clay and wood dolls, but nothing larger, and no pottery.

[157] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 152.

[158] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 153.

[159] _Ibid._, p. 161.

[160] A painted design, similar to that of the “Calendar Stone,” was found on one of the inside walls at Mitla. See pl. xxv., Fig. 1, Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_.

[161] A compass card has five concentric circles, and the Calendar Stone appears to have the same number. The compass was known in Europe in the twelfth century, in China earlier.

[162] A. F. Bandelier, _Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico_, p. 78.

[163] Two structures at Palenque are so called on account of the tablets in them bearing emblems that resemble a cross. In that designated by Stephen as No. 2, by Charnay later as No. 1, and by H. H. Bancroft as No. 4, the cross form is the more pronounced, and it is the one usually referred to by the above title.

[164] For the exterior of the Temple of the Sun, see Frontispiece.

[165] Leonhard Stejneger, “Poisonous Snakes of North America,” _Rep. U. S. Museum_, 1893, p. 421.

[166] Edward S. Holden, “Studies in Central American Picture-Writing,” _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 229.

[167] Charnay found at Palenque that some of the figures were modelled first nude and draperies applied afterwards, the latter separating from the figure itself.

[168] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities of the New World_.

[169] “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 27.

[170] For definitions of aboriginal architecture, see Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[171] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 103.

[172] Or, if the climate should change, the character of the house might change with it.

[173] For full information on Dakota customs, etc., see the papers of the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in the third, eleventh, thirteenth, and fifteenth _Ann. Repts. Bu. Eth._

[174] Wigwam is frequently used in a general sense to designate any Amerind house of the skin or earth or wood type.

[175] See “ti” and “pi” in _Dakota-English Dictionary_, vol. vii.; _Cont. U. S. G. S._, pp. 421, 467.

[176] Lewis H. Morgan, “Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines,” _Contributions to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. iv., p. 114.

[177] Castañeda describes the Querechos and Teyas in 1540 as travelling, “like the Arabs, with their tents and troops of dogs loaded with poles, and having Moorish pack-saddles and girths.”—Winship’s translation, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527.

[178] Morgan’s “Houses and House Life,” etc., p. 113.

[179] W. J. Hoffman, “The Menominee Indians,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 254–55.

[180] The Lenapé houses “were built in groups and surrounded with a palisade.... In the centre was sometimes erected a mound of earth, both as a place of observation and as a location to place the children and women.”—Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 51.

[181] Cyrus Thomas, “Mound Explorations,” _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 647.

[182] _Ibid._, p. 649.

[183] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 653.

[184] Francis Parkman, _Discovery of the West_, p. 277.

[185] George Bancroft, _U. S. History_.

[186] L. H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 120; see also _The Iroquois League_, by Morgan.

[187] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.

[188] Gibbs cites a split plank he saw in Puget Sound region, 24 feet long and 4½ feet wide.

[189] Gibbs mentions a house of the Makah, north-west Washington, 75 feet long, 40 wide, and 15 high, all one room; and another used for festivals 520 feet long, 60 feet wide, 15 feet high in front, and 10 feet in the rear.—George Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and North-western Oregon,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol. i., p. 215.

[190] Stephen Powers, “Tribes of California,” _Contributions_, etc., vol. iii., p. 255.

[191] _Ibid._, p. 215.

[192] _Ibid._, p. 45.

[193] W. H. Dall, “Tribes of Alaska,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol. i., p. 82.

[194] The tree growth ceases at about the line of the village of Kodiak on Kodiak Island. The Aleuts ranged over the Aleutian Islands and eastward as far as Stepovak Bay on the peninsula.

[195] For definitions of these terms see Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[196] Schwatka found cliff-dwellings occupied by Tarahumaris in northern Mexico. See _Cave and Cliff-Dwellers_, by Frederick Schwatka, p. 187.

[197] In early days upper stories in New Mexico were sometimes built of wood, plastered.

[198] For details of Pueblo architecture, see paper on the subject by Victor Mindeleff, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._ And “The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,” by Cosmos Mindeleff, _Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[199] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[200] See paper by Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of the Verde Valley,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[201] See illustrations, pp. 225, 227, 228.

[202] See the writings of Geo. H. Pepper, director of the Hyde Expedition.

[203] _Commerce of the Prairies._

[204] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_. Kiva is a Moki term to replace the Spanish estufa, which is misleading. The kiva is not a sweat house, as the Spanish term seems to imply. A sweat house or lodge is expressly built and heated for the purpose of a sweat bath.

[205] See _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sciences_, vii., p. 146. Introduction by Washington Matthews.

[206] “And have five or six stories, three of them with mud walls and two or three with thin wooden walls.”—“Relacion del Suceso,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 575.

[207] Littré gives _pisé_ as “made with a species of large bricks made in wooden moulds”; _piser_, “to construct by beating earth between two planks.”

[208] Prescott, _Mexico_, i., p. 474.

[209] _Ibid._, ii., p. 70.

[210] _Ibid._, ii., p. 110.

[211] Prescott, _Mexico_, ii., p. 109.

[212] _Voyages of Vancouver_, ii., p. 274.

[213] Morgan, _House Life_, p. 231. For the houses and house life of some modern cave and cliff dwellers see _Unknown Mexico_, by Carl Lumholtz.

[214] M. H. Saville, “Temple of Tepoztlan,” _Monumental Records_, i., No. 1.

[215] Goodman in _Biologia Centrali Americana_. From an inscription on the back of the “Yucatec Stone” 10,731 years back to the date of an action represented on the front of the stone from 1895.

[216] Cyrus Thomas (_American Anthropologist_, July, 1899) says: “Here we see the culmination of Mayan art.” There are several terraces, but one is so large as to eclipse the others.

[217] Viollet-le-Duc thinks these buildings and the Maya ones originated in wooden structures. For details of construction, see Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour in Mexico_.

[218] For mining operations see Chap. X.

[219] The Lenapé had arrow-heads and pipes made of copper. See Abbott’s _Primitive Industry_.

[220] The Amerind muscles that came into play in bow shooting were so highly developed that a white man untrained could not half pull a bow that a generally weaker Amerind could pull with ease.

[221] Hoffman (_Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 281) describes similar bows found in Arizona and Nevada, three feet long, but made of wood in a composite way.

[222] Hough says he has often made fire in thirty seconds with the palm-drill and in five seconds with the bow-drill.—_National Museum Report_, 1888, p. 531.

[223] See chapter on Customs for a quotation from Prescott describing the festival of the new-fire.

[224] The Iroquois rigged large pump-drills out of saplings.

[225] Hoffman denies this, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 279.

[226] For modern arrow-making among the Menominee, see _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 275 _et seq._

[227] It is said that a blow-gun was also used by some North American tribes. “Many of the Siouan Indians use the lance, javelin, or spear.”—McGee, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 171.

[228] “Primitive American Armour,” _Report of National Museum_, 1893.

[229] Bancroft, H. H., _Native Races_, vol. ii., p. 407.

[230] Veytia, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 289, 290; see also page 134, this book.

[231] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 138.

[232] “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” by James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; see also Chap. VI., this book.

[233] The Utah Mormons wear an undergarment supposed to have such resistance. The idea may have come from them.

[234] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 790.

[235] See Preface pages iv. and v., and also the last chapter of this book.

[236] For “Medicine Arrows of the Oregon Indians,” see A. S. Gatschet, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1893.

[237] The surface flint was in bowlders and nodules.

[238] For a valuable account of stone implements of the “Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province,” see paper by W. H. Holmes in _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; also, “The Obsidian Mines of Hidalgo, Mexico,” by the same author, _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 3, N. S.

[239] Tylor declares that it is not possible to distinguish stone weapons from one part of the world from those from any other part.

[240] From the Aztec: _metlatl_.

[241] While the Eastern Amerinds generally seem not to have known how to melt copper, some few may have experimented in a limited way with it.

[242] Walter Hough, “The Lamp of the Eskimo,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1896, p. 1028.

[243] The Amerinds of Vancouver Island were said by Captain Chase to use a lamp made of a clam shell, with oil from the whale or porpoise. The wick was bark.—Hough, p. 1039.

[244] See Castañeda’s narrative, Winship’s translation, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527; and Ternaux Compans, _Relation de Castañeda_, p. 190, “ils ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent leur bagage; ils l’attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d’une sangle et d’un petit bât”; also the same narrative, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 456.

[245] For excellent descriptions in detail of the Eskimo sledge and methods of using it, see Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 529 _et seq._; Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 353 _et seq._; and Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 241 _et seq._

[246] Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.

[247] O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, p. 566; see also p. 564; and Turner, in the _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 307.

[248] See O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, pp. 381–410; _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 308–312; _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 344–352.

[249] For details of construction see Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 305; and Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 292.

[250] Baidarka is the Russian term used at Kodiak and along the Alaska peninsula. Baidar = umiak; baidarka = kayak.

[251] For details of kayak and umiak construction, see Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328; Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527; Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 235; see, also, for hunting weapons and methods, “Aboriginal American Zoötechny,” by Otis Tufton Mason, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, 1899.

[252] The Omahas made one out of dried bison hides, branches, and saplings.

[253] Mines of steatite vessels have been found on Santa Catalina Island, California, as well as on the Eastern United States coast. Charles F. Holder describes the Santa Catalina mines in the _Scientific American_ for December 16, 1899.

[254] W. H. Holmes, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 108, 109.

[255] For a description of these chultunes, see “The Chultunes of Labna,” _Memoirs of Peabody Museum_.

[256] Champlain’s _Voyages_, Prince Society edition, vol. ii., p. 236.

[257] Now in the National Museum, Washington. See article on the subject by Charles Moore, _Report of U. S. Museum_, 1895.

[258] Frank Hamilton Cushing, “Primitive Copper Working, An Experimental Study,” _American Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No. 1, 1894.

[259] Fewkes found several of these bells in his excavations around the headwaters of the Gila.

[260] During my stay with the Mokis and in their vicinity and in all the long time I have been observing them, I never saw nor heard of a single object in metal wrought by them.

[261] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 52.

[262] F. Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rept. Nat. Mus._, 1895, p. 344.

[263] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 171.

[264] The tribes of the North-west made some gold and silver ornaments, and at Sitka to-day there is a jewelry establishment kept by a native Tlinkit, who makes most of his own silverware.

[265] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 172.

[266] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 138.

[267] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., pp. 213–215.

[268] _Ibid._, p. 216.

[269] _Ibid._, p. 218.

[270] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., p. 222.

[271] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 186.

[272] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 53.

[273] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 376.

[274] Squier describes a Tyrian purple of various shades secured in Nicaragua from the murex shellfish by a slow and tedious process; see his _Nicaragua_, p. 286.

[275] Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. ii., p. 151.

[276] Cyrus Thomas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 271.

[277] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 111.

[278] _Ibid._, p. 112. The intercalation of these 12½ or 13 days is denied by Payne, _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 294–316 _et seq._, but Mrs. Zelia Nuttall and other eminent scholars are certain they were intercalated.

[279] Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., pp. 5, 8.

[280] This bell is supposed, however, to have developed here from the rattle.

[281] The Peabody Museum contains an exhibit of forty-five whistles made of bone, all found together in one basket. They were wrapped with split reed and were seven to ten inches in length.

[282] Washington Matthews, “The Basket Drum,” _American Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No. 2, April, 1894.

[283] A. F. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 150.

[284] John Comfort Fillmore, “The Harmonic Structure of Indian Music,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899. See also Chas. K. Wead, “The Study of Primitive Music,” _Am. Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.

[285] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995.

[286] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995

[287] Murdoch says the Point Barrow Eskimo wake up in the night to sing.—_Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 388.

[288] James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 1002, 1003.

[289] J. Walter Fewkes, _Jour. of Am. Eth._, vol. ii., p. 159.

[290] James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 1008.

[291] Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 211, 212.

[292] _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 255.

[293] For a description of the “Cat’s Cradle” games of the Amerinds, see the elaborate work _String Figures_ by Caroline Furness Jayne.

[294] Col. Richard Irving Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_, pp. 329, 330.

[295] _Plains of the Great West_, p. 324.

[296] John T. Short, _The North Americans of Antiquity_.

[297] From the Moki method of guiding shower-waters amongst the corn to guiding waters from a brook or river in that way would not be a great step; indeed, it would be most simple and natural and would easily be forced by circumstances.

[298] Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of Verde Valley,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 238.

[299] The term “horticulture” as employed by some writers means agriculture on a small scale, the operations not being considered by them extensive enough to merit the title of agriculture.

[300] Refer to previous chapter on “Architecture and Dwellings.”

[301] J. Walter Fewkes, “Preliminary Account of Archæological Field Work in Arizona in 1897,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1897, p. 613.

[302] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities_, p. 36.

[303] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 209.

[304] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.

[305] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.

[306] In New England there was once a fortification in Sanbornton, N. H., which had walls six feet thick and breast-high, faced outside with stone.—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i., p. 404.

[307] The great Cahokia mound in Illinois is seven hundred feet by five hundred feet on the ground. For illustration of Etowah mound see page 337.

[308] Cyrus Thomas, _Study of North American Archæology_, p. 125.

[309] Gerard Fowke describes in the _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii, No. 3, “Points of difference between Norse Remains and Indian works.”

[310] _Ancient Cities._

[311] Ad. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 233 _et seq._

[312] Contact with civilisation has, however, changed the average health in many if not all tribes.

[313] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i.

[314] For further details of the Mexican drinks, see Charnay’s _Ancient Cities_.

[315] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 272.

[316] Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 290.

[317] _The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer, Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians_, p. 444. Harper Bros., 1856.

[318] _Ibid._, p. 445.

[319] The council was opened by the sachem puffing smoke from the pipe over the heads of the assembly, and then each councillor in turn drawing at the pipe. This accomplished, business was begun.

[320] Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 72.

[321] _History of the United States._

[322] Important announcements are made by appointed criers.

[323] _Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 228.

[324] _History of the United States._

[325] Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 495, 499, and 501.

[326] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 81.

[327] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 126; see also pp. 251, 252 of this book.

[328] Lucien Carr, _Smithsonian Report_, 1891, p. 543; see also Payne’s _History of the New World_, page 330.

[329] _Ibid._

[330] See Fewkes, “The New-Fire Ceremony at Walpi,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.

[331] For details of cenoté, etc., see Desiré Charnay’s _Ancient Cities_.

[332] _Archæological Tour_, p. 204.

[333] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 980.

[334] Mrs. Erminnie Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 68.

[335] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 121.

[336] James Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328.

[337] “Our materia medica owes tobacco, gum copal, liquid amber, sarsaparilla, resin of tecamaca, jalap, and huaca to the Aztecs.”—L. Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 285.

[338] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 82.

[339] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 55.

[340] _Ibid._, pp. 330–333.

[341] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.

[342] These ceremonials often introduce historical matters. I was surprised once to hear the song change to one of our Sunday-school hymns. This portion of the ceremony was describing the establishment of a Presbyterian mission at Keam’s Canyon years before.

[343] See J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology_, for a description of some of the Moki ceremonials and other papers by the same author.

[344] In some of the pueblos there is a constant inter-killing going on for supposed evil practices of witchcraft (Bandelier _Report_, part i., p. 35), but whether this has any connection with the secret orders, I do not know.

[345] For information on these and other social points see the various writings of J. W. Powell.

[346] The clan totem is probably an expansion of the individual totem by increase.

[347] See pp. 162, 164, 241, this book, for illustrations of totem poles.

[348] Dr. H. C. Yarrow, “Mortuary Customs,” _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[349] The head-stones of these graves were this shape, [symbol] and a portion in some cases protruded above the ground when I was there. The ground was very sandy. The stones were natural slabs, about 1½ in. thick.

[350] Stansbury, in his _Report_, describes graphically a “death lodge” he found, but, unfortunately, space is lacking to reprint it here.

It is important in studying burial customs of the Amerinds to remember that all members of a tribe were not necessarily disposed of in the same way. Cabeza de Vaca mentions that “sometimes common members of a tribe were buried while medicine men were burned.”

[351] See p. 46, this book.

[352] D. G. Brinton, _The Lenapé and their Legends_, pp. 158, 164.

[353] “The spirit of any plant, any star, or other personage in creation may become a man’s attendant. In our popular phraseology this is called his medicine.”—Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths_, p. 29.

[354] See “The Lessons of Folklore,” J. W. Powell, _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 1, N. S., January, 1900.

[355] Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths of Primitive America_, p. 499.

[356] Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 180.

[357] _Ibid._, p. 193. See p. 170 _et seq._ for his whole discussion of Quetzalcohuatl. See also the “Book of Quetzalcohuatl.” Payne, _History of the New World_, II., p. 435 _et seq._

[358] _American Hero Myths_, p. 64 _et seq._

[359] A. S. Gatschet, “An Indian Visit to Jack Wilson, the Payute Messiah,” _Journal of American Folk-Lore_.

[360] _American Hero Myths_, p. 147.

[361] Payne accepts the Amazon stories as true. _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 11.

[362] For some Amerind legends delightfully related, see _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_, and other books, by George Bird Grinnell.

[363] _Native Races_, vol. i., p. 129.

[364] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 43.

[365] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 15.

[366] _History of the American Indians_, p. 282.

[367] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_; pronounced _kee-vah_.

[368] _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 59.

[369] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.

[370] Parkman mentions Beckwourth in the _Oregon Trail_, p. 124, as “a mongrel of French, American, and Indian blood.... He is a ruffian of the worst stamp, bloody and treacherous, without honour or honesty”; but other writers seem to give him a better character.

[371] Beckwourth, _Life and Adventures_, first ed., pp. 227, 228.

[372] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 47.

[373] _The American Race_, p. 46.

[374] Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 8. “In the ancient gens descent was limited to the female line.” _Ibid._, p. 5.

[375] _Ancient Society_, p. 69.

[376] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol i., No. 4, October, 1899, p. 710.

[377] _Ancient Society_, p. 71, and _Houses and House-Life_, p. 7.

[378] Powell, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 61.

[379] Originally _Häyowenthä_ in the Mohawk. He and _Däganowédä_ are usually considered mythical personages.

[380] _The American Race_, p. 130.

[381] Payne, as before noted, says “a military despotism.”

[382] _Archæological Tour_, p. 31, and footnote, p. 31.

[383] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 23.

[384] _Ancient Society_, pp. 71, 72.

[385] _Houses and House-Life_, p. 28.

[386] See the Preface of this book, and also Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., which, unfortunately, the author did not have the benefit of seeing till after this book was written.

[387] In this connection see “Archæology of the Thompson River Region, British Columbia,” by Harlan I. Smith, _Memoirs of the American Museum_, vol. ii., May, 1900. The Eskimo probably entered Alaska along the coast from the east.

[388] It is of course possible that some infusion of blood occurred in this manner, but it is not likely that it was ever sufficient to tinge a whole stock.

[389] “This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the geographical features of the continent, which are such as to favour migrations in longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special conditions of latitude tend to produce.”—Brinton, _American Race_, p. 41.

[390] See also “On the Peopling of America,” by August R. Grote, _Bulletin Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences_, February 2, 1877.

[391] The tinge of resemblance between certain Amerind stocks and foreign stocks endures from the pre-glacial period, then, when intercourse was on different lines, and does not indicate any latter-day relationship.

[392] These tools might easily be quite as good as many found on the surface to-day, and it would be difficult to distinguish them from at least the ruder forms of modern implements.

[393] W. H. Holmes, “Preliminary Revision of the Evidence Relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California,” _American Anthropologist_, October, 1899.

[394] An elevation of the ocean bottom in the Atlantic tropical regions would probably disturb the existing climate of the North Atlantic regions by deflecting the warm currents.

[395] See _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_, by Thomas Belt, Chap. XIV.

[396] Payne believes that by this lowering of the waters combined with land elevation, a Miocene land passage was formed leading from Asia to the North-west coast and that the American continent was then peopled by this route.

[397] See also, “Man and the Glacial Period in America,” Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 62 _et seq._, and discussion of the effects of glaciation, _ibid._, p. 348.

[398] “When first met with the Navajos occupied the same range of country they now inhabit.”—Bandelier, _Report_, part i., p. 175.

[399] _National Geographical Magazine_, December 1, 1899, p. 509.

[400] “That there was a primitive empire ... seems to some minds confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan ... and out of this empire ... have come, as such believers say, after its downfall, somewhere near the Christian era, and by divergence, the great stocks of people called Maya, etc.”—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i., p. 134.

[401] _League of the Iroquois._

[402] For information on the Amerindian wars, their efforts to preserve their territory, etc., see Bancroft’s _History of the United States_; Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History of the United States_; Winsor’s other works; Parkman, John Fiske; and numerous other books to be found in any good library.

[403] _Harper’s Magazine_, March, 1899, p. 649.

[404] “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” _Bulletin of American Geographical Society_, December, 1897.

[405] _Life and Adventures_, p. 438.

[406] Bering found no inhabitants on the Aleutian islands and his visit of discovery was recent—1741.

[407] The thanks of the author are due to Prof. Otis Tufton Mason, of the United States National Museum, for kindly reviewing this appendix in proof. Prof. Mason writes, “Your work has my approval and it is well done.”

[408] See map, page 33 this book, and also the original of it in the _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._

[409] See “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” by F. S. Dellenbaugh, in the _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_, December, 1897.

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