Chapter XXX: Part I: Ethnology (1)

_Ethnology_ is compounded of two Greek words, the latter of which scarcely requires explanation, because it already forms part of a numerous class of compounds with which the learned reader is well acquainted. The general reader, too, is perhaps equally familiar with them. We have them in such words as Geo-_logy_. Astro-_logy_, Physio-_logy_, and a long list besides. The Greek form of these would be Geo-_logia_, Astro-_logia_, &c. The basis of the term is the substantive _logos_, meaning a _word_. In its modified form, however, and in its application as the element of a compound word, it means the _principles_, or _science_, of the department (whatever it may be) that is denoted by the root which precedes it. In the word before us it means the _principles_ of that department of human knowledge which is denoted by the form _Ethno_.

_Ethnology_ means the science, not exactly of the different _nations of the world_, but of the different _varieties of the human species_.

It is not thought necessary to enlarge upon this further, since, it is hoped, that the groups to which the visitor is directed will sufficiently tell their own tale. The extent to which they differ from each other is manifest. Still more do they differ from such groups of Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, and other Europeans as may collect around them.

As a general rule the varieties that are especially illustrated are foreign to Europe; it being supposed that the character of most European populations is sufficiently understood. Hence, the Ethnology is that of Asia, Africa, and the New World. Of these, the most remarkable varieties are found under the extremes of heat and cold; under the tropics, and within the arctic circle. The intermediate and more temperate parts of the different continents, though by no means deficient in interesting and important varieties, supply fewer.

Of the populations within the arctic circle, it is only those of America that are illustrated (viz., in the Greenland group). The character, however, of the tribes thus far north, is pretty similar in all three continents--in Asia and Europe for the new, in America for the old, world.

The science of ethnology is, to a great extent, a new one, and this has been our excuse for enlarging upon the meaning, and entering into the origin of the word. Even ethnological museums are rare. The plan, however, of the groups under notice, is different from that of ordinary museums, and, at the same time, one which is, now, for the first time attempted. The trees, plants, animals, and human occupants of the different portions of the earth’s surface are grouped together--so that the allied sciences of botany, zoology, and ethnology illustrate each other. Hence, the arrangement is _geographical_.

The arrangement is so far geographical that, to a certain extent, the visitor is enabled to place himself in respect to the objects before him in the same relation as he would be to a map of the world. Here, the North lies in front of him, the East to his right, the West to his left. In like manner, the groups on his right belong to Europe, Asia, and Africa; those on his left to America. In other words--the Old World is on one side, the New on the other. The relations of North and South, however, are given with less nicety. As a general rule, however, the Southern parts of the two worlds (the old and new), are the parts nearest the entrance--and the Northern parts lie beyond them.

In the Indian Islands the plan of giving the exact botany of the country under notice has been departed from--owing to the difficulties of detail in the case of an inter-tropical vegetation, of which but few specimens are found in European collections.

GROUP I.

TIBETANS. (FOR ZOOLOGY, &C. _See_ p. 82.)

The figures here are Tibetans. The variety to which both belong is usually called the _Mongolian_; by which it is meant that the most remarkable examples of it are to be found in the Chinese province of Mongolia--to the west of the Great Wall. Here it is where the cheek-bones attain a greater breadth than is the case with even the figures before us, where the nose is more flattened, and where the distance between the eyes is greater. Here it is where one of the great conquerors of the world arose, Jinjiz-Khan, in the thirteenth century; under whom, and under whose successors, nearly half the world trembled at the terrible name of _Mongol_. However, at present, their character is a very different one. The Mongolians of the nineteenth century are quiet, peaceable men, subject to China and Russia--chiefly, however, to China.

Thus much has been said concerning the Mongolians, in order to explain the meaning of the term. It has two powers. It is used in a general and in a limited sense. When _limited_, it means the inhabitant of _Mongolia_; when _general_, it denotes any one of the numerous allied populations--allied in respect to their physical organisation.

Of all the Mongol populations, the Chinese are the most civilised; unless we make an exception in favour of the equally Mongolian Japanese.

The Tibetans are subject to the Chinese, similar to a great extent in form, similar to a great extent in creed, but dissimilar in habits.

The Tibetans are a _pastoral_, the Chinese an eminently _agricultural_ population.

As the southern frontier of the Tibetan family comes in contact with the northern provinces of India--as some portion of the Tibetan area is absolutely under either the British or some other Indian government--we may expect to find the Mongolians on _both_ sides of the Himalayan Mountains--in India, as well as in Chinese Tartary.

This prepares us for--

GROUP II.

EAST INDIANS. (_See_ p. 82.)

The Tibetan (the figure on the left) we have seen before. He differs from those of Group I. only in belonging to the southern side of the Himalayas;--to the parts drained by the Sutlej; to the water-system of the Indus.

In India Proper the languages fall into two divisions: those akin to the Tamul, spoken in the Dekhan, or Southern India, and those akin to the Hindúi, spoken along the northern bank of the Ganges; in Oude, &c.

There are also in India Proper two types of physical form; in one the colour is dark, or even black, the skin coarse, the face flattened, the lips thick; in the other the colour is brunette, the nose aquiline, the eyebrows arched, regular, and delicate, the lips of moderate thickness, the face oval, the features intelligent. Each is represented in the present group, though neither in the extreme form.

As a general, but by no means as an invariable, rule, the darker complexions preponderate over the lighter ones as we go southwards, except in the mountains, where the skin becomes fairer.

It is not considered necessary to enlarge upon what is called the system of _caste_ in India. It means that the son follows the business of the father, so that the descendants of (say) a blacksmith will be blacksmiths, and so on. It also means that between individuals of different _castes_ there are certain prejudices; certain points whereon there is a reluctance to intermix. Hence, individuals of a higher, refuse to intermarry with those of a lower _caste_. They refuse also to take their meals with them.

Now, as a general, but by no means as an invariable, rule, the higher the _caste_ the greater the predominance of the second type of form, _i.e._, the finer the features, the clearer the complexion.

* * * * *

India and China, we must remember, are countries that have long been civilised--civilised after their own peculiar fashion. More than this, they are countries from which a civilisation has been diffused over districts more or less barbarous. On the other hand, the Mahometan creed has diffused, and is diffusing itself, over India, at the expense of the original (so-called) Braminical and Buddhist religions.

The extent to which Indian civilisation has (after first spreading itself abroad) been modified by a subsequent diffusion of Mahometanism, will be seen when we move from India to the Islands of the Indian Archipelago--Sumatra, Java, Borneo, &c.

Here the division of the human species to which the populations belong is the _Malay_---just as that to which the Chinese and Tibetans were referred was the Mongolian.

Just, too, as the word _Mongolian_ had a _wider_ and a _narrower_ signification, so has the term _Malay_. A true and proper Malay is a Mahometan, from either certain parts of Sumatra, or certain parts of the Malayan Peninsula--from Sincapore, from Malacca, from Penang, from Bencoolen, &c. On the other hand, a member of the Malay family, in the wider sense of the word, may be a Pagan in religion, an Indian in doctrine, or a native of Java or Borneo, in respect to his locality.

The Malays, in the wider sense of the word, whatever may be the minor differences between them, have the same general physiognomy; being short rather than tall, darker than the generality of Mongolians, though lighter than the southern Indians, and broadfaced, though less so than the more extreme Mongolians. When in contact with the sea, they exhibit decided maritime habits. Many other of their customs in detail deserve notice.

_Bodily disfigurations under the idea of ornament._--The Malay dress is becoming; but the habit of permanently disfiguring parts of the body under the idea of ornament, is of sufficient prominence to take place amongst the characteristics of the branch.

_a._ _Tattooing._--This is sometimes limited, sometimes general: sometimes over the whole body, sometimes confined to the arms only. In Africa the patterns vary with the tribe. In certain Malay districts, an approach to the distinction may be found; for instance, we hear in Borneo of some tribes that always tattoo, of others that partially tattoo, of others that do not tattoo at all. Nay more; the habit of tattooing seems in some cases to go along with certain other habits--by no means naturally connected with it. Thus certain of the Borneo non-tattooed tribes never use the _Sumpitan_, or blow-pipe; whilst others are tattooed, and use it.

So at least Sir J. Brooke was informed; although I think the careful peruser of his journal will find that the coincidence is not always complete.

_b._ _Depilation._--Depilation is effected either by quick-lime or tweezers. Generally, I believe, the parts of the body which are meant to be kept smooth are rubbed with quick-lime; and the isolated hairs that afterwards appear, are plucked out carefully by tweezers in detail.

_c._ _Filing the teeth, dyeing the teeth._ This is a Malay habit, and there are not less than three varieties of this operation.

1. Sometimes the enamel, and no more, is filed off. This enables the tooth to receive and retain its appropriate dye.

2. Sometimes the teeth are merely pointed.

3. Sometimes they are filed down to the gums.

Dyeing may follow filing, or not, as the case may be.

In Sumatra, where a jetty blackness is aimed at, the empyreumatic oil of the cocoa-nut is used. Even, however, if no dyeing follow, the teeth will become black from the simple filing, if the chewing of the betel-nut be habitual.

_d._ _Distension of the ears._--Many of the tribes that file their teeth, also distend their ears. Both are Malay habits. In some parts of Sumatra, when the child is young, the ear is bored, and rings are put in. In other parts, however, the rings are weighted, so as to pull down the lobe; or ornaments, gradually increased in diameter, are inserted; so that the perforation becomes enlarged.

Simple perforation may extend to a mere multiplication of the holes of the ear. In Borneo, the Sakarran tribes wear more earrings than one, and are distinguished accordingly; “when you meet a man with many rings distrust him” being one of their cautions. Mr. Brooke met a Sakarran with twelve rings in his ear.

_e._ _Growth of the nails._--In parts of Borneo, the right thumbnail is encouraged to grow to a great length. So it is in parts of the Philippines.

_Running-a-muck._--A Malay is capable of so far working himself into fury, of so far yielding to some spontaneous impulse, or of so far exciting himself by stimulants, as to become totally regardless of what danger he exposes himself to. Hence, he rushes forth as an infuriated animal, and attacks all who fall in his way, until having expended his morbid fury he falls down exhausted. This is called _running-a-muck_.

_Gambling._--This habit, or rather passion, is shared by the Malays, the Indians, the Chinese, and the Indo-Chinese; quail-fighting and cock-fighting being the forms in which it shows itself. A Malay will lose all his property on a favourite bird; and, having lost that, stake his family; and after the loss of wife and children, his own personal liberty: being prepared to serve as a slave in case of losing.

_Narcotic stimulants and masticatories._--Chewing the betel-nut is almost universal in some of the Malay countries; the use of opiates and tobacco being also common.

The nut of the _Areca catechu_, is wrapped in the leaf of the _piper betel_, the first being astringent, the second pungent. The addition of lime completes the preparation. This stimulates the salivary glands, tinges the saliva red, and discolours the teeth.

Of the chief islands occupied by the Malay family, the first two under notice are

SUMATRA--and

JAVA.--These being taken together, give us

GROUP III. (p. 91.)

A. SUMATRANS. B. JAVANESE (OPIUM SMOKERS).

A. The populations of Sumatra exhibit different degrees of civilisation to an extent found in few areas of equal size: the difference in their religious creeds being proportionately broad. There are the extreme forms of rude paganism; there are traces of the Indian forms of religion; and there is Mahometanism. The least clothed of the figures before us is a _Lubu_, one of the wildest, rudest, and weakest of all the populations. The position of the Lubus in Sumatra is that of the Bushmen of South Africa, for they are a fragmentary population, driven into the more inaccessible districts by tribes stronger than themselves; without arts, and without settled habitations.

The next are _Battas_, whose civilisation is some degrees above that of the Lubus. A great part of their present area belonged to this last named population, who are, probably, Battas in the very lowest stage of development. These require further notice. They belong to the northern half of Sumatra, though without reaching the northern extremity of the island.

At the very northern end we have the kingdom of Atshin, Achin, or Acheen, where the religion is Mahometan, and where the alphabet is the Arabic; Atshin being the part of Sumatra where the influence of the Arabian trade, Arabian religion, and Arabian language, have been the greatest.

South of Atshin is the Batta country. Here there is only an imperfect Mahometanism, with no use of the Arabic alphabet, and but little tincture of Arab cultivation.

The rivers in the Batta country are inconsiderable, so are the forests; for the country is an elevated platform--dry, exposed, and parched. The luxuriant vegetation of so many regions in this part of the world, finds no place here; and instead of it, we have sand, hardened clay, bare rocks swept by strong currents of wind and exposed to an equatorial sun.

The Battas are cannibals; they are also a lettered population. It is believed that this combination of rudeness and civilisation occurs nowhere else, a combination which, however, is beyond doubt.

In the Batta alphabet we have books, almanacks, &c.

On the Batta cannibalism, hear so competent an authority as Marsden. “They,” the Battas, “do not eat human flesh as the means of satisfying the cravings of nature, for there can be no want of sustenance to the inhabitants of such a country and climate, who reject no animal food of any kind; nor is it sought after as a gluttonous delicacy.

“The _Battas_ eat it as a species of ceremony, as a mode of showing their detestation of certain crimes by an ignominious punishment, and as a savage display of revenge and insult to their unfortunate enemies. The objects of this barbarous repast are prisoners taken in war, especially if badly wounded, the bodies of the slain, and offenders condemned for certain capital crimes, especially for adultery. Prisoners unwounded (but they are not much disposed to give quarter) may be ransomed or sold as slaves, where the quarrel is not too inveterate; and the convicts, there is reason to believe, rarely suffer when their friends are in circumstances to redeem them by the customary equivalent of twenty _binchangs_, or eighty dollars. These are tried by the people of the tribe where the offence was committed, but cannot be executed until their own particular _raja_ has been made acquainted with the sentence, who, when he acknowledges the justice of the intended punishment, sends a cloth to cover the head of the delinquent, together with a large dish of salt and lemons. The unhappy victim is then delivered into the hands of the injured party (if it be a private wrong, or, in the case of a prisoner to the warriors) by whom he is tied to a stake; lances are thrown at him from a certain distance by this person, his relatives, and friends; and when mortally wounded, they run up to him, as if in a transport of passion, cut pieces from the body with their knives, dip them in the dish of salt, lemon-juice, and red pepper, slightly broil them over a fire prepared for the purpose, and swallow the morsels with a degree of savage enthusiasm. Sometimes (I presume according to the degree of their animosity and resentment) the whole is devoured by the bystanders; and instances have been known where, with barbarity still more aggravated, they tear the flesh from the carcase with their teeth. To such a depth of depravity may man be plunged, when neither religion nor philosophy enlighten his steps! All that can be said in extenuation of the horror of this diabolical ceremony is, that no view appears to be entertained of torturing the sufferers, of increasing or lengthening out the pangs of death; the whole fury is directed against the corpse, warm, indeed, with the remains of life, but past the sensation of pain. A difference of opinion has existed with respect to the practice of eating the bodies of their enemies actually slain in war; but subsequent enquiry has satisfied me of its being done, especially in the case of distinguished persons, or those who have been accessories to the quarrel. It should be observed that their campaigns (which may be aptly compared to the predatory excursions of our Borderers) often terminate with the loss of not more than half-a-dozen men on both sides. The skulls of the victims are hung up as trophies in the open buildings in front of their houses, and are occasionally ransomed by their surviving relations for a sum of money.”--_Marsden’s Sumatra_, pp. 391-2.

The Battas have, probably, been more civilised than they are now--India being the source of their civilisation. This is shown in the following imperfect sketch of their creed--which is Indian, corrupted and degenerate.

“The inhabitants of this country have many fabulous stories, which shall be briefly mentioned. They acknowledge three deities as riders of the world, who are respectively named, _Batara-guru_, _Sori-pada_, and _Mangallah-bulang_. The first, say they, bears rule in heaven, is the father of all mankind, and partly, under the following circumstances, creator of the earth; which from the beginning of time had been supported on the head of _Naga-padoha_; but growing weary at length, he shook his head, which occasioned the earth to sink, and nothing remained in the world excepting water. They do not pretend to a knowledge of the creation of this original earth and water; but say that at the period when the latter covered every thing, the chief deity, _Batara-guru_, had a daughter named _Puti-orla-bulan_, who requested permission to descend to these lower regions, and accordingly came down on a white owl, accompanied by a dog; but not being able, by reason of the waters, to continue there, her father let fall from heaven a lofty mountain, named _Bakarra_, now situated in the _Batta_ country, as a dwelling for his child; and from this mountain all other land gradually proceeded. The earth was once more supported on the three horns of _Naga-padoha_; and that he might never again suffer it to fall off, _Batara-guhu_ sent his son, named, _Layang-layang-mandi_ (literally ‘the dipping swallow’), to bind him hand and foot. But to his occasionally shaking his head they ascribe the effect of earthquakes. _Puti-orla-bulan_ had afterwards, during her residence on earth, three sons and three daughters, from whom sprang the whole human race.

“The second of their deities has the rule of the air, betwixt earth and heaven; and the third that of the earth; but these two are considered as subordinate to the first. Besides these, they have as many inferior deities as there are sensible objects on earth, or circumstances in human society; of which some preside over the sea, others over rivers, over woods, over war, and the like. They believe, likewise, in four evil spirits, dwelling in four separate mountains; and whatever ill befalls them they attribute to the agency of one of these demons. On such occasions they apply to one of their cunning men, who has recourse to his art; and by cutting a lemon ascertains which of these has been the author of the mischief, and by what means the evil spirit may be propitiated; which always proves to be the sacrificing a buffalo, hog, goat, or whatever animal the wizard happens on that day to be most inclined to eat. When the address is made to any of the superior and beneficent deities for assistance, and the priest directs an offering of a horse, cow, dog, hog, or fowl, care must be taken that the animal to be sacrificed is entirely white.

“They have also a vague and confused idea of the immortality of the human soul, and of a future state of happiness or misery. They say that the soul of a dying person makes its escape through the nostrils, and is borne away by the wind; to heaven, if of a person who has led a good life; but if of an evil-doer, to a great cauldron, where it shall be exposed to fire until such time as _Batara-guru_ shall judge it to have suffered punishment proportioned to its sins; and feeling compassion shall take it to himself in heaven: that finally the time shall come when the chains and bands of _Naga-padoha_ shall be worn away, and he shall once more allow the earth to sink; that the sun will be then no more than a cubit’s distance from it, and that the souls of those who, having lived well, shall remain alive at the last day, shall in like manner go to heaven, and those of the wicked be consigned to the before-mentioned cauldron, intensely heated by the near approach of the sun’s rays, to be there tormented by a minister of _Batara-guru_, named _Suraya-guru_, until, having expiated their offences, they shall be thought worthy of reception into the heavenly regions.”

The remaining male figures represent two warriors from Pulo Nias, a small island on the Western coast of Sumatra; the cap and coat of one being made of the fibres from the leaf-stalk of the _gumuti_ palm.

“The Nias people are remarkable for their docility and expertness in handy-craft work, and become excellent house-carpenters and joiners; and, as an instance of their skill in the arts, they practise that of letting blood by cupping, in a mode nearly similar to ours. They are industrious and frugal, temperate and regular in their habits, but, at the same time, avaricious, sullen, obstinate, vindictive, and sanguinary. Although much employed as domestic slaves (particularly by the Dutch) they are always esteemed dangerous in that capacity; a defect in their character which philosophers will not hesitate to excuse in an independent people torn by violence from their country and connexions. They frequently kill themselves when disgusted with their situation, or unhappy in their families, and often their wives at the same time, who appeared, from the circumstances under which they were found, to have been consenting to the desperate act. They were both dressed in their bed apparel (the remainder being previously destroyed), and the female, in more than one instance, that came under notice, had struggled so little, as not to discompose her hair, or remove her head from the pillow. It is said that in their own country they expose their children, by suspending them in a bag from a tree, when they despair of being able to bring them up. The mode seems to be adopted with the view of preserving them from animals of prey, and giving them a chance of being saved by persons in more easy circumstances.”--_Marsden’s Sumatra_, p. 476.

B. The three opium-smokers are Javanese of the lower orders.

Java differs from Sumatra in its higher standard of civilisation, and in the greater extent to which it has been acted upon by Indian influences. At one time, these were generally diffused over the island; not, perhaps, to the utter and absolute extinction of the original Paganism, but, still, largely and generally. At present, however, the prevailing influences are Arab, _i.e._, Mahometan; and Mahometanism has superseded Hindúism in all parts of the island, except one interesting locality--the range of the Tenggher Mountains.

“To the eastward of _Surabáya_, and on the range of hills connected with _Gúnung Dasar_, and lying partly in the district of _Pasúruan_, and partly in that of _Probolingo_, known by the name of the _Teng’ger_ mountain, we find the remnant of a people still following the Hindu worship, who merit attention, not only on account of their being the sole depositaries of the rites and doctrines of that religion existing at this day on Java, but as exhibiting an interesting singularity and simplicity of character.

“These people occupy about forty villages, scattered along this range of hills, in the neighbourhood of what is termed the Sandy Sea. The site of their villages, as well as the construction of their houses, is peculiar, and differ entirely from what is elsewhere observed on Java. They are not shaded by trees but built on spacious open terraces, rising one above the other, each house occupying a terrace, and being in length from thirty to seventy, and even eighty feet. The door is invariably in one corner, at the end of the building opposite to that in which the fire-place is built. The building appears to be constructed with the ordinary roof, having along the front an enclosed veranda or gallery, about eight feet broad. The fire-place is built of brick, and is so highly venerated that it is considered a sacrilege for any stranger to touch it. Across the upper part of the building rafters are run, so as to form a kind of attic story, in which are deposited the most valuable property and implements of husbandry.

“The head of the village takes the title of _Peting’ gi_, as in the low-lands, and is generally assisted by a _Kabâyan_, both elected by the people from their own village. There are four priests who are here termed _Dùkuns_ (a term elsewhere only applied to doctors and midwives), having charge of the state records and the sacred books.

“These _Dùkuns_, who are in general intelligent men, can give no account of the era when they were first established on these hills; they can produce no traditional history of their origin, whence they came, or who entrusted them with the sacred books, to the faith contained in which they still adhere. These, they concur in stating, were handed down to them by their fathers, to whose hereditary office of preserving them they have succeeded. The sole duty required of them is again to hand them down in safety to their children, and to perform the _púja_ (praisegiving), according to the directions they contain. These records consist of three compositions, written on the _lontar_-leaf, detailing the origin of the world, disclosing the attributes of the Deity, and prescribing the forms of worship to be observed on different occasions. When a woman is delivered of her first child, the _Dúkun_ takes a leaf of the _alang_ grass, and scraping the skin of the hands of the mother and her infant, as well as the ground, pronounces a short benediction.

“When a marriage is agreed upon, the bride and bridegroom being brought before the _Dúkun_ within the house, in the first place bow with respect towards the south, then to the fire-place, then to the earth, and lastly, on looking up, to the upper story of the house where the implements of husbandry are placed. The parties then, submissively bowing to the _Dúkun_, he repeats a prayer, while the bride washes the feet of the bridegroom. At the conclusion of this ceremony, the friends and family of the parties make presents to each of krises, buffaloes, implements of husbandry, &c.; in return for which the bride and bridegroom respectfully present them with betel-leaf.

“At the marriage-feast which ensues, the _Dúkun_ repeats two _púja_. The marriage is not, however, consummated till the fifth day after the above ceremony. This interval between the solemnities and consummation of marriage is termed by them _úndang mántu_; and is in some cases still observed by the Javans in other parts of the island, under the name, _únduh mántu_.

“At the interment of an inhabitant of _Teng’ger_, the corpse is lowered into the grave with the head placed towards the south (contrary to the direction observed by the Mahometans), and is guarded from the immediate contact of the earth by a covering of bambus and planks. When the grave is closed, two posts are planted over the body: one erected perpendicularly on the breast, the other on the lower part of the belly; and between them is placed a hollowed bambu in an inverted position, into which, during successive days, they daily pour a vessel of pure water, laying beside the bambu two dishes, also daily replenished with eatables. At the expiration of the seventh day, the feast of the dead is announced, and the relations and friends of the deceased assemble to be present at the ceremony, and to partake of entertainments conducted in the following manner:

“A figure of about half a cubit high, representing the human form, made of leaves and ornamented with variegated flowers, is prepared and placed in a conspicuous situation, supported round the body by the clothes of the deceased. The _Dúkun_ then places in front of the garland an incense-pot with burning ashes, together with a vessel containing water, and repeats the two _púja_ to fire and water.

“The clothes of the deceased are then divided among the relatives and friends; the garland is burned; another _púja_ is repeated; while the remains of the sacred water are sprinkled over the feast. The parties now sit down to the enjoyment of it, invoking a blessing from the Almighty on themselves, their houses, and their lands. No more solemnities are observed till the expiration of a thousand days; when, if the memory of the deceased is beloved and cherished, the ceremony and feast are repeated; if otherwise, no further notice is taken of him: and having thus obtained what the Romans call his _justa_, he is allowed to be forgotten.

“Being questioned regarding the tenets of their religion, they replied that they believed in a _Déwa_, who was all-powerful; that the name by which the _Déwa_ was designated was _Búmi Trúka Sáng’yáng Dewáta Bátur_, and that the particulars of their worship were contained in a book called _Pángláwu_, which they presented to me.

“On being questioned regarding the _ádat_ against adultery, theft, and other crimes, their reply was unanimous and ready--that crimes of this kind were unknown to them, and that consequently no punishment was fixed, either by law or custom; that if a man did wrong, the head of the village chid him for it, the reproach of which was always sufficient punishment for a man of _Teng’ger_. This account of their moral character is fully confirmed by the Regents of the districts, under whose authority they are placed, and also by the residents. They, in fact, seem to be almost without crime, and are universally peaceable, orderly, honest, industrious, and happy. They are unacquainted with the vice of gambling and the use of opium.

“The aggregate population is about twelve hundred souls; and they occupy, without exception, the most beautifully rich and romantic spots on Java; a region in which the thermometer is frequently as low as forty-two. The summits and slopes of the hills are covered with Alpine firs, and plants common to an European climate flourish in luxuriance.

“Their language does not differ much from the Javan of the present day, though more gutturally pronounced. Upon a comparison of about a hundred words with the Javan vernacular, two only were found to differ. They do not marry or intermix with the people of the lowlands, priding themselves on their independence and purity in this respect.”--_Raffles’s History of Java._

GROUP IV.

DYAKS OF BORNEO, A. MALES; B. FEMALES.

The native, and aboriginal tribes of Borneo, have no general name by which they designate themselves, neither have they a general name for their island; and this is a fact which occurs pretty generally throughout the Indian Archipelago. A mere islet, a piece of land visibly and palpably surrounded by water--takes the name of _pulo_ (_island_); but the _larger_ masses like Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra, and (as Mr. Craufurd writes) each and all of the islands with the single exception of Borneo, are treated as continents,--so narrow is the knowledge of the inhabitants and so limited their powers of comprehension and generalisation. Hence, _Borneo_ is an European rather than a native term; taken from the name of a particular portion of the island and extended to the whole. It was first used by Pigafetta, a companion of Magalhan, during his voyage round the world in 1521. This gave it a currency in Europe which it has maintained ever since.

As to the different divisions of the population, they generally take their designation from the name of the stream on which they reside; so that when we hear of such tribes as the Sarebas, the Lundu, the Sakarran, &c., we may safely conclude that rivers so called form their several occupancies.

The natives, then, have no general name by which they designate themselves collectively. But _we_ have. _We_--_i.e._, the Europeans--call them _Dyaks_. _Dyak_ is a Malay word--much such a word as _Savage_, or _Barbarian_--so that expressions like _Dyak_, _Sarebas_ (the _savages of the Sarebas_), &c., are only partially native--partially native and partially Malay.

The Malay origin of the word indicates the existence of a Malay population in, or in the neighbourhood of, the island; a Malay population as well as a native. And such is the case. Over and above the proper aborigines, we find in Borneo, Chinese from China, Bugis from the Island of Celebes, and (as aforesaid) Malays from the Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra.

It is the aborigines, however, who alone are represented in the group before us--the Dyaks as opposed to the Malays. And the particular Dyak division is _not_ the one with which an Englishman is the most familiar. The Sarebas Dyaks, the Lundu Dyaks, the Sakarran Dyaks, &c., are the best known to us, inasmuch as it is those who come in contact with the Rajahship of Sarawak, and the parts under the influence of Sir James Brooke. But the Dyaks before us come from the south and the south-east, rather than from the north-west and west, and from the Dutch parts of the island rather than from the English.

The aborigines of Borneo belong to the great Malay family, so that they are essentially the same as the aborigines of Sumatra and Java, &c. But they have this important characteristic; they have been the least touched by either Indian or Arabic influences. They are the least Hindu, the least Mahometan, the most Pagan. Neither have they any alphabet; at the same time, some vestiges of Indian culture undoubtedly exist.

The Dyak of Borneo is the Malay in his most unmodified and primitive condition, and it is amongst the Dyaks of Borneo that the characteristic customs are to be found. They are divided into, probably, 100 different tribes, with, probably, 100 dialects; so far are they from the organisation of a concentrated political power. As some tribes, however, are more powerful than others, and as such tribes encroach and conquer, the tendency towards consolidation exists.

Of such tribes, the most important are the Kayans, occupants of the central part of the island, cultivators of the soil, domesticators of animals, forgers of iron. They are a dominant and encroaching population; the Kanawit, and the other tribes more immediately allied, being their tributaries. The names which they give to both the other Dyaks and the Malays, are derisive and insulting; and other circumstances besides this show the extent to which they are a proud, self-respecting population. Their dignity of manner and deportment is favourably contrasted with the comparative servility of the Malays. As to their morals, the accounts are conflicting. The utter absence of female chastity, affirmed by Mr. Law, is denied by Mr. Burns, whose opportunities for acquiring knowledge seem to have been the better, but who writes somewhat in the spirit of an advocate and admirer. The same author considers that their taste for head-hunting has been exaggerated; at any rate, the custom of handing down heads from generation to generation, as honourable heirlooms, wants confirmation, and besides this, has certain positive facts against it. When two of their chiefs changed their residence, an accumulation of 400 skulls was thrown away, instead of being removed with care and honour. Human sacrifices, on the other hand, are admitted by Mr. Burns to exist; with the reservation that the practice decreases, and that the victim is a member of some other tribe.

It was from the parts about the Kayan river that they began their conquests. Successful in holding their own, they suffer from disease rather than war. At intervals of twelve or fifteen years, the small-pox rages as an epidemic; whilst fever, ague, dysentery, and rheumatism, are endemic. To tattoo the body, to bore and stretch the ears, to wear pendant ear-rings of twenty ounces, so that the ears and breasts meet, are the more characteristic elements of the Kayan cosmesis. In the first of these operations the performer pricks the pattern with a needle, and then engrains the smoke of a dammer torch; so that the process is partially that of the simple tattoo, and partially that of inustion. Mutual friendships or brotherhoods, are ratified by the not unusual ceremony of mixing blood. This Mr. Burns considers as peculiar to the Kayan amongst the populations of Borneo. That of drawing omens from the flight of birds is common to them and the other tribes.

After death, the body is kept in the house from four to eight days. Torches are kept burning beside the coffin which contains it; and if one of them go out, bad luck is augured from its extinction. For four or five days, too, after the removal of the corpse, they are still kept alight. Previous, however, to the removal, a feast is prepared; some of the food being placed beside the coffin, whilst the remainder regales the relatives of the deceased. The mourning of the women is loud, passionate, and full of gesticulation. They hug the decomposing body; they inhale its odours, and finally, they attend it to the place of its ultimate disposal, which is the loft of a small wooden house, built on pillars, about twelve feet high.

The burial ceremonies are more elaborate than those which accompany the birth or naming of children; those of marriage are the simplest. To swim, to wrestle, to blow the sumpitan, to use the sword, and to throw the spear, are the chief elements in the training of the Kayan youth.[33]

[33] Burns, in “Journal of the Indian Archipelago.”

This notice has contained some remarkable suggestions. What means the allusion to the head-hunting? No trophy is more honourable among the Dyaks of Borneo, than a human head; the head of a conquered enemy. These are preserved in the houses as tokens; so that the number of skulls is a measure of the prowess of the possessor. In tribes, where this feeling becomes morbid, no young man can marry before he has presented his future bride with a human head, cut off by himself. Hence, for a marriage to take place, an enemy must be either found or made.

It may easily be imagined that this engenders a chronic state of warfare between tribe and tribe; to which, we may add, as another of the scourges of the Dyak population, the piracy that is practised along the whole of the sea-coasts, and on the lower courses of the numerous rivers.

Cannibalism in Sumatra; head-hunting in Borneo--such are the characteristics of two of the more important branches of the Malay family, and they are practices which are manifestly condemnatory to the moral character of the nations in which they occur. We must, however, take the evidence to their existence as we find it. On the other hand, it is a good rule to receive with caution all accounts that violate the common feelings of human nature, and to allow ourselves to believe that causes, as yet imperfectly understood, modify and diminish practices so horrible. That it should be so general as the theory demands is incompatible with the proportions between the male and female populations, which are much the same in Borneo as elsewhere. So it is, also, with the express statement of Sir J. Brooke, who says, that the passion for heads has much diminished amongst certain of the Sarawak tribes. In one case, an offer of some was refused; the reason alleged being that it would revive fresh sorrows. The parties who thus declined, gave a favourable account of some of the customs by which the horrors of a Dyak war were abated:--

“If one tribe claimed a debt of another, it was always demanded, and the claim discussed. If payment was refused, the claimants departed, telling the others to listen to their birds, as they might expect an attack. Even after this, it was often the case, that a tribe friendly to each mediated between them, and endeavoured to make a settlement of their contending claims. If they failed, the tribes were then at war. Recently, however, more places than one have been attacked without due notice, and often by treachery. The old custom likewise was, that no house should be set on fire, no paddy destroyed, and that _a naked woman_ could not be killed, nor a woman with child. These laudable and praiseworthy customs have fallen into disuse, yet they give a pleasing picture of Dyak character, and relieve, by a touch of humanity, the otherwise barbarous nature of their warfare. Then there is what is called the _Babukid, bubukkid, or mode of defiance_, which is appealed to as a final judgment in disputes about property, and usually occurs in families when the right to land and fruit-trees comes to be discussed. Each party then sallies forth in search of a _head_; if only one succeed, his claim is acknowledged; if both succeed, the property continues common to both. It is on these occasions that the Dyaks are dangerous; and perhaps an European, whose inheritance depended on the issue, would not be very scrupulous as to the means of success. It must be understood, however, that the individuals do not go alone, but a party accompanies each, or they may send a party without being present. The loss of life is not heavy from this cause, and it is chiefly resorted to by the Singé and Sows, and is about as rational as our trials by combat. This babukid must be a check of a permanent sort.

_Houses._--“With certain of the Dyak tribes the houses are not huts, nor yet mere dwelling-houses of ordinary dimensions. They hold from one hundred to two hundred persons each; and are raised above the ground on piles.

_Religion._--“The notions of the Dyaks respecting the spiritual world are in general much confused, and at variance with each other. They agree, however, in the belief in good and evil spirits. The good spirits are divided into two classes, viz., spirits of the world above, or of the higher regions, who come under the collective denomination of ‘Sengiang;’ and spirits of the lower regions, or more properly, such as have their dominion in the waters, in great rivers, and these are called ‘Jata.’ The collective name of the evil spirits is ‘Talopapa’ which word signifies, in general, all bad things.

“It is to be observed here that the Dyaks describe the aspect of the regions above as similar to the terrestrial world. Mountains, valleys, streams, lakes, &c. &c., are found there, as well as here beneath; and the dominions of various spirits are bounded by the different streams and branches of the rivers.”--_From the Rev. T. F. Barker’s “Mythology of the Dyaks,” Journ. Ind. Archip._, vol. iii. p. 162.

“In the interior, men are still occasionally sacrificed, principally on the death of chiefs, and other considerable persons. In Sirat, the furthest inhabited point of the Kapus River, where I some years ago made a journey of investigation, they had a short time before our arrival, sacrificed two women. An acquaintance who had been present, gave me the following account of the horrible event:--One morning at Sirat, there gathered a great number of people, who streamed in on all sides to celebrate a great feast. There was firing of guns--the open plain before the Kotta (fort) was prepared for the occasion, and adorned with branches, flowers, and cloths; a number of hogs were killed; and when, finally, by midday, everything had been arranged according to use and wont, the real objects of the festival were brought forward--two women, still young, who had been purchased for the purpose from another race. They had to seat themselves on the side of the ready-dug graves, and contemplate for some time the noisy rejoicings of the feasters. A lance of about thirty feet in length was then brought and laid on one of the victims. All now hurried to take a part in the impending detestable deed. A hundred hands seized the long lance, and the instant the customary sign was given, they threw themselves, amidst the loud acclamations of the multitude, on the unfortunate wretch, and pierced her through and through, even transfixing her to the ground. They then cut off the head of the fallen victim, and carried it during the rest of the day, dancing and singing round it. The same fate also befel her unfortunate companion. Those who are thus offered become, in their belief, in the other world, slaves of the deceased friend to whose memory they are offered.”--_From “Some Remarks on the Dyaks of Banjarmassing,” in the Journ. of the Ind. Archip._, vol. i., p. 30.

The blow-pipe, with which so many of the figures before us are furnished, is called, in the native language, _sumpitan_. It is made of the wood of the palm, bored with the greatest possible nicety. The arrows, which are from four to six inches long, fit the bore, and are poisoned--at least with some of the tribes. At twenty yards the _sumpitan_ is sure to hit; at one hundred it attains its longest range. Since the ones before us have been in England, more than one _amateur_ has tried them--both with the Dyak arrows, and with little pellets of clay. They have succeeded in bringing down sparrows from the house-tops with the latter. The aim is sure, and a little practice accomplishes it.

The male in the sailor’s dress is a Philippine Islander, who spoke the Iloco language. The female is a half-blood Spanish and Manilla-Indian.

GROUP V.

A.--ISLANDERS OF THE LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO--PAPUANS. (_p._ 91)

A. THE PAPUANS. B. AUSTRALIANS.

When we move eastwards from the more eastern of the Moluccas we reach New Guinea, of which the very name suggests the likelihood of a change in the character of the population. How did it arise? Much in the same way that such a term as _West Indies_ did. There was something in the new country which reminded the discoverers of an old one. Now the large island under notice reminded the early voyagers of the coast of _Guinea_ on the western side of Africa. Why? Because they found there a population of _Blacks_; a population that reminded them of the negro; a population unlike the Malay tribes of islands westward.

A. _New Guinea._ This is anything but a native name; indeed, it is a name that no New Guinea men know anything about.

Just what occurred in Borneo, occurs here. There is no _general_ name at all; neither one for the island itself, nor one for the population of it--no _native_ name at least.

There is, however, a Malay one. The word _Papua_ means _frizzly-haired_. Originally and, more properly, applied to occupants of the north-west coast, it has since been extended--for the purposes of Ethnology at least--to a whole family. Hence, the Papuan stock contains, not only the inhabitants of New Guinea, but those of the islands to the east, and south thereof--the Louisiade Archipelago, New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Solomon’s Isles, New Hebrides, Loyalty Isles, and New Caledonia.

No part of the world is less known than these Papuan islands--the interior of New Guinea being as much a mystery as the interior of Africa. There are certain points, however, on which attention has been concentrated. Thus--

_a._ The western coast of New Guinea itself has been described, more or less incompletely, by the Dutch.

_b._ The south-eastern part, along with the islands of Torres Straits, has been surveyed by H.M.S. the Fly.

_c._ The Louisiade Archipelago, &c., by H.M.S. Rattlesnake.

_d._ The parts about Tanna, Mallicollo, and New Caledonia, by Captain Erskine.

The figures before us are from drawings made on the spot by Mr. Huxley, naturalist to the Rattlesnake, and as they were from the pencil of an anatomist as well as an artist they may be relied on as characteristic. The chief notices are from Mr. M‛Gillivray’s “Voyage of the Rattlesnake.”

The Louisiade houses (or huts) in their simplest form consist of a roof of palm-leaves on four wooden uprights, each of which pierces a round piece of wood. This prevents rats and vermin from finding their way upwards and into the dwelling.

The larger and more elaborate contain several families--the following being a section of the part occupied. In parts subject to inundation they stand upon high props--upon _piles_ as it were. This mode of building is common in New Guinea, on certain islands of the Indian Archipelago, the more swampy parts of inter-tropical America; like adaptations occurring in like localities.

Next to the domestic architecture that of their canoes deserves attention. These, always, or almost always, are built without riggers--sometimes with a sort of stage or platform projecting from the sides, the structure of a raft being superadded to that of a boat. The sailing vessels take the following form. Less nautical than the Malays--the Papuan family is more so than the Australian.

With some varieties the hair is far more elaborately dressed than with those of the present group; being twisted into long curls, likened to the thrums of a mop, stiffened with oil, and washed in alkaline leys, which give a red tinge. When this kind of ornamentation attains its fullest development, the frizzled mass of strong and stiffened hair makes the owner unable to lie down without disarranging his head-dress. In this case a neck-pillow becomes necessary; just as it does with certain tribes of Africa, with whom the care of these head-gear is one of the primary employments of life.

The chief weapons are the bow and arrow, their political organisation of the lowest and simplest kind; that of small tribes living in a state of chronic hostility with each other. Woven cloth they have none. On the other hand they show some skill in the art of pottery. In New Guinea, at least, they defend their soil with tenacity and resolution, eschewing European intercourse. In the more southern and smaller islands, however, this is less the case than in the more northern and larger ones. They contrast more favourably with the Australians than with the Malays.

But little is known of their languages.

The islands of Torres Strait, even when they lie nearest to the coast of Australia, are not Australian, but Papuan, so that the following extracts from the “Voyage of the Fly” apply to a population allied to one under notice--allied, but not identical.