Chapter XIV

THE VALENCY AND SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE METALS. MAGNESIUM. CALCIUM,
STRONTIUM, BARIUM, AND BERYLLIUM

It is easy by investigating the composition of corresponding compounds, to establish the _equivalent weights_ of the metals compared with hydrogen--that is, the quantity which replaces one part by weight of hydrogen. If a metal decomposes acids directly, with the evolution of hydrogen, the equivalent weight of the metal may be determined by taking a definite weight of it and measuring the volume of hydrogen evolved by its action on an excess of acid; it is then easy to calculate the weight of the hydrogen from its volume.[1] The same result may be arrived at by determining the composition of the normal salts of the metal; for instance, by finding the weight of metal which combines with 35·5 parts of chlorine or 80 parts of bromine.[2] The equivalent of a metal may be also ascertained by simultaneously (_i.e._ in one circuit) decomposing an acid and a fused salt of a given metal by an electric current and determining the relation between the amounts of hydrogen and metal separated, because, according to Faraday's law, electrolytes (conductors of the second order) are always decomposed in equivalent quantities.[2 bis] The equivalent of a metal may even be found by simply determining the relation between its weight and that of its salt-giving oxide, as by this we know the quantity of the metal which combines with 8 parts by weight of oxygen, and this will be the equivalent, because 8 parts of oxygen combine with 1 part by weight of hydrogen. One method is verified by another, and all the processes for the accurate determination of equivalents require the greatest care to avoid the absorption of moisture, further oxidation, volatility, and other accidental influences which affect exact weighings. The description of the methods necessary for the attainment of exact results belongs to the province of analytical chemistry.

[1] Under favourable circumstances (by taking all the requisite
precautions), the weight of the equivalent may be accurately
determined by this method. Thus Reynolds and Ramsay (1887)
determined the equivalent of zinc to be 32·7 by this method (from
the average of 29 experiments), whilst by other methods it has been
fixed (by different observers) between 32·55 and 33·95.

The differences in their equivalents may be demonstrated by taking
equal weights of different metals, and collecting the hydrogen
evolved by them (under the action of an acid or alkali).

[2] The most accurate determinations of this kind were carried on by
Stas, and will be described in Chapter XXIV.

[2 bis] The amount of electricity in one coulomb according to the
present nomenclature of electrical units (_see_ Works on Physics
and Electro-technology) disengages 0·00001036 gram of hydrogen,
0·00112 gram of silver, 0·0003263 gram of copper from the salts of
the oxide, and 0·0006526 gram from the salts of the suboxide, &c.
These amounts stand in the same ratio as the equivalents, _i.e._ as
the quantities replaced by one part by weight of hydrogen. The
intimate bond which is becoming more and more marked existing
between the electrolytic and purely chemical relations of
substances (especially in solutions) and the application of
electrolysis to the preparation of numerous substances on a large
scale, together with the employment of electricity for obtaining
high temperatures, &c., makes me regret that the plan and
dimensions of this book, and the impossibility of giving a concise
and objective exposition of the necessary electrical facts, prevent
my entering upon this province of knowledge, although I consider it
my duty to recommend its study to all those who desire to take part
in the further development of our science.

There is only one side of the subject respecting the direct
correlation between thermochemical data and electro-motive force,
which I think right to mention here, as it justifies the general
conception, enunciated by Faraday, that the galvanic current is an
aspect of the transference of chemical motion or reaction along the
conductors.

From experiments conducted by Favre, Thomsen, Garni, Berthelot,
Cheltzoff, and others, upon the amount of heat evolved in a closed
circuit, it follows that the electro-motive force of the current or
its capacity to do a certain work, E, is proportional to the whole
amount of heat, Q, disengaged by the reaction forming the source of
the current. If E be expressed in volts, and Q in thousands of
units of heat referred to equivalent weights, then E = 0·0436Q. For
example in a Daniells battery E = 1·09 both by experiment and
theory, because in it there takes place the decomposition of
CuSO_{4} into Cu + O together with the formation of Zn + O and ZnO
+ SO_{3}Aq, and these reactions correspond to Q = 25·06 thousand
units of heat. So also in all other primary batteries (_e.g._
Bunsen's, Poggendorff's, &c.) and secondary ones (for instance,
those acting according to the reaction Pb + H_{2}SO_{4} + PbO_{2},
as Cheltzoff showed) E = 0·0436Q.

For univalent metals, like those of the alkalis, the weight of the equivalent is equal to the weight of the atom. For bivalent metals the atomic weight is equal to the weight of two equivalents, for _n_-valent metals it is equal to the weight of _n_ equivalents. Thus aluminium, Al = 27, is trivalent, that is, its equivalent = 9; magnesium, Mg = 24, is bivalent, and its equivalent = 12. Therefore, if potassium or sodium, or in general a univalent metal, M, give compounds M_{2}O, MHO, MCl, MNO_{3}, M_{2}SO_{4}, &c., and in general MX, then for bivalent metals like magnesium or calcium the corresponding compounds will be MgO, Mg(HO)_{2}, MgCl_{2}, Mg(NO_{3})_{2}, MgSO_{4}, &c., or in general MX_{2}.

By what are we to be guided in ascribing to some metals univalency and to others bi-, ter-, quadri-, ... _n_-valency? What obliges us to make this difference? Why are not all metals given the same valency--for instance, why is not magnesium considered as univalent? If this be done, taking Mg = 12 (and not 24 as now), not only is a simplicity of expression of the composition of all the compounds of magnesium attained, but we also gain the advantage that their composition will be the same as those of the corresponding compounds of sodium and potassium. These combinations were so expressed formerly--why has this since been changed?

These questions could only be answered after the establishment of the idea of multiples of the atomic weights as the minimum quantities of certain elements combining with others to form compounds--in a word, since the time of the establishment of Avogadro-Gerhardt's law (Chapter VII.). By taking such an element as arsenic, which has many volatile compounds, it is easy to determine the density of these compounds, and therefore to establish their molecular weights, and hence to find the indubitable atomic weight, exactly as for oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, carbon, &c. It appears that As = 75, and its compounds correspond, like the compounds of nitrogen, with the forms AsX_{3}, and AsX_{5}; for example, AsH_{3}, AsCl_{3}, AsF_{5}, As_{2}O_{5}, &c. It is evident that we are here dealing with a metal (or rather element) of two valencies, which moreover is never univalent, but tri- or quinqui-valent. This example alone is sufficient for the recognition of the existence of polyvalent atoms among the metals. And as antimony and bismuth are closely analogous to arsenic in all their compounds, (just as potassium is analogous to rubidium and cæsium); so, although very few volatile compounds of bismuth are known, it was necessary to ascribe to them formulæ corresponding with those ascribed to arsenic.

As we shall see in describing them, there are also many analogous metals among the bivalent elements, some of which also give volatile compounds. For example, zinc, which is itself volatile, gives several volatile compounds (for instance, zinc ethyl, ZnC_{4}H_{10}, which boils at 118°, vapour density = 61·3), and in the molecules of all these compounds there is never less than 65 parts of zinc, which is equivalent to H_{2}, because 65 parts of zinc displace 2 parts by weight of hydrogen; so that zinc is just such an example of the bivalent metals as oxygen, whose equivalent = 8 (because H_{2} is replaced by O = 16), is a representative of the bivalent elements, or as arsenic is of the tri- and quinqui-valent elements. And, as we shall afterwards see, magnesium is in many respects closely analogous to zinc, which fact obliges us to regard magnesium as a bivalent metal.

Such metals as mercury and copper, which are able to give not one but two bases, are of particular importance for distinguishing univalent and bivalent metals. Thus copper gives the suboxide Cu_{2}O and the oxide CuO--that is, the compounds CuX corresponding with the suboxide are analogous (in the quantitative relations, by their composition) to NaX or AgX, and the compounds of the oxide CuX_{2}, to MgX_{2}, ZnX_{2}, and in general to the bivalent metals. It is clear that in such examples we must make a distinction between atomic weights and equivalents.

In this manner the valency, that is, the number of equivalents entering into the atom of the metals may in many cases be established by means of comparatively few volatile metallic compounds, with the aid of a search into their analogies (concerning which see Chapter XV.). _The law of specific heats_ discovered by Dulong and Petit has frequently been applied to the same purpose[3] in the history of chemistry, especially since the development given to this law by the researches of Regnault, and since Cannizzaro (1860) showed the agreement between the deductions of this law and the consequences arising from Avogadro-Gerhardt's law.

[3] The chief means by which we determine the valency of the elements,
or what multiple of the equivalent should be ascribed to the atom,
are: (1) The law of Avogadro-Gerhardt. This method is the most
general and trustworthy, and has already been applied to a great
number of elements. (2) The different grades of oxidation and their
isomorphism or analogy in general; for example, Fe = 56 because the
suboxide (ferrous oxide) is isomorphous with magnesium oxide, &c.,
and the oxide (ferric oxide) contains half as much oxygen again as
the suboxide. Berzelius, Marignac, and others took advantage of
this method for determining the composition of the compounds of
many elements. (3) The specific heat, according to Dulong and
Petit's law. Regnault, and more especially Cannizzaro, used this
method to distinguish univalent from bivalent metals. (4) The
periodic law (_see_ Chapter XV.) has served as a means for the
determination of the atomic weights of cerium, uranium, yttrium,
&c., and more especially of gallium, scandium, and germanium. The
correction of the results of one method by those of others is
generally had recourse to, and is quite necessary, because,
phenomena of dissociation, polymerisation, &c., may complicate the
individual determinations by each method.

It will be well to observe that a number of other methods,
especially from the province of those physical properties which are
clearly dependent on the magnitude of the atom (or equivalent) or
of the molecule, may lead to the same result. I may point out, for
instance, that even the specific gravity of solutions of the
metallic chlorides may serve for this purpose. Thus, if beryllium
he taken as trivalent--that is, if the composition of its chloride
be taken as BeCl_{3} (or a polymeride of it), then the specific
gravity of solutions of beryllium chloride will not fit into the
series of the other metallic chlorides. But by ascribing to it an
atomic weight Be = 7, or taking Be as bivalent, and the composition
of its chloride as BeCl_{2}, we arrive at the general rule given in