Chapter XVI: The Magical Texts (2)

With the prayer to Sin, appeals to other gods and also goddesses are frequently combined,--to Marduk, Ishtar, Tashmitum, Nabu, Ramman, and the like. The incantations themselves, consisting of fervent appeals to remove the evil, actual or portending, are preceded by certain ceremonies,--the burning of incense, the pouring out of some drink, or by symbolical acts, as the binding of cords; and the god is appealed to once more to answer the prayer.

Again, just as Gibil-Nusku entails the invocation of a large variety of solar deities, so Ea, as the water-god, leads to the introduction of various water-gods and spirits. Perhaps the most prominent of these is the god Naru, whose name, signifying 'river,'[380] is clearly the personification of the watery element, though of the minor bodies of water. Next in order comes the goddess Nin-akha-kuddu.[381] She is invoked as 'goddess of purification.' From her association in several passages with the great deep, and with the city of Eridu--metaphorically used for the great deep--one may be permitted to conclude that she, too, was conceived of as a water-god or a water-spirit. She is 'the lady of spells,' who is asked to take possession of the body of the sufferer, and thus free him from the control of demons or witches. By the side of this goddess, Gula, 'the great physician,' is often appealed to. Again, the demons being in some cases the ghosts of the departed, or such as hover around graves, Nin-kigal, or Allatu, the mistress of the lower world, is an important ally, whose aid is desired in the struggle against the evil spirits. Lastly, it is interesting to note that Izdubar, or Gilgamesh, the famous hero of the great Babylonian epic, occurs also in incantations[382]--a welcome indication of the antiquity of the myth, and the proof, at the same time, that the epic is built on a foundation of myth. From the mythological side, Gilgamesh appears to be a solar deity. The connection of a solar god with fire would account for his appearance in the magical texts. However obscure some of the points connected with the gods of the incantation texts may be, so much is certain, that the two factors of water and fire, and the part played by these elements in the ceremonies, control and explain the choice of most of the gods and goddesses introduced, though--be it expressly noted--not of all occurring in the magical texts.

The Ritual and Formulas.

Coming to the incantations themselves, they can best be characterized as appeals interspersed with words of a more or less mystic character. The force and efficacy of the incantation lie not so much in the meaning of the words uttered, as in the simple fact that they _are_ to be uttered. These incantations were combined into a ritual, and indications were given of the occasions on which the incantations were to be used. An analysis of one of these rituals will serve to illustrate this branch of the religious literature of the Babylonians. I choose for this purpose the series known as Maklu, _i.e._, Burning,[383] the interpretation of which has been so considerably advanced by Dr. Tallqvist's admirable work. The first tablet of the series opens with an invocation to the gods of night. After complaining of his sad condition, the bewitched individual continues as follows:

Arise ye great gods, hear my complaint;
Grant me justice, take cognizance of my condition.
I have made an image of my sorcerer and sorceress;
I have humbled myself before you and bring to you my cause
Because of the evil they (_i.e._, the witches) have done,
Of the impure things which they have handled,[384]
May she[385] die! Let me live!
May her charm, her witchcraft, her sorcery (?) be broken.
May the plucked sprig (?) of the _binu_ tree purify me.
May it release me; may the evil odor[386] of my mouth be scattered to
the winds.
May the _mashtakal_ herb[387] which fills the earth cleanse me.
Before you let me shine like the _kankal_ herb.
Let me be as brilliant and pure as the _lardu_ herb.
The charm of the sorceress is evil;
May her words return to her mouth,[388] her tongue be cut off.
Because of her witchcraft, may the gods of night smite her,
The three watches of the night[389] break her evil charm.
May her mouth be wax[390] (?), her tongue honey.
May the word causing my misfortune that she has spoken dissolve like
wax (?).
May the charm that she has wound up melt like honey,
So that her magic knot be cut in twain, her work destroyed,
All her words scattered across the plains
By the order that the gods have given.

The section closes with the ordinary request of the exorciser to the victim: "Recite this incantation." It will be seen how closely the principle of sympathetic magic is followed. The individual having been bewitched by means of certain herbs concocted probably into potions, other herbs are prepared by the exorciser as an antidote. The emphasis laid upon purification, too, is noteworthy. There are numerous synonyms employed for which it is difficult to find the adequate equivalent in English. The terms reach out beyond the literal to the symbolical purification. The victim wishes to become pure, cleansed of all impurities, so that he may be resplendent as the gods are pure, brilliant, and glorious, pure as the water, brilliant and glorious as the fire.

The length of the formulas varies. Often they consist only of a few lines. So the one immediately following appeals to Gilgamesh in these words:

Earth, Earth, Earth,
Gilgamesh is the master of your witchcraft.
What you have done, I know;
What I do, you know not.
All the mischief wrought by my sorceresses is destroyed, dissolved--
is gone.

At times the conditions under which the witches are pictured as acting are very elaborate. They are represented as dwelling in places with which mythological conceptions are connected; they are ferried across the river separating their city from human habitations; they are protected against attacks by the walls which surround their habitations. To effect a release, the exorcisers, it would appear, made representations by means of drawings on clay of these habitations of the witches. They thereupon symbolically cut off the approaches and laid siege to the towns. This, at least, appears to be the meaning of an incantation beginning:

My city is Sappan,[391] my city is Sappan;
The gates of my city Sappan are two,
One towards sunrise, the other towards sunset.[392]
I carry a box, a pot with _mashtakal_ herbs;
To the gods of heaven I offer water;
As I for you secure your purification,
So do you purify me!

The victim imitates the conduct of the witch, goes about as she does, with a pot in which the potions are made, performs the symbolical act which should purify him of the evil that is in him, and hopes, in this way, to obtain his own release. The description continues:

I have kept back the ferry, have shut off the wall,[393]
Have thus checked the enchantment from all quarters.
Anu and Anatum have commissioned me.
Whom shall I send to Belit of the field?[394]
Into the mouth of the sorcerer and sorceress cast the lock.[395]
Recite the incantation of the chief of gods, Marduk.[396]
'Let them[397] call to thee but answer them not,
Let them address thee, but hearken not to them.
Let me call to thee, and do thou answer me,
Let me address thee, and do thou hearken unto me.'
By the command of Anu, Anatum, and Belit, recite the incantation.

The hymns to the fire-god, Nusku (or Girru), of which the 'Maklu' series naturally furnishes many specimens,[398] are all pretty much alike. I choose one which illustrates in greater detail the symbolical burning of the image of the witch:[399]

Nusku, great offspring of Anu,
The likeness of his father, the first-born of Bel,
The product of the deep, sprung from Ea,[400]
I raise the torch to illumine thee, yea, thee.
The sorcerer who has bewitched me,
Through the witchcraft by means of which he has bewitched me, do thou
bewitch him.
The sorceress who has bewitched me,
Through the witchcraft by means of which she has bewitched me, bewitch
thou her.
The charmer who has charmed me,
Through the charm with which he has charmed me, charm thou him.
The witch who has charmed me,
Through the charm with which she has charmed me, charm thou her.
Those who have made images of me, reproducing my features,
Who have taken away my breath, torn my hairs,
Who have rent my clothes, have hindered my feet from treading the
dust,
May the fire-god, the strong one, break their charm.

Just as the witches were burnt in effigy, so also the demons were supposed to be similarly dispelled. Immediately following the incantation comes one directed against the demons:

I raise the torch, their images I burn,
Of the _utukku_, the _shedu_, the _rabisu_, the _ekimmu_,
The _labartu_, the _labasi_, the _akhkhasu_,
Of _lilu_ and _lilitu_ and _ardat lili_,
And every evil that seizes hold of men.
Tremble, melt away, and disappear!
May your smoke rise to heaven,
May Shamash destroy your limbs,
May the son of Ea [_i.e._, may the fire-god],
The great magician, restrain your strength (?).

The witch who has caused the evil may be unknown. For such a case one of the incantations runs:[401]

Who art thou, sorceress, who bears her evil word within her heart,
Through whose tongue my misfortune is produced,
Through whose lips I have been poisoned,
In whose footsteps death follows?
Sorceress, I seize thy mouth, seize thy tongue,
I seize thy searching eyes,
I seize thy ever-moving feet,
I seize thy knees ever active,
I seize thy hands ever stretched out,
I tie thy hands behind thee.
May Sin ... destroy thy body,
May he cast thee into an abyss of fire and water.
Sorceress, as the circle of this seal-ring,[402]
May thy face grow pale and wan.

Of the same character as this, are a variety of other incantations, all applicable to cases in which the sorceress is unknown. As the last specimen of the 'Maklu' series, I choose an incantation addressed to the demons, which is interesting because of the direct character of the commands it contains:

Away, away, far away, far away,
For shame, for shame, fly away, fly away,
Round about face, go away, far away,
Out of my body, away,
Out of my body, far away,
Out of my body, away for shame,
Out of my body, fly away,
Out of my body, round about face,
Out of my body, go away,
Into my body, come not back,
Towards my body, do not approach,
Towards my body, draw not nigh,
My body torture not.
By Shamash the mighty, be ye foresworn.
By Ea, the lord of everything, be ye foresworn.
By Marduk, the chief magician of the gods, be ye foresworn.
By the fire-god, be ye foresworn.
From my body be ye restrained!

Repetition and variation in the use of certain phrases make up, as will be seen from the specimens given, a large part of the incantation. A curious illustration of the importance attributed to such repetition is furnished by the eighth and last tablet of the 'Maklu' series. It consists of seven divisions, each beginning with a repetition of the headlines of the various sections of the preceding seven tablets; and only after the headlines of each of the tablets have been exhausted, does the real incantation begin. This eighth tablet contains therefore a kind of summary of all the others, the purpose of which is to gather together all the power and influence of the seven others.

The 'Maklu' ritual deals so largely with the fire-god that a specimen from another series, to illustrate the position of Ea and Marduk in the incantations, seems called for. The 'Shurpu' series introduces Ea and Marduk more particularly. The fifth tablet of this series begins:[403]

The evil curse rests like a _gallu_ upon the man,
The pain-giving voice[404] has settled upon him,
The voice that is not good has settled upon him,
The evil curse, the charm that produces insanity,
The evil curse has killed that man as a sheep,
His god has departed from his body,[405]
His goddess has ... taken her place outside,[406]
The pain-giving voice covers him as a garment and confuses him.
Marduk sees him,
And proceeds to the house of his father Ea and speaks:
"My father, the evil curse as a demon has settled on the man."
He says it for a second time.
"What that man should do, I do not know; by what can he be cured?"
Ea answers his son Marduk:
"My son, can I add aught that thou dost not know?
Marduk, what can I tell thee that thou dost not know?
What I know, also thou knowest.
My son Marduk, take him to the overseer of the house of perfect
purification,
Dissolve his spell, release him from the charm, and from the
troublesome bodily disease.
Whether it be the curse of his father,
Or the curse of his mother,
Or the curse of his brother,
Or the curse of an unknown,[407]
May the bewitchment through the charm of Ea be peeled off like an
onion.
May it be cut off like a date.
May it be removed like a husk.
O power of the spirit of heaven, be thou invoked!
O spirit of earth, be thou invoked!"

The purification by water, which is here only incidentally referred to, is more fully touched upon in other incantations, where Ea tells Marduk that the victim must take

Glittering water, pure water,
Holy water, resplendent water,
The water twice seven times may he bring,
May he make pure, may he make resplendent.
May the evil _rabisu_ depart,
May he betake himself outside,
May the protecting _shedu_, the protecting _lamassu_,
Settle upon his body.
Spirit of heaven, be thou invoked!
Spirit of earth, be thou invoked![408]

Still other methods of magical cure besides the use of water and of potions were in vogue. In a tablet of the same ritual to which the last extract belongs, and which is especially concerned with certain classes of diseases produced by the demons, the sick man is told to take

White wool, which has been spun into thread,
To attach it to his couch[409] in front and at the top,
Black wool which has been spun into thread
To bind at his left side.

Then follows the incantation which he is to recite:

The evil _ulukku, alu, ekimmu_,
The evil _gallu_, the evil god, _rabisu_,
_Labartu, labasu, akhkhazu_,
_Lilu_ and _lilit_ and _ardat lili_,
Sorcery, charm, bewitchment,
The sickness, the cruel artifice,
Their head against his head,
Their hand against his hand,
Their foot against his foot,
May they not place,
May they never draw nigh.
Spirit of heaven, be thou foresworn!
Spirit of earth, be thou foresworn!

It is interesting to note the introduction of ethical ideas into these texts, despite the primitive character of the beliefs upon which the incantations repose. The possibility was considered that the attack of the demons was a punishment sent in some way for committed sins. The incantation series 'Shurpu' furnishes us with a long list of wrongs for which a person may be held enthralled in the power of the demons or sorcerers. The exorciser in petitioning that the ban may be relieved, enumerates at length the various causes for which the evil may have been sent:[410]

Has he sinned against a god,
Is his guilt against a goddess,
Is it a wrongful deed against his master,
Hatred towards his elder brother,
Has he despised father or mother,
Insulted his elder sister,
Has he given too little,[411]
Has he withheld too much,
For "no" said "yes,"
For "yes" said "no"?[412]

...

Has he used false weights?

...

Has he taken an incorrect amount,
Not taken the correct sum,
Has he fixed a false boundary,
Not fixed a just boundary,
Has he removed a boundary, a limit, or a territory,
Has he possessed himself of his neighbor's house,
Has he approached his neighbor's wife,
Has he shed the blood of his neighbor,
Robbed his neighbor's dress?

...

Was he frank in speaking,
But false in heart,
Was it "yes" with his mouth,
But "no" in his heart?[413]

In this way the exorciser proceeds to enumerate an exceedingly long list of sins--no less than one hundred--most of which are ethical misdemeanors, while others are merely ceremonial transgressions. In the third tablet of this series[414] there is even a longer list of causes for the ban which Marduk, the "chief exorciser" among the gods, is called upon to loosen. Here again we find an equal proportion of moral transgressions placed on a par with errors in performing religious rites or unwillful offences in neglecting conventional methods of doing things.

The ethical features of the texts can, without much question, be put down as the work of the later editors. They belong to a period when already an advanced conception not only of right and wrong, but also of sin had arisen among the religious leaders of the people, and perhaps had made its way already among the masses, without, however, disturbing the confidence in the traditional superstitions. The strange combination of primitive and advanced religious beliefs is characteristic, as we shall have occasion to see, of various divisions of the Babylonian religious literature. The lapse from the ethical strain to the incantation refrain is as sudden as it is common. The priest having exhausted the category of possible sins or mishaps that have caused the suffering of the petitioner, proceeds to invoke the gods, goddesses, and the powerful spirits to loosen the ban. There is no question of retribution for actual acts of injustice or violence, any more than there is a question of genuine contrition. The enumeration of the causes for the suffering constitutes in fact a part of the incantation. The mention of the real cause in the long list--and the list aims to be exhaustive, so that the exorciser may strike the real cause--goes a long way towards ensuring the departure of the evil spirit. And if, besides striking the real cause, the exorciser is fortunate enough in his enumeration of the various gods, goddesses, and spirits to call by name upon the _right_ god or spirit, the one who has the power over the demon in question, his object is achieved. Speaking the right words and pronouncing the right name, constitute, together with the performance of the correct ceremony and the bringing of the right sacrifice, the conditions upon which depends the success of the priest in the incantation ritual. Hence the striking features of these texts, the enumeration of long lists of causes for misfortune, long lists of powers invoked, and a variety of ceremonies prescribed, in the hope that the priest will "hit it" at one time or the other.

Incantations and Prayers.

The incantations naturally shade off into prayers. Frequently they are prayers pure and simple. Powerful as the sacred formulas were supposed to be, the ultimate appeal of the sufferer is to the gods. Upon their favor it ultimately depends whether the mystic power contained in the sacred words uttered shall manifest itself to the benefit of the supplicant or not. While it is proper, therefore, to distinguish incantations from prayers, the combination of the two could scarcely be avoided by the priests, who, rising in a measure superior to the popular beliefs, felt it to be inconsistent with a proper regard for the gods not to give them a superior place in the magical texts. The addition, to the sacred formulas, of prayers directly addressed to certain gods may be put down as due to the adaptation of ancient texts to the needs of a later age; and, on the other hand, the addition of incantations to what appear to have been originally prayers, pure and simple, is a concession made to the persistent belief in the efficacy of certain formulas when properly uttered. Such combinations of prayers and incantations constituted, as would appear, a special class of religious texts; and, in the course of further editing,[415] a number of prayers addressed to various deities were combined and interspersed with incantation and ceremonial directions which were to accompany the prayers.

The incantations accordingly lead us to the next division in the religious literature of the Babylonians,--the prayers and hymns.

FOOTNOTES:

[341] _Die Assyrische Beschwoerungsserie, Maqlu_, p. 14.

[342] There are some preserved solely in the ideographic style, and others of which we have only the phonetic transliteration.

[343] _Die Propheten in ihrer urspruenglichen Form_, pp. 1, 6. This work is a valuable investigation of the oldest form of the poetic compositions of the Semites.

[344] The fifth and sixth tablets of the series. It is probable that several editions were prepared,--some wholly Babylonian, others bilingual.

[345] Haupt, _Akkadische und Sumerische Keilschrifttexte_, p. 83. col. I. ll. 1-10.

[346] Wherever feasible, the Babylonian name of the demon will be used in the translations.

[347] Our word 'nightmare' still embodies the same ancient view of the cause of bad dreams as that found among the Babylonians.

[348] See above, p. 182.

[349] IV R. pl. 5.

[350] See Perrot and Chiplez, _History of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria_, i. 61, 62; ii. 81 for illustrations.

[351] IV R. 2, col. v. ll. 30-60.

[352] The god of humanity. The phrase is equivalent to saying that the spirits are hostile to mankind.

[353] Literally, 'to their second time,' _i.e._, repeat 'seven are they.'

[354] See Hopkins, _The Holy Numbers in the Rig-Veda_ (Oriental Studies), pp. 144-147.

[355] IV R. 15, col. ll. 21 _seq._

[356] See chapter xi.

[357] For the general views connected with the evil eye among all nations, see Elworthy's recent volume, _The Evil Eye_. (London, 1896.)

[358] For illustrations taken from various nations, see Fraser, _The Golden Bough_, ii. 9-12; ii. 85-89.

[359] See for illustrations of similar practices among Egyptians and Greeks, Budge, _Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great_ (London, 1896), pp. xii-xvii.

[360] Mr. L. W. King describes (_Zeits. fuer Assyr._ xl. 50-62) interesting fragments of the Dibbarra (or 'plague-god') legend found on tablets which were evidently intended to be hung up. Mr. King suggests that such tablets were hung up in the houses of the Babylonians whenever a plague broke out. One is reminded of the _mezuzoth_, the metallic or wooden cases, attached to the doorposts of their houses by the Jews, and which originally served a similar purpose.

[361] Tallqvist, _Assyr. Beschwoerungsserie Maklu_, p. 115, suggests that the 'veiled bride' may be a name of some goddess of the night. This is improbable. It sounds more like a direct personification of the night, for which an epithet as 'veiled bride' seems appropriate. The name may have arisen in consequence of mythological conceptions affecting the relationship between day and night.

[362] A magic potion compounded of this plant. 'Maklu' series, i. ll. 8-12.

[363] 'Maklu' series, ii. ll. 148-168.

[364] See Relsner, _Sumerisch-Babylonische Hymnen_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 15.

[365] See p. 137.

[366] Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, p. 352. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, i. 508-596. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. 383 _seq._ See also the article "Hestia" in Roscher's _Ausfuehrliches Lexikon der Griechischen und Roemischen Mythologie_.

[367] 'Maklu' series, ii. ll. 1-17.

[368] A reference to the sacred action of the fire in the burnt offerings.

[369] A favorite title of several gods, Bel, Sin, etc., that emphasizes their strength.

[370] Here the seeker for help inserts his name.

[371] Here the names of special deities are to be inserted.

[372] See above, Nusku, p. 220.

[373] See p. 67.

[374] A form of Nusku, according to Tallqvist, _Assyr. Beschwoer._ p. 146. It would be more accurate to say a form of Ninib. See p. 92.

[375] See p. 91.

[376] King, _Babylonian Magic_, p. 3.

[377] Humanity.

[378] The reference is to the formal lamentations on the occasion of the death of any one. The moon-god, having disappeared, is bewailed as though dead.

[379] _I.e._, under all conditions and at all times.

[380] The reading Naru is not altogether certain, but probable. See Tallqvist, _Assyr. Beschwoer._ pp. 131, 132, whose suggestion, however, that Naru may be a female deity, is not acceptable. _Elitti_ is probably a scribal error.

[381] See above p. 103.

[382] Tallqvist, I. l. 38.

[383] See above, p. 254.

[384] To bewitch me.

[385] The witch.

[386] From which he suffers through the witches.

[387] The identification of the many herbs mentioned in the texts is as yet impossible. The subject awaits investigation at the hands of one versed in botanical lore.

[388] _I.e._, be ineffective.

[389] _I.e._, the gods presiding over the watches.

[390] Her words dissolve like wax and honey.

[391] Supposed to be situated at the northern point of the heavens.

[392] The vault of heaven was pictured as having two gates.

[393] So that the witch cannot leave her habitation.

[394] With the order 'to cast the lock,' etc.

[395] To prevent her from uttering her charms.

[396] The following four lines constitute the incantation.

[397] _I.e._, the witches.

[398] See above, p. 278, where one has been given.

[399] Maklu, I. 122-143.

[400] The fiery element belongs to all three divisions of the universe,--to heaven, earth, and water.

[401] Maklu, III. ll. 89-103.

[402] Many of the seals used by the Babylonians were of white stone or bone.

[403] Zimmern's edition, pp. 25-29.

[404] _I.e._, the evil word.

[405] His protecting deity has deserted him.

[406] Of his body.

[407] _I.e._, whoever may have invoked the evil demon to settle upon him.

[408] The translation of these lines follows in all but some minor passages the correct one given by Sayce, _Hibbert Lectures_, p. 446.

[409] Of the sick man.

[410] Zimmern, _Die Beschwoerungstafeln Shurpu_, pp. 5, 6.

[411] In mercantile transactions.

[412] _I.e._, lied.

[413] _I.e._, did he say one thing, but mean the contrary?

[414] Zimmern, _ib._ pp. 13-20.

[415] For details as to the manner in which this editing was done, see King's admirable remarks in the Introduction to his _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_, pp. xx-xxiv.