Chapter XV: Sea Weeds (2)

The genus _Phyllophora_ contains a few British weeds with a stiff, membranous frond, bearing leaf-like appendages, and supported on a stalk. The tetraspores are contained in external wart-like swellings. The commonest species is _P. membranifolia_, the fronds of which are divided into wedge-shaped segments, and grow in tufts from an expanding root. The spores are contained in stalked sporangia, and the tetraspores are near the centres of the segments. Another species--_P. rubens_--has a shorter stem, and grows in deep and shady rock pools. Its fronds are densely tufted; and, as the plant grows, new series of segments are formed at the tips of the older ones. A third species (_P. palmettoides_) has a very bright-red frond and an expanded root.

The order _Rhodymeniaceæ_ includes a number of red or purple sea weeds with flat or thread-like unjointed, cellular fronds, the surface cells forming a continuous coating. The spores are lodged in external conceptacles, and are at first arranged in beaded threads. The tetraspores are either distributed among the surface cells, collected in clusters, or situated in special leaflets.

The typical genus (_Rhodymenia_) contains two red, membranous weeds, the commoner of which is _R. palmata_ (Plate VIII.), so common on the Scottish and Irish coasts, where it forms an important article of diet, and is known as the Dulse or Dillisk. It is also widely distributed over the English coasts. Its broad, fleshy fronds are divided into finger-like lobes, and are either sessile or supported on a stalk that proceeds from a small discoid root. The frond is very variable in form, being sometimes divided into very narrow segments, and sometimes quite undivided. One variety has a number of small stalked leaflets on its margin (see Plate VIII.); and another is very narrow, with wedge-shaped irregular lobes. _R. palmetta_ is a smaller and less common species that grows on rocks and large weeds in deep water. The tetraspores form crimson patches on the tips of the lobes.

_Maugeria_ (_Delesseria_) _sanguinea_ (Plate VIII.) is a large and beautiful weed, of a blood-red colour, that grows in the lower rock pools or beyond low-water mark, under the shade of high rocks or hidden by the olive tangles. Its frond is thin and membranous, with a well-defined midrib. The spores are contained in globular stalked conceptacles, usually on one side of the midrib; and the tetraspores may be seen in pod-like leaflets attached to the bare midrib during the winter.

Passing over some of the rarer membranaceous _Rhodymeniaceæ_, we come to the beautiful _Plocamium_, distinguished by its linear compressed crimson fronds, which are pinnate, with comb-like teeth, the branchlets being alternately arranged on either side in threes and fours. The spores are on radiating threads, in globular conceptacles; and the tetraspores are in the outer divisions of the frond. We have only one species of this beautiful genus, and that is _P. coccineum_, which is of such a brilliant colour that it is always a favourite with collectors.

Our last example of the order is _Cordylecladia_ (_Gracilaria_) _erecta_, with threadlike, cartilaginous frond, irregularly branched and cellular in structure. The fronds arise from a disc-like root; and bear spores in thickly-clustered spherical conceptacles, and tetraspores in lanceolate pods at the tips of the branches, both in the winter. It is a small weed, and grows principally on sand-covered rocks near low-water mark.

The order _Sphærococcoideæ_ contains red or purple sea weeds with unjointed cartilaginous or membranaceous fronds, composed of many-sided, elongated cells, with spores in necklace-like strings, lodged in external conceptacles. The typical genus (_Sphærococcus_) contains the Buck’s-horn sea weed which grows at and beyond low-water mark on the south and west coasts, where it is sometimes washed up on the beach during storms. Its fronds are flattened and two-edged, freely branched, and the upper branches are repeatedly forked, and terminate in fan-shaped, cleft branchlets. Both branches and branchlets are fringed with slender cilia, in which the spores are embedded. It is a handsome weed, of a bright-red colour and a somewhat coral-like form.

Allied to this is _Gelidium corneum_, with flattened, horny fronds, repeatedly pinnate, with the smallest branchlets obtuse and narrower at the base. The spores are contained in conceptacles near the extremities of the branchlets, and the tetraspores are imbedded in club-shaped branchlets. There are a large number of varieties of this species, differing in form, size, and the mode of branching of the fronds. The size varies from one to five or six inches, and the colour is red or reddish green.

In the genus _Gracilaria_ the frond is thick and horny, and the surface cells are very small, while the central ones are large. The spores, formed on necklace-like threads, are enclosed in sessile conceptacles along the branches, and the tetraspores are imbedded among the surface cells of the fronds. The only common species is _G. confervoides_, with cylindrical cartilaginous fronds bearing long thread-like branches, sometimes reaching a length of two feet. The spore conceptacles are situated on the slender branches, giving them a knotted or beaded appearance. The colour is a dark purple, which rapidly fades when the weed is placed in fresh water or left exposed to the air. Two other species--_G. multipartita_ and _G. compressa_--are rare.

_Calliblepharis ciliata_, perhaps more commonly known as _Rhodymenia ciliata_, has a branching root, short round stem, and a broad, crisp frond that is generally ciliated. Sometimes the frond is simple and lanceolate, with small leaf-like appendages on its edge; and sometimes it is deeply cleft. The spores are arranged in beaded threads in sessile conceptacles on the marginal leaflets. Another species of the same genus (_C. jubata_) is very similar in structure, but is of a duller-red colour, gradually changing to olive green at the tips; and it has its tetraspores in the cilia only, while in _C. ciliata_ they are collected in patches in all parts of the frond. Both species grow in deep water, and are frequently washed up during storms.

The large genus _Nitophyllum_ contains some beautiful rose-red sea weeds, with irregularly cleft membranaceous fronds, either veinless, or with a few indistinctly visible veins only at the base. The spores are in rounded sessile conceptacles scattered on the surface of the frond; and the tetraspores occur in clusters similarly scattered.

One of the species--_N. laceratum_--so called from the torn and jagged appearance of the frond, is represented on Plate VII. The fronds are attached to a disc-like root, and are very variable in form, being sometimes so narrow as to appear almost threadlike. The plant grows on rocks and large weeds in the lower rock pools and in deep water. In the same genus we have _N. punctatum_, with broad pink fronds, dotted all over with spore-conceptacles and dark-red clusters of tetraspores; also a few other less common species that are seldom seen except after storms, as they grow almost exclusively in deep water.

The genus _Delesseria_ contains some beautiful rose-coloured and reddish-brown weeds with delicate, leaf-like, symmetrical fronds, each of which has a darker midrib from which issue transverse veins. The spores are arranged like minute necklaces, and are contained in sessile conceptacles either on the midrib of the frond or on leaflets that grow from the midrib. The tetraspores are in clusters which are scattered over the frond or on its leaflets. The algæ of this genus are seldom found growing between the tide-marks, as they generally thrive in deep water, but splendid specimens are often washed up on the beach during storms, especially on the south and south-west coasts.

Among these we may specially mention _D. alata_, known popularly as the Winged Delesseria, with a dark-red, forked frond, consisting of a strong midrib, bordered by a wing-like lamina of very variable width, supported by opposite veins. In this species the clusters of tetraspores are arranged on each side of the midrib or special leaflets near the tips of the frond. _D. sinuosa_ is a less common weed, with a disc-like root and an oblong, cleft and toothed frond, and tetraspores in leaflets growing from its margin. Another species--_D. hypoglossum_--is characterised by the leaflets of the midrib bearing still smaller leaflets in the same manner.

We have already referred (p. 366) to a sea weed commonly known as the Dock-leaved Delesseria, the scientific name of which is _Maugeria_ (_Delesseria_) _sanguinea_. This plant was once included in the present order, but has been removed on account of the different structure of its fruit.

Our next order is the interesting one containing the coral-like weeds, some of which are so common and so conspicuous in the rock pools. The order is known as the _Corallinaceæ_, and all its species secrete carbonate of lime, which hides their vegetable structure and gives them more the appearance of stony corals.

The typical genus (_Corallina_) includes two weeds with jointed pinnate fronds, and spore-conceptacles at the tips of the branches with a terminal pore.

These and the allied sea weeds are very unlike plants in their general nature, their stony covering of carbonate of lime hiding all traces of the delicate cellular structure so characteristic of the various forms of vegetable life, and especially those of aquatic or marine habit. If, however, the weed is put into dilute hydrochloric (muriatic) acid the calcareous matter will be completely dissolved in a minute or two, with evolution of bubbles of carbonic acid gas; and if a portion of the frond be then examined in a drop of water under the microscope, the cellular structure referred to will be seen as well as in any other weed. Another characteristic of the plant, or rather of the carbonate of lime which it secretes, is its property of becoming intensely luminous when held in a very hot flame. Thus if a tuft of coralline be held in the flame of a Bunsen burner, it will glow so brilliantly as to remind us of the lime light. Further, if we examine the plant in its natural state, we find that the carbonate of lime is not secreted uniformly in all parts, but that the nodes of the jointed frond are free from the stony deposit, and are therefore flexible.

Our commonest species--_C. officinalis_--may be found in almost every rock pool between the tide-marks, growing on rocks, shells, and other weeds. The joints of the stem and branches are cylindrical or somewhat wedge-shaped, while those of the branchlets are linear; and the colour varies from a dark purple to white, the former prevailing in the deep and shady pools and the depth of tint decreasing according to the amount of exposure to the bleaching action of the sun.

A second species (_C. squamata_) is very similar in growth and habit, but is much less common, and is confined to the neighbourhood of low-water mark. It may be distinguished from the last by the form of the segments, which are short and globose in the lower portions of the stem, and become broader and more flattened towards the tips of the branches.

Another genus--_Jania_--contains a few coralline weeds that are somewhat like _Corallina_, but are of a more slender habit and smaller, and have a moss-like appearance. They may be distinguished by the _forked_ branching of the slender frond, and by the position of the conceptacles in the axils of the branches, and not at the tips. _J. rubens_ is a very common red species that grows in tufts on other weeds. It has cylindrical segments, longer towards the tips of the branches; while another and less common one (_J. corniculata_), found principally on the south coasts, has flattened segments except in the branchlets.

A third genus of the order--_Melobesia_--contains a very peculiar group of algæ that would certainly never be regarded as plants by those who did not know them. They are apparently mere solid incrustations of calcareous matter, without any jointed structure, and often of very irregular form, covering the surfaces of rocks, shells, or weeds. They are of varying colours, some prevailing tints being dark purple, lilac, rose, and yellow; and they are equally variable in form, some being decidedly lichen-like, some resembling fungoid masses, and others consisting of superimposed leaf-like layers. They are not weeds to be pressed for the collector's album, but require storing in boxes or trays like sea shells. As in the case of the branched corallines, the hidden vegetable structure may be revealed by dissolving away the carbonate of lime; and the spore-conceptacles, with terminal pores, may be seen scattered irregularly over the surface.

The order _Laurenciaceæ_ contains some beautiful pink, red, and purple weeds with round or flattened branching fronds. They may be known by the disposition of the tetraspores, which are irregularly scattered over the branches; and by the pear-shaped spores in rounded capsules. The typical genus (_Laurencia_) includes an abundant weed (_L. pinnatifida_) which was formerly eaten in parts of Scotland, where it is known as the Pepper Dulse on account of its peppery taste. It is found in the tide pools on many parts of the coast, and varies much in size, form, and colour according to the situation in which it grows. The plants which are exposed to the air at low tide are usually small, and of a pale brown colour, while those found in the permanent rock pools at or near low-water mark are larger and dark brown or purple. The fronds are flat and cartilaginous, with stout branches bearing alternate divided branchlets, which are blunt at the tips. The stem itself is unbranched. The spores are pear-shaped, in oval cells; and the tetraspores are irregularly distributed near the tips of the branches.

Another common species, known as the Tufted Laurencia (_L. cæspitosa_), is very similar to the last mentioned, and is not easily distinguished from it. It is, however, of a bushy habit, while _L. pinnatifida_ is flat, and its fronds are less firm. This species grows on rocks and stones between the tide-marks, and is variegated in colour from a pale green to a purple.

A third species--the Obtuse Laurencia (_L. obtusa_)--is widely distributed on our coasts, and may be known by its thread-like bipinnate fronds with short blunt branchlets, cup-shaped at the tips. It is parasitic on various other weeds.

The genus _Lomentaria_ includes a few weeds with tubular fronds that are constricted at intervals, and divided internally by transverse membranous septa. The spores are pear-shaped and lodged in spherical cells; and the tetraspores are scattered on the surface of the branches. One species called the salt-wort (_L. kaliformis_) is widely distributed. Its colour is pink, sometimes yellowish, and it grows on rocks or stones, and sometimes on other weeds. It may always be known by its spherical fruit, without any visible opening, containing crimson pear-shaped spores. Another species (_L. ovalis_), found on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, may be recognised by its _solid_ branched frond and little oval leaf-like branchlets, which are hollow, jointed, and divided by partitions internally.

The one remaining order of the red-spored sea weeds is the _Rhodomelaceæ_, which has either a jointed or a many-tubed axis, and the surface divided up into little definite areas. The fronds are either leafy or thread-like, and the prevailing colours are red, reddish brown, and purple. The spores are pear-shaped, and occupy the terminal cells of tufted threads in external, globular, or rounded conceptacles; and the tetraspores are lodged in special receptacles, or in special modified branchlets. The order contains some of our most beautiful weeds, while some of its members are of a very dark colour and unattractive form.

The typical genus--_Rhodomela_--contains two British species with dark-red, cartilaginous fronds, cylindrical, unjointed, and irregularly branched; and the tetraspores imbedded in the tips of the slender branchlets. The name of the genus signifies ‘red-black,’ and is applied on account of the tendency of the dark-red fronds to turn black when dried.

_R. subfusca_ is very common on all our coasts. It has rigid fronds, irregularly branched; and is in its best condition during the summer. The other species--_R. lycopodioides_--has long undivided branches with thickly-set and freely-divided branchlets.

When turning over the fronds of different species of the larger olive weeds we commonly find them more or less clothed with tufts of filamentous plants, sometimes small and delicate, and sometimes larger and of more robust growth, varying in colour from a purplish brown to a dark violet, and the articulated filaments more or less distinctly striated with parallel lines. These weeds belong to the genus _Polysiphonia_, and derive their generic name from the fact that the threadlike fronds are composed of several parallel tubes. The surface cells are also arranged in regular _transverse_ rows, and it is this which gives rise to the striated appearance above referred to.

Over twenty species of _Polysiphonia_ are to be found on our shores, where they exist at all levels between the tide-marks. They are distinguished from one another partly by their general form and mode of growth, and also by the number of tubes in their threadlike fronds.

Although they would not always be considered as lovely weeds and are often anything but beautiful when dried and mounted, yet in their fresh condition they are generally pretty objects, and their microscopic structure is particularly interesting on account of the beautiful and symmetrical arrangement of their siphons and tubes.

If the reader is the fortunate possessor of a compound microscope, it will amply repay him to make transverse sections of the fronds for examination. A short length of the frond should be inserted into a slit cut in a piece of carrot or elder pith; and, while thus supported, very thin transverse sections may be easily cut with a sharp razor, care being taken to keep both razor and object very wet during the process. Allow the sections to fall into a vessel of water as they are cut, and then select the thinnest for examination, mounting them in a drop of water in the usual way.

Specimens in fruit should always be obtained when possible, so that the nature of the fructification may be observed. Two kinds of spores may be seen in each species, but, as is usually the case with the red sea weeds, on different plants. Some are small pear-shaped bodies, enclosed in oval cells at the tips of the fronds; and the others are arranged in clusters of four in swollen parts of the threads.

The commonest species is _P. fastigiata_, which may be found in abundance as bushy brownish tufts on the fronds of _Fucus nodosus_ (p. 386). A transverse section of this weed is a very beautiful microscopic object. It resembles a wheel, with a dark centre to the nave, and several spokes enclosing about sixteen regularly arranged tubes. The swollen tips of fronds should also be examined for the urn-shaped cells containing the spores; and if a gentle pressure be applied to the cover-glass with a needle, the little pear-shaped spores may be expelled. The other kind of spores may be found near the bases of the branches on different plants.

Among other species we may briefly mention--_P. parasitica_, sometimes found near low-water mark, growing in little feathery tufts of a bright-red colour, on the lichen-like _Melobesia_ or on corallines. It has seven or eight parallel siphons in its fronds, all regularly arranged round a small central space.

_P. Brodiæi_ is moderately common on our coasts. This is a large brown species, with seven siphons surrounded by a thick cellular layer which conceals the articulations and is too opaque to allow the siphons to be seen without dissection. Its branches, which are alternate, bear short tufts of delicate branchlets.

_P. byssoides_, so called on account of the pink filaments that fringe the fronds, has also seven siphons. It is a large and beautiful weed, moderately common on our coasts, of a bright-red colour, with conspicuous fructification. The branches are alternate, and the branchlets are clothed with the byssoid filaments above referred to.

_P. violacea_ is of a reddish-brown colour, with long silky alternate branches, and four siphons. It receives its specific name from the fact that it turns to a violet colour when dried.

_P. nigrescens_ has, as the specific name implies, blackish fronds, and these are freely branched. The tubes, about twenty in number, are flat, and are arranged round a large central space.

Our last example--_P. atro-rubescens_--is of a dark reddish-brown colour, with rigid and densely-tufted fronds. It has twelve tubes, arranged _spirally_ round a central cavity. It is common in the lower rock pools of some coasts.

In the same order we have the genus _Chondria_, so called on account of the cartilaginous nature of its thread-like fronds. These are pinnately branched, and the club-shaped branchlets taper below. The main stem is jointed and contains many siphons. The genus includes a common species (_C. dasyphylla_), with thick fronds, that is found in shallow sandy pools, where it grows on pebbles, shells, or on other weeds, the colour varying from pink to a dark purple. _C. tenuissima_ is a very similar weed, but may be distinguished by its more slender growth, and by its long, rod-like simple branches, clothed with slender, bristle-like branchlets that taper from the middle towards both ends.

On the northern coasts of Britain we may meet with _Odonthalia dentata_, the blood-red fronds of which are tufted, and arise from a hard, disc-like root. Each frond projects from the axil of a tooth-like projection of the main stem, and is deeply pinnatifid, with a distinct midrib in the lower part, and thin and membranaceous towards the tip. The pinna are dentate, and the spores are in stalked, oval conceptacles in the axils of the pinnæ. The tetraspores are similarly situated in stalked, lanceolate leaflets.

The weeds of the genus _Rytiphlæa_ are very similar to some of the _Polysiphonia_, the axis of the frond being jointed and transversely striped, but the nodes are less distinct and are not constricted. They are shrub-like weeds, with tufted spores in oval, sessile conceptacles; and tetraspores in spindle-shaped branchlets or in little pod-like leaflets. The principal British species are:--

_R. pinastroides_, a much-branched and shrub-like weed, of a dull-red colour, which turns black when the plant is dried. The branches have rigid, hooked branchlets arranged in such a manner as to give a combed appearance. This species occurs on the south coast, and is in its prime in very early spring. It is often rendered peculiarly interesting by the colonies of zoophytes and the patches of _Melobesia_ with which it is more or less covered.

_R. fruticulosa_ is another shrubby species, with irregularly branched, interlacing stems. It is to be found in the rock pools of the south and west coasts, and is of a deep-purple colour in the deeper shady pools, but varying to a yellowish tint where exposed to the full light of the sun. The whole of the frond is covered with hooked branchlets, and the weed is peculiar for the fact that, when removed from the rock pool, little glistening beads of water remain attached to the tips of the terminal branches. The tetraspores are situated in distorted branchlets.

_R. thuyoides_ has creeping, fibrous roots, from which arise the erect stems of purple-brown, branched fronds with short spine-like branchlets. It occurs in the shallower rock pools, where it grows attached to rocks or to other weeds. It is in its best condition during the summer, when we may see its oval spore-conceptacles and the tetraspores in distorted branchlets.

The last genus of the _Rhodomelaceæ_ is _Dasya_, which contains some very graceful and brightly-coloured weeds that are found principally on our south and west coasts. In these the fronds are thread-like or flattened, branched, and without visible joints. The main stem contains many tubes, but the tubular structure is hidden by the outer layer of cells; and the branchlets, which are slender, one-tubed, and jointed, bear little lanceolate pods that contain the tetraspores.

_D. ocellata_ has small tufted fronds, about two or three inches long, attached to a small discoid root. The main stems are densely covered with slender, forked branchlets, those at the tips being clustered in such a manner as to recall the eye-like marks of the peacock’s tail. It grows principally on the mud-covered rocks beyond low-water mark, and is not by any means a common weed. Another species--_D. arbuscula_--is somewhat plentiful on parts of the Scottish and Irish coasts, but comparatively rare in South Britain. It has a small disc-like root, and stems thickly clothed with short branchlets. The spore-conceptacles are tapering, on short stalks, and the tetraspores are contained in pointed pods on the branchlets. The scarlet Dasya (_D. coccinea_) may be commonly seen at and beyond low-water mark during late summer, at which time splendid specimens may also be found on the beach after storms. Its stem is thick, proceeding from a discoid root, and is clothed with hair-like filaments; and the branches bear short, slender branchlets that give them a feathery appearance. The tetraspores are contained in elongated, pointed, and stalked pods. There are three other species on the British list, but they are not common weeds.

The last of the three great groups into which the sea weeds are divided is the _Melanospermeæ_, or olive-spored algæ, the different species of which are generally very readily distinguished by their olive-green or olive-brown colour, for the whole plant, as well as the spores, contains a dark olive colouring matter, in addition to the chlorophyll which is always present.

These weeds are often very large, frequently attaining a length of twenty feet or more in our seas, and from eighty to a hundred feet in warmer parts; and, being also extremely abundant almost everywhere, they form a most conspicuous feature of the shore. They usually grow on rocks and stones, from high-water mark to moderately deep water, but some of the smaller species are pseudo-parasitic on other algæ.

Their form is most varied. Some are minute filamentous plants, consisting only of slender jointed threads, and others are mere shapeless masses; but many of the larger species exhibit a great differentiation of form, having root-like and stem-like structures, and expansions that resemble leaves. The latter, too, often have large vesicles that contain air, sometimes arranged singly along the median line of the frond, or in lateral pairs, or a single vesicle at the base of each segment of the thallus.

The air vesicles, of course, serve to buoy up the plant when it is submerged, thus enabling the light to penetrate between its fronds to lower portions; and when the plants have been wrenched from their moorings by the force of the waves, they immediately rise to the surface and are drifted on to the shore or accumulate in the eddies of the surface currents. In this way immense masses of floating weeds are formed, the most remarkable being that of the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic.

Like other algæ, the melanospores grow by a continued process of cell-division, and when portions of the thallus are worn away during stormy weather, they are renewed by the same process.

The cell-walls of many species are very mucilaginous, the gelatinous covering being either the result of the degeneration of the cell-walls themselves, or the secretion of special glands.

As with the last division, the reproduction of the melanospores may be asexual or sexual. The asexual spores, which are not motile, are formed in some of the surface cells of the thallus. The male and female sexual organs, called respectively the _antheridia_ and the _oogonia_, are produced in cavities on special portions of the thallus, both kinds being often formed in the same cavity or depression. The latter contains from one to eight little bodies called _oospheres_. These escape and float passively away when the wall of the oogonia ruptures. The antheridia are also discharged whole, but the minute fertilising elements (_antherozoids_), which are eventually set free from them, swarm round the oospheres, being attracted by the latter. Soon one of the antherozoids enters the oosphere, and from that moment all attraction ceases, the remainder of the antherozoids floating passively away; and the oosphere, previously naked and barren, now develops a cell-wall, and becomes the fertile progenitor of a new plant.

Starting with the lowest of the melanospores, we first deal with the order _Ectocarpaceæ_, which is characterised by olive, thread-like, jointed fronds, with spores on the branchlets or embedded in their substance; two kinds of spores often existing in the same plant.

The typical genus (_Ectocarpus_) contains many British species, though several of them are rare. They are soft and flexible weeds, generally of a dull olive colour, with slimy, tubular fronds, and grow in tufts on other weeds or on mud-covered rocks. Spores of various shapes are scattered over the fronds, and are also contained in pod-like bodies formed of the branchlets. This latter feature is, perhaps, the best distinguishing characteristic of the genus, but it is not an easy matter to identify the several species it contains.

_E. tomentosus_ is very commonly found on _Fucus_ and other weeds, where it forms matted tufts of slender threads of a yellowish-brown colour. The threads are clothed with transparent cilia, and together form a dense, spongy mass. The spores are contained in narrow pods supported on short stalks. _E. littoralis_ is another common species, of a very unattractive appearance. It grows in matted tufts on other weeds, on rocks, mud, or any submerged object, and its spores are contained in linear swellings of the branches. This species thrives well in brackish water, and may be seen far up certain tidal rivers.

Among the other species we may briefly mention _E. granulosus_, an abundant and beautiful weed that grows in feathery tufts on rocks and weeds, with elliptical, stalkless pods, quite visible to the naked eye, freely distributed over the opposite branchlets; _E. siliculosus_, a pale olive, parasitic species with lanceolate stalked pods, pointed and striped; _E. sphærophorus_, a small, soft, brownish-yellow species, with dense matted branches and spherical pods arranged either opposite to one another or to a branchlet; and _E. Mertensii_, a pretty species that grows on muddy rocks, freely branched but not matted, and having pods enclosed by the branchlets. The last species is rare, but may be found in Cawsand Bay and a few other localities about Plymouth Sound. The genus includes several other species, but all these are more or less rare.

In the genus _Myriotrichia_ we have two parasitic species with fragile, hair-like, jointed fronds bearing simple straight branches that are covered with transparent fibres. In these the spore-cases are rounded and transparent, and arranged along the main threads; and the dark olive spores are readily visible within. In _M. filiformis_ the branchlets are short, and clustered at intervals, thus giving a somewhat knotted appearance to the threads, and both branches and branchlets are covered with long fibres. The other species--_M. clavæformis_--is very similar, but may be distinguished by the arrangement of the branchlets, which are not clustered at intervals, but are distributed regularly, and are longer towards the tip of the frond, giving the appearance of minute fox-brushes.

The genus _Sphacelaria_ contains several British weeds with rigid branched and jointed fronds, most easily distinguished by the tips of the branches, which are flattened, contain a granular mass, and have a withered appearance. _S. cirrhosa_ forms hair-like tufts of slender fibres with closely-set branches on small weeds, the tufts varying from a quarter of an inch to over an inch in length. The fronds are naked at the base, and the spore-cases, which are globular, are arranged on the branches. _S. filicina_ is, as its name implies, of a fern-like appearance, but is very variable in form. Its fronds vary from one to three inches in length, and the spores are arranged singly in the axils of the branchlets. Excluding some rarer species we mention one other example--the broom-like _S. scoparia_, the frond of which is coarse and very rigid, of a dark-brown colour, two or three inches long, with the lower portion clothed by woolly fibres. Its spores are arranged in clusters in the axils of the branchlets.

The last genus of the _Ectocarpaceæ_ is _Cladostephus_, which grows in dark-green tufts, usually five or six inches long, in the deeper tide pools. The fronds are cylindrical, branched, inarticulate, and rigid; and the branchlets, which are short and jointed, are arranged in whorls. The spores are situated in short accessory branchlets, or in masses at the tips of the ordinary branchlets. _C. verticillatus_ is a very common species, the whorled branchlets of which are deciduous in winter, when the accessory branchlets that bear spores begin to develop. _C. spongiosus_ is densely clothed with branchlets, and is of a bushy habit, with a very spongy feeling. It is by some regarded as a variety of _C. verticillatus_.

The order _Chordariaceæ_ is characterised by a compound gelatinous or cartilaginous frond, consisting of interlacing horizontal and vertical threads. The spores are not external as in the _Ectocarpaceæ_, but contained in cells in the substance of the frond. In the typical genus the frond has a cylindrical, branched, cartilaginous axis, surrounded by whorls of club-shaped threads and slender gelatinous fibres. We have only one common species--_Chordaria flagelliformis,_ the fronds of which are from four to twenty inches long, of uniform thickness throughout, with long, glistening, soft and slimy branches among which the spores are disposed. It may be found in rock pools at almost all levels.

In the genus _Elachista_ there are some very small and peculiar weeds that are almost sure to be overlooked by inexperienced collectors. They are parasitic, and are composed of two kinds of jointed threads, the inner of which are forked and combined into a tubercle, while the outer are simple and radiate from the tubercle. The spores are attached to the inner threads. The largest species (_E. fucicola_) is parasitic on _Fucus_, growing in brush-like tufts about an inch long. Some of the smaller ones are mere star-like tufts of no attractive appearance, and would be disregarded as troublesome parasites by most young collectors, but all of them are very interesting objects for the microscope.

The members of the genus _Myrionema_ are similarly liable to be neglected, for they are minute parasites appearing only as decaying spots on larger weeds, but nevertheless form interesting studies for the microscope. Like the last group, they have two sets of jointed fibres, the inner being branched, and spread over the surface of the plant on which it grows, while the outer are simple and stand out at right angles, but all are united into a rounded mass by a gelatinous substance. Perhaps the best known is _M. strangulans_, which infests _Ulva_ and _Enteromorpha_, producing the appearance of small decaying spots.

In the genus _Leathesia_ we have other unattractive weeds, the jointed and forked threads of which are all united together into tuber-like fronds that are common on rocks and weeds between the tide-marks. There are three or four species, all similar in general appearance, with the spores distributed among the outer threads. These weeds cannot be satisfactorily pressed and dried in the usual way, and should be preserved in formaldehyde or dilute spirit, when they will always be available for microscopic examination.

The last genus of the _Chordariaceæ_ is _Mesogloia_, so called because the central axis of loosely-packed, interlacing threads is covered with gelatinous substance. Around this axis there are radiating, forked threads which are tipped with clubbed and beaded fibres among which the spores are distributed. One species (_M. vermicularis_), common in most rock pools, is of a wormlike form, of a dirty olive or yellow colour, with soft, elastic fronds growing in tufts from one to two feet long. _M. virescens_, also a common species, is of a pale greenish or olive colour, and very soft and slimy. Its stem is round and slender, freely branched, with short, simple branchlets.

The order _Dictyotaceæ_ contains the olive weeds with inarticulate fronds, and superficial spores disposed in definite lines or spots. In the typical genus (_Dictyota_) the frond is flat and forked, somewhat ulva-like and ribless, and the spores are produced in little superficial discs just beneath the cuticle. There is only one British species--_D. dichotoma_--but that is a very common one, and it assumes a great variety of forms as regards the shape and division of its fronds according to the situation in which it grows, the fronds being broadest and strongest in the deepest water. The root is covered with woolly fibres, and the frond is regularly forked.

One of the most interesting algæ of this order is the Turkey-feather Laver (_Padina pavonia_), which is the only British representative of its genus (see Plate VII.). Its very pretty fan-shaped fronds are of a leathery nature, curved, fringed along the upper margin, and marked with concentric lines. They often bear small leaflets, and are partially covered with a powdery substance which renders them beautifully iridescent when in the water. The root has woolly fibres, and the spores are arranged in lines along the upper margin. This weed seems to be confined to the south coast, where it may often be seen in the deeper tide pools; though in some of the sandy bays of the Isle of Wight it may be seen in shallow pools, and even in places left exposed to the air at low tide.

The genus _Zonaria_ contains a British species (_Z. parvula_) that covers the rocks in round patches; and though moderately common is not very frequently seen by collectors on account of the fact that it grows in the deep crevices of rocks at or near low-water mark. Its frond is flat and membranaceous, more or less divided into lobes, without veins, and rather obscurely divided into concentric zones. It is attached to the rock by fibres that proceed from the under surface of the frond, and the spores are arranged in clusters beneath the superficial cells.

_Cutleria multifida_, though not very abundant, is to be found on most of our coasts; but since it grows almost exclusively beyond low-water mark, it should be looked for on the beach after storms, or in the fishermen’s nets. The frond is olive-green, fan-shaped, rather thick, and irregularly divided into forked branches; and it has a beautifully netted surface. The spore-cases may be seen scattered over the surface of the frond as so many black dots, and the antheridia are elongated, cylindrical bodies attached to tufted filaments on all parts of the frond.

In the genus _Stilophora_ the root is discoid; the frond cylindrical, hollow, and branched; and the spores arranged in clusters over the surface. One species (_S. rhizodes_) is occasionally to be seen on the south coast. It is of a yellowish colour, from six to twenty inches long, and may be known by its long thread-like branches, with scattered, forked branchlets, and by the wart-like projections of the stem which contain the spores. This weed is often the source of some disappointment to the collector, for it soon turns to a jelly-like mass when removed from the water, and should therefore be mounted as soon as possible after it has been collected.

The fennel-like _Dictyosiphon fœniculaceus_ is abundant in tide pools, where it may be seen in its best condition during spring and early summer. Its root is a small disc, the frond is tubular, thread-like and branched, and the branches bear hooked branchlets. The spores are naked, and distributed either singly or in clusters over the surface of the frond.

Our next genus--_Punctaria_--contains a few British species with a shield-shaped root, and a flat, membranous, undivided frond, without a midrib, and having the spores disposed as minute dots over the surface. A plantain-like species (_P. plantaginea_) has broad, leathery, lanceolate fronds, of a dark olive-brown colour, usually from six inches to a foot in length. Two other weeds--the broad-leaved _P. latifolia_ of the tide pools, and the slender, tufted _P. tenuissima_, which is parasitic on _Zostera_ and soe algæ, are sometimes regarded as mere varieties of _P. plantaginea_.

In the genus _Asperococcus_ the root is shield-shaped, and the frond is a membranous tubular sac of two distinct layers. The colour is pale green, and the general appearance very similar to that of _Ulva_. The spores are arranged in small oblong clusters which appear as dark dots on the surface of the frond. _A. compressus_ has slightly swollen flat fronds of a linear lanceolate form, tapering below. It grows in deep water, but is often washed up during storms. A second species--_A. Turneri_--has large, puffy, green fronds, contracted at intervals, and grows in tufts on rocks between the tide-marks, being specially partial to muddy shores. The genus also includes the prickly _A. echinatus_, the long, thin fronds of which grow in dense tufts in deep water.

The last genus of the order is _Litosiphon_, a parasitic group characterised by a cylindrical, cartilaginous, unbranched frond, with scattered, naked spores. A very small species (_L. pusillus_) with tufted green fronds grows parasitic on the fronds of _Chorda_ and the stems of _Laminaria_. It is only two or three inches long, has a reticulated surface, and is covered with minute jointed fibres. A still smaller species (_L. laminariæ_), seldom exceeding half an inch in length, forms brown tufts on _Alaria_, and the rounded apex of its frond is covered with minute fibres.

The order _Laminariaceæ_ contains olive, inarticulate algæ, mostly of large size, and generally growing in deep water beyond the tide-marks. Their spores are superficial, either covering the whole surface of the frond or collected into indefinite cloudy patches.

The typical genus (_Laminaria_) is characterised by flat leathery, ribless fronds, either simple or cleft, and supported on a stem which is often very thick and strong. The old laminæ fall off every year, and are replaced by new fronds. The well-known Tangle or Sea Girdle (_L. digitata_), is a very common species on the rocks just beyond low-water mark. It has a very thick, solid, cylindrical stem, and an oblong leathery frond which is entire when young but deeply cleft later. Small specimens may be found just above low-water mark, but fine large ones are commonly washed up on the beach. Although this weed may not be regarded as an acquisition from the collector’s point of view, it will generally repay a careful examination, as it frequently bears rare parasitic species. The other common species are the Furbelows (_L. bulbosa_), known by its flat stem with waved margin, oblong frond cleft into narrow strips, and the hollow bulb or tuber just above the root; and the Sugared Laminaria (_L. saccharina_) characterised by a round solid stem, and a lanceolate, entire, membranous frond. The last species is the one most commonly used by the sea-side cottager as a weather indicator.

SEA-WEEDS

1. Chorda filum
2. Fucus vesiculosus
3. Fucus canaliculatus
4. Delesseria (Maugeria) sanguinea
5. Rhodymenia palmata
6. Chondrus crispus
7. Ulva lactuca]

_Alaria esculenta_ is an edible species known as the Badderlocks in Scotland, and also locally as the Henware, Honeyware, and the Murlins. It has a fibrous root, and a stalked, lanceolate, entire frond with a distinct midrib throughout. The stem is winged with finger-like leaflets, in which the spores are arranged in oblong clusters.

In the genus _Chorda_ the frond is a simple, cylindrical tube, divided internally by numerous transverse membranes, and the spores are distributed over the surface. The commonest species is _C. filum_ (see Plate VIII.), the frond of which is very slimy, and often from ten to twenty feet in length. In its young state it is covered with gelatinous hairs, but these are worn off as the plant develops. A smaller species (_C. lomentaria_) is sometimes found on our shores. Its fronds are constricted at intervals, taper at the tip, and grow in tufts. It is seldom more than a foot long, and is not of a slimy nature.

The _Sporochnaceæ_ have inarticulate, thread-like fronds, and the spores are contained in oblong, stalked receptacles, each of which is crowned with a tuft of slender jointed filaments. The typical genus contains only one British species--_Sporochnus pedunculatus_--and even that is by no means common. It is, however, a very pretty weed of a delicate texture and pale olive-green colour. Its stem is long and slender, pinnately branched, and the branches bear numerous small thread-like tufts.

The same order contains the genus _Desmarestia_, in which the frond is long and narrow, thread-like or flattened, with a tubular jointed thread running through it. Young specimens have marginal tufts of branching filaments. The species decay very rapidly after removal from the water, and should therefore be dried and mounted as quickly as possible. _D. ligulata_, so named from the flat, strap-like frond, is common on all our coasts. It is pinnately branched, and all the branches and branchlets taper towards both ends. _D. viridis_ has a cylindrical, thread-like and freely-divided frond, with opposite branches and branchlets. It occurs more commonly on the northern shores.

The last order of olive-spored weeds is the _Fucaceæ_, some species of which are so abundant between the tide-marks, from high-water to low-water levels, that they form a very important characteristic of our shores. They are mostly large, tough, and leathery weeds, without joints, and the spores are contained in spherical receptacles embedded in the substance of the frond.

In the typical genus--_Fucus_--the root is a conical disc, and the frond flat or compressed and forked. Most of the species are furnished with one-celled air-vessels in the substance of the frond, and these serve to buoy up the plants and keep them more or less erect when submerged. The spore-receptacles are usually embedded near the tips of the branches, but are sometimes borne on special branches or shoots. They are filled with a slimy mucus and contain a network of jointed filaments. The weeds are very hardy, capable of withstanding long exposures to air and sun, and are sometimes to be found _above_ high-water mark, where they are watered only by the spray of the waves for a brief period at intervals of about twelve hours. Although they are not usually looked upon as ornaments in the collector's herbarium, they will repay examination for the tufts of smaller and more beautiful weeds to which they often give attachment and shelter.

Four species are common on our coasts, and these may be readily distinguished by the most cursory examination. The Serrated Wrack (_F. serratus_) has a flat, forked frond with toothed edges and a strong midrib, ranging from one to four feet long, and no air-vessels. The Knotted Wrack (_F. nodosus_--Plate VII.) may be known by its flattened, thick and narrow frond, without a distinct rib, from one to five feet long. The branches are narrow at the base, pointed at the tip, and are jointed to short projections on the main stem; and both these and the main stem have very large oval air-vessels. The spore-receptacles are mounted on slender stalks which arise from projections on the branches, and are of a bright yellow colour when mature. This species does not grow so near to high-water mark as do the others. Another species, the Twin-Bladder Wrack (_F. vesiculosus_--Plate VIII.)--is abundant everywhere along the coast, and is largely used by agriculturists both as manure and as fodder for cattle. The frond is flat, with a distinct midrib, and a non-serrated edge. Air-vessels are not always present, but when they are they usually occur in pairs, one on each side of the midrib, and are globular in form. The spore-receptacles are situated at the tips of the branches, are full of mucus, and are frequently forked. The last of the common species is the Channelled Wrack (_F. canaliculatus_--Plate VIII.), distinguished by a narrow frond, rounded on one side and channelled on the other. It has no midrib or air-vessels, and the fruit is contained in forked receptacles at the tips of the branches. This is the smallest of the genus, and may be found at all levels between the tide-marks. Stunted specimens may also be seen in situations where they are never submerged, but watered only by the spray of the highest tides.

The genus _Himanthalia_ provides us with a single species (_H. lorea_) which is very peculiar on account of the small size of the frond as compared with the enormous dimensions of the spore-receptacles. The young frond is a pear-shaped sac which soon becomes flattened into a hollow disc. This disc then becomes solid, and concave above, and from its centre there arises a bi-forked, strap-like receptacle that often reaches a length of three or four feet, and may be mistaken for the frond of the weed by those who do not take the trouble to examine it. This weed is commonly known as the Sea Thong.

Belonging to the genus _Cystoseira_ we have a few well-known weeds with conical disc-roots, and shrubby fronds with woody stem and alternate branches. The air-cells are in the substance of the frond, and the spore-receptacles at the tips of the branches. One of the species (_C. ericoides_) is of a heath-like habit, with a short, woody stem, and slender branches bearing hooked, leaf-like branchlets. Its air-cells are small, and are arranged singly near the tips of the branches; and the spore-receptacles are cylindrical, with hooked points. This weed is common on the south and west coasts, and may be readily distinguished by the beautiful iridescence it displays when in the water. _C. fibrosa_ is very similar in general form, but is larger, and the air-vesicles are more conspicuous. It is not iridescent when in the water. A third species is named _C. granulata_ from the rough and knobby appearance of the stem, due to numerous oval projections, from some of which spring the slender, much-divided branches. The air-vesicles are arranged in groups of two or three, and the spore-receptacles are at the ends of the branchlets. Our last example is _C. fœniculacea_, found on the south coast only, and readily distinguished by the numerous blunt spines that cover its long branches. The air-vesicles are narrow and pointed, and situated just below the forkings of the branchlets.

We conclude our _résumé_ of the British sea weeds with a short description of the Podded Sea Oak (_Halidrys siliquosa_), which grows in the tide pools from high-water to low-water mark, the specimens inhabiting the shallow pools being only a few inches long, while those that grow in deep water often reach a length of three or four feet. It is an olive, shrub-like weed, with a conical, disc-like root that adheres very firmly to the rock, and a pinnately-branched frond with leaf-like branchlets. The air-vesicles are cylindrical and pod-like, divided internally into about ten cells, and the spores are contained in globular receptacles at the tips of the branchlets.

The young algologist will probably meet with many difficulties in his attempts to classify his sea weeds and name the various species in his collection. In dealing with an unknown weed we strongly recommend him to first determine the order to which it belongs. The genus should next be settled; and then, if possible, the species. It must be remembered, however, that he who has made himself acquainted with the principles of classification has done good work, and that it is far better to be able to arrange the weeds into properly-classified groups than to merely learn the names of the different species without regard to the relations which they bear to one another. The following table will probably assist the reader in the determination of the orders, but it must be remembered that a microscope will often be necessary for the examination of the spores and the minute structure of fronds.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEA WEEDS

=A.= =Chlorospermeæ=--Green-spored weeds. Fronds usually
grass-green, and filamentous or membranous.

1. _Confervaceæ_--Frond thread-like, composed of cylindrical
cells placed end to end. Spores very minute, formed
within the cells.

2. _Ulvaceæ_--Frond grass-green or purple, flat or tubular.
Spores minute, ciliated, formed in the cells of the
frond.

3. _Siphonaceæ_--Frond a single, thread-like, branching cell,
or a spongy mass of many such cells.

=B.= =Rhodospermeæ=--Red-spored weeds. Spores in globular
conceptacles. Tetraspores (four-clustered spores) in
globular or cylindrical cells. Frond red, reddish
brown, or purple.

4. _Ceramiaceæ_--Frond thread-like, jointed, one-siphoned, and
more or less covered with a layer of cortical cells.
Spores grouped in transparent, membranous sacs,
sometimes surrounded by a whorl of short branchlets.

5. _Spyridiaceæ_--Frond thread-like, jointed, one-siphoned,
more or less covered with small cells. Spores formed in
the upper cells of branched, jointed, radiating
threads, enclosed in a cellular membrane in external
conceptacles.

6. _Cryptonemiaceæ_--Frond more or less cartilaginous, composed
of numerous jointed threads compacted by gelatine.
Spores grouped without order in internal cells or in
external conceptacles.

7. _Rhodymeniaceæ_--Frond inarticulate, membranaceous, composed
of polygonal cells, the surface cells forming a
continuous layer. Spores in beaded threads in external
conceptacles.

8. _Wrangeliaceæ_--Frond inarticulate, thread-like, traversed
by a jointed tubular axis. Spores formed in the
terminal cells of clustered, branching, naked threads.

9. _Helminthocladiæ_--Frond cylindrical, gelatinous, composed
of filaments imbedded in gelatine. Spores formed on
branching, radiating threads that are enclosed in the
frond without conceptacles.

10. _Squamariæ_--Frond lichen-like, rooted by under surface,
composed of _vertical_ filaments imbedded in firm
gelatine. Spores in beaded threads in wart-like
projections.

11. _Spongiocarpeæ_--Frond cylindrical, branching,
cartilaginous, composed of netted filaments imbedded in
firm gelatine. Spores large, in radiating clusters in
wart-like excrescences.

12. _Gelidiaceæ_--Frond cartilaginous, inarticulate, composed
of hair-like filaments. Spores attached to slender
threads in internal conceptacles.

13. _Sphærococcoideæ_--Frond leaf-like or thread-like,
inarticulate, cellular. Spores formed in beaded threads
in external conceptacles.

14. _Hapalidiaceæ_--Frond minute, calcareous, composed of a
single layer of cells.

15. _Corallinaceæ_--Frond calcareous. Spores in tufted threads
at the bases of the conceptacles.

16. _Laurenciaceæ_--Frond rounded or flattened, branching,
inarticulate, cellular. Spores in external oval or
globular conceptacles. Tetraspores irregularly
scattered over the branches.