Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's note:

Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).

Text enclosed by curly braces is in superscript
(example: 7{me}).

The original text contains a few letters with diacritical
marks that are not represented in this text version.

The original text includes Greek characters. For this
text version these letters have been replaced with
transliterations.

The following symbols are used in this text version to
represent symbols that can not be presented in any other
way.

[S] represents a Swastika with left-bar facing up.
[Z] represents a Swastika with left-bar facing down.
[Z circle] represents a Swastika inside a circle.
[cross] represents a simple cross (plus-sign form).
[circle] represents a circle.
[U] represents a large U.
[V] represents a large V.
[Y] represents a large Y.
[symbol] represents various symbols.

In the Bibliography section the reader will encounter
numerous vertical bars or "pipes" ( | ). These were
present in the original book. The reason for their
presence is uncertain.

Mismatched/unmatched quotation marks are as in the
original.

Smithsonian Institution. United States National Museum.

THE SWASTIKA,

The Earliest Known Symbol, and Its Migrations; with Observations on the Migration of Certain Industries in Prehistoric Times.

by

THOMAS WILSON,

Curator, Department of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. S. National Museum.

From the Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1894, pages 757-1011, with plates 1-25 and Figures 1-374.

Washington: Government Printing Office. 1896.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Preface 763

I.--DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTION, AND ORIGIN.

Different forms of the cross 765

Names and definitions of the Swastika 768

Symbolism and interpretation 770

Origin and habitat 791

II.--DISPERSION OF THE SWASTIKA.

Extreme Orient 799
Japan 799
Korea 799
China 799
Tibet 802
India 802

Classical Orient 806
Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea, and Persia 806
Phenicia 807
Lycaonia 807
Armenia 807
Caucasus 808
Asia Minor--Troy (Hissarlik) 809
First and Second Cities 810
The Third or Burnt City 811
The Fourth City 813
The Fifth City 818
The Sixth and Seventh Cities 819
Leaden idol of Hissarlik 829
Owl-shaped vases 830
The age of Trojan cities 832

Africa 833
Egypt 833
Naukratis 834
Coptos (Achmim-Panopolis) 834
Algeria 838
Ashantee 838

Classical Occident--Mediterranean 839
Greece, Cyprus, Rhodes, Melos, and Thera 839
Greek fret and Egyptian meander not the same as the
Swastika 839
Swastika in panels 845
Swastikas with four arms crossing at right angles,
ends bent to the right 846
Swastikas with four arms crossing at right angles,
ends bent to the left 847
Swastikas with four arms crossing at other than right
angles, the ends ogee and to the left 848
Meander pattern, with ends bent to the right and left 849
Swastikas of different kinds on the same object 849

Europe 854
Bronze age 854
Etruria and Italy 855
Swiss lake dwellings 861
Germany and Austria 862
Belgium 863
Scandinavia 864
Scotland and Ireland 867
Gallo-Roman period 869
France 869
Anglo-Saxon period 870
Britain 870
Swastika on ancient coins 871
Triskelion, Lycia 871
Triskelion, Sicily 873
Triskelion, Isle of Man 874
Punch marks on Corinthian coins mistaken for Swastikas 875
Swastika on ancient Hindu coins 877
Swastika on coins in Mesembria and Gaza 878
Swastika on Danish gold bracteates 878

United States of America 879
Pre-Columbian times 879
Fains Island and Toco mounds, Tennessee 879
Hopewell Mound, Chillicothe, Ross County, Ohio 888
Mounds in Arkansas 893
North American Indians 894
Kansas 894
Sacs 895
Pueblos 896
Navajoes 897
Pimas 901
Colonial patchwork 901

Central America 902
Nicaragua 902
Yucatan 902
Costa Rica 903

South America 903
Brazil 903
Paraguay 905

III.--FORMS ALLIED TO THE SWASTIKA.

Meanders, ogees, and spirals, bent to the left as well as
to the right 905
Aboriginal American engravings and paintings 906
Designs on shell 906
Ivory-billed woodpecker 907
The triskele, triskelion, or triquetrum 908
The spider 913
The rattlesnake 914
The human face and form 914
Designs on pottery 920
Designs on basketry 924

IV.--THE CROSS AMONG THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

Different forms 926
The cross on objects of shell and copper 926
The cross on pottery 931

Symbolic meanings of the cross 933
The four winds 934
Sun and star symbols 936
Dwellings 936
Dragon fly (Susbeca) 936
Mide', or Shamans 937
Flocks of birds 937
Human forms 938
Maidenhood 939
Shaman's spirit 939
Divers significations 939

Introduction of the cross into America 944

Decorative forms not of the cross, but allied to the
Swastika 946
Color stamps from Mexico and Venezuela 946

V.--SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SWASTIKA. 948

VI.--THE MIGRATION OF SYMBOLS.

Migration of the Swastika 952

Migration of classic symbols 960
The sacred tree of the Assyrians 960
The sacred cone of Mesopotamia 960
The _Crux ansata_, the key of life 961
The winged globe 961
The caduceus 962
The trisula 963
The double-headed eagle on the escutcheon of Austria
and Russia 963
The lion rampant of Belgium 963
Greek art and architecture 964
The Greek fret 965

VII.--PREHISTORIC OBJECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SWASTIKA, FOUND
IN BOTH HEMISPHERES, AND BELIEVED TO HAVE PASSED BY
MIGRATION.

Spindle whorls 966
Europe 967
Switzerland--Lake dwellings 967
Italy 968
Wurtemburg 968
France 968
North America--pre-Columbian times 969
Mexico 970
Central America 971
Nicaragua 971
South America 972
Chiriqui 972
Colombia 972
Peru 972

Bobbins 975
Europe 975
United States 975

VIII.--SIMILAR PREHISTORIC ARTS, INDUSTRIES, AND IMPLEMENTS IN
EUROPE AND AMERICA AS EVIDENCE OF THE MIGRATION OF
CULTURE. 977

CONCLUSION 981

BIBLIOGRAPHY 984

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 997

THE SWASTIKA,

THE EARLIEST KNOWN SYMBOL, AND ITS MIGRATIONS; WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE MIGRATION OF CERTAIN INDUSTRIES IN PREHISTORIC TIMES.

By THOMAS WILSON, _Curator, Department of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. S. National Museum_.

PREFACE.

An English gentleman, versed in prehistoric archæology, visited me in the summer of 1894, and during our conversation asked if we had the Swastika in America. I answered, "Yes," and showed him two or three specimens of it. He demanded if we had any literature on the subject. I cited him De Mortillet, De Morgan, and Zmigrodzki, and he said, "No, I mean English or American." I began a search which proved almost futile, as even the word Swastika did not appear in such works as Worcester's or Webster's dictionaries, the Encyclopædic Dictionary, the Encyclopædia Britannica, Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia, the People's Cyclopædia, nor Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, his Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, or his Classical Dictionary. I also searched, with the same results, Mollett's Dictionary of Art and Archæology, Fairholt's Dictionary of Terms in Art, "L'Art Gothique," by Gonza, Perrot and Chipiez's extensive histories of Art in Egypt, in Chaldea and Assyria, and in Phenicia; also "The Cross, Ancient and Modern," by W. W. Blake, "The History of the Cross," by John Ashton; and a reprint of a Dutch work by Wildener. In the American Encyclopædia the description is erroneous, while all the Century Dictionary says is, "Same as fylfot," and "Compare _Crux Ansata_ and _Gammadion_." I thereupon concluded that this would be a good subject for presentation to the Smithsonian Institution for "diffusion of knowledge among men."

The principal object of this paper has been to gather and put in a compact form such information as is obtainable concerning the Swastika, leaving to others the task of adjustment of these facts and their arrangement into an harmonious theory. The only conclusion sought to be deduced from the facts stated is as to the possible migration in prehistoric times of the Swastika and similar objects.

No conclusion is attempted as to the time or place of origin, or the primitive meaning of the Swastika, because these are considered to be lost in antiquity. The straight line, the circle, the cross, the triangle, are simple forms, easily made, and might have been invented and re-invented in every age of primitive man and in every quarter of the globe, each time being an independent invention, meaning much or little, meaning different things among different peoples or at different times among the same people; or they may have had no settled or definite meaning. But the Swastika was probably the first to be made with a definite intention and a continuous or consecutive meaning, the knowledge of which passed from person to person, from tribe to tribe, from people to people, and from nation to nation, until, with possibly changed meanings, it has finally circled the globe.

There are many disputable questions broached in this paper. The author is aware of the differences of opinion thereon among learned men, and he has not attempted to dispose of these questions in the few sentences employed in their announcement. He has been conservative and has sought to avoid dogmatic decisions of controverted questions. The antiquity of man, the locality of his origin, the time of his dispersion and the course of his migration, the origin of bronze and the course of its migration, all of which may be more or less involved in a discussion of the Swastika, are questions not to be settled by the dogmatic assertions of any individual.

Much of the information in this paper is original, and relates to prehistoric more than to modern times, and extends to nearly all the countries of the globe. It is evident that the author must depend on other discoverers; therefore, all books, travels, writers, and students have been laid under contribution without scruple. Due acknowledgment is hereby made for all quotations of text or figures wherever they occur.

Quotations have been freely made, instead of sifting the evidence and giving the substance. The justification is that there has never been any sufficient marshaling of the evidence on the subject, and that the former deductions have been inconclusive; therefore, quotations of authors are given in their own words, to the end that the philosophers who propose to deal with the origin, meaning, and cause of migration of the Swastika will have all the evidence before them.

Assumptions may appear as to antiquity, origin, and migration of the Swastika, but it is explained that many times these only reflect the opinion of the writers who are quoted, or are put forth as working hypotheses.

The indulgence of the reader is asked, and it is hoped that he will endeavor to harmonize conflicting statements upon these disputed questions rather than antagonize them.

I.--DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTION, AND ORIGIN.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE CROSS.

The simple cross made with two sticks or marks belongs to prehistoric times. Its first appearance among men is lost in antiquity. One may theorize as to its origin, but there is no historical identification of it either in epoch or by country or people. The sign is itself so simple that it might have originated among any people, however primitive, and in any age, however remote. The meaning given to the earliest cross is equally unknown. Everything concerning its beginning is in the realm of speculation. But a differentiation grew up in early times among nations by which certain forms of the cross have been known under certain names and with specific significations. Some of these, such as the Maltese cross, are historic and can be well identified.

The principal forms of the cross, known as symbols or ornaments, can be reduced to a few classes, though when combined with heraldry its use extends to 385 varieties.[1]

It is not the purpose of this paper to give a history of the cross, but the principal forms are shown by way of introduction to a study of the Swastika.

The Latin cross, _Crux immissa_, (fig. 1) is found on coins, medals, and ornaments anterior to the Christian era. It was on this cross that Christ is said to have been crucified, and thus it became accepted as the Christian cross.

The Greek cross (fig. 2) with arms of equal length crossing at right angles, is found on Assyrian and Persian monuments and tablets, Greek coins and statues.

The St. Andrew's cross, _Crux decussata_, (fig. 3) is the same as the Greek cross, but turned to stand on two legs.

The _Crux ansata_ (fig. 4) according to Egyptian mythology, was Ankh, the emblem of Ka, the spiritual double of man. It was also said to indicate a union of Osiris and Isis, and was regarded as a symbol of the generative principle of nature.

The Tau cross (fig. 5), so called from its resemblance to the Greek letter of that name, is of uncertain, though ancient, origin. In Scandinavian mythology it passed under the name of "Thor's hammer," being therein confounded with the Swastika. It was also called St. Anthony's cross for the Egyptian hermit of that name, and was always colored blue. Clarkson says this mark was received by the Mithracists on their foreheads at the time of their initiation. C. W. King, in his work entitled "Early Christian Numismatics" (p. 214), expresses the opinion that the Tau cross was placed on the foreheads of men who cry after abominations. (Ezekiel ix, 4.) It is spoken of as a phallic emblem.

Another variety of the cross appeared about the second century, composed of a union of the St. Andrew's cross and the letter P (fig. 6), being the first two letters of the Greek word [Greek: CHRISTOS] (Christus). This, with another variety containing all the foregoing letters, passed as the monogram of Christ (fig. 6).

As an instrument of execution, the cross, besides being the intersection of two beams with four projecting arms, was frequently of compound forms as [Y], on which the convicted person was fastened by the feet and hung head downward. Another form [symbol], whereon he was fastened by one foot and one hand at each upper corner; still another form [symbol], whereon his body was suspended on the central upright with his arms outstretched upon the cross beams.

Fig. 7 represents the sign of the military order of the Knights of Malta. It is of medieval origin.

Fig. 8 (_a_ and _b_) represents two styles of Celtic crosses. These belong chiefly to Ireland and Scotland, are usually of stone, and frequently set up at marked places on the road side.

Higgins, in his "Anacalypsis," a rare and costly work, almost an encyclopedia of knowledge,[2] says, concerning the origin of the cross, that the official name of the governor of Tibet, Lama, comes from the ancient Tibetan word for the cross. The original spelling was L-a-m-h. This is cited with approval in Davenport's "Aphrodisiacs" (p. 13).

Of the many forms of the cross, the Swastika is the most ancient. Despite the theories and speculations of students, its origin is unknown. It began before history, and is properly classed as prehistoric. Its description is as follows: The bars of the normal Swastika (frontispiece and fig. 9) are straight, of equal thickness throughout, and cross each other at right angles, making four arms of equal size, length, and style. Their peculiarity is that all the ends are bent at right angles and in the same direction, right or left. Prof. Max Müller makes the symbol different according as the arms are bent to the right or to the left. That bent to the right he denominates the true Swastika, that bent to the left he calls Suavastika (fig. 10), but he gives no authority for the statement, and the author has been unable to find, except in Burnouf, any justification for a difference of names. Professor Goodyear gives the title of "Meander" to that form of Swastika which bends two or more times (fig. 11).

The Swastika is sometimes represented with dots or points in the corners of the intersections (fig. 12_a_), and occasionally the same when without bent ends (fig. 12_b_), to which Zmigrodzki gives the name of _Croix Swasticale_. Some Swastikas have three dots placed equidistant around each of the four ends (fig. 12_c_).

There are several varieties possibly related to the Swastika which have been found in almost every part of the globe, and though the relation may appear slight, and at first sight difficult to trace, yet it will appear more or less intimate as the examination is pursued through its ramifications. As this paper is an investigation into and report upon facts rather than conclusions to be drawn from them, it is deemed wise to give those forms bearing even possible relations to the Swastika. Certain of them have been accepted by the author as related to the Swastika, while others have been rejected; but this rejection has been confined to cases where the known facts seemed to justify another origin for the symbol. Speculation has been avoided.

Fig. 13_a_. OGEE AND SPIRAL SWASTIKAS. Tetraskelion (four-armed).

Fig. 13_b_. SPIRAL AND VOLUTE. Triskelion (three-armed).

Fig. 13_c_. SPIRAL AND VOLUTE. (Five or many armed.)

Fig. 13_d_. OGEE SWASTIKA, WITH CIRCLE.]

NAMES AND DEFINITIONS OF THE SWASTIKA.

The Swastika has been called by different names in different countries, though nearly all countries have in later years accepted the ancient Sanskrit name of Swastika; and this name is recommended as the most definite and certain, being now the most general and, indeed, almost universal. It was formerly spelled s-v-a-s-t-i-c-a and s-u-a-s-t-i-k-a, but the later spelling, both English and French, is s-w-a-s-t-i-k-a. The definition and etymology of the word is thus given in Littre's French Dictionary:

_Svastika_, or _Swastika_, a mystic figure used by several (East)
Indian sects. It was equally well known to the Brahmins as to the
Buddhists. Most of the rock inscriptions in the Buddhist caverns in
the west of India are preceded or followed by the holy
(_sacramentelle_) sign of the Swastika. (Eug. Burnouf, "Le Lotus de la
bonne loi." Paris, 1852, p. 625.) It was seen on the vases and pottery
of Rhodes (Cyprus) and Etruria. (F. Delaunay, Jour. Off., Nov. 18,
1873, p. 7024, 3d Col.)

Etymology: A Sanskrit word signifying happiness, pleasure, good luck.
It is composed of _Su_ (equivalent of Greek [Greek: eu]), "good," and
_asti_, "being," "good being," with the suffix _ka_ (Greek [Greek:
ka], Latin _co_).

In the "Revue d'Ethnographie" (IV, 1885, p. 329), Mr. Dumoutier gives the following analysis of the Sanskrit _swastika_:

_Su_, radical, signifying _good_, _well_, _excellent_, or _suvidas_,
prosperity.

_Asti_, third person, singular, indicative present of the verb _as_,
to be, which is _sum_ in Latin.

_Ka_, suffix forming the substantive.

Professor Whitney in the Century Dictionary says, Swastika--[Sanskrit, lit., "of good fortune." Svasti (_Su_, well, + _asti_, being), welfare.] Same as fylfot. Compare _Crux ansata_ and _gammadion_.

In "Ilios" (p. 347), Max Müller says:

Ethnologically, _svastika_ is derived from _svasti_, and _svasti_ from
_su_, "well," and _as_, "to be." _Svasti_ occurs frequently in the
Veda, both as a noun in a sense of happiness, and as an adverb in the
sense of "well" or "hail!" It corresponds to the Greek [Greek:
euestô]. The derivation _Svasti-ka_ is of later date, and it always
means an auspicious sign, such as are found most frequently among
Buddhists and Jainas.

M. Eugene Burnouf[3] defines the mark Swastika as follows:

A monogrammatic sign of four branches, of which the ends are curved at
right angles, the name signifying, literally, the sign of benediction
or good augury.

The foregoing explanations relate only to the present accepted name "Swastika." The _sign_ Swastika must have existed long before the _name_ was given to it. It must have been in existence long before the Buddhist religion or the Sanskrit language.

In Great Britain the common name given to the Swastika, from Anglo-Saxon times by those who apparently had no knowledge whence it came, or that it came from any other than their own country, was Fylfot, said to have been derived from the Anglo-Saxon _fower fot_, meaning four-footed, or many-footed.[4]

George Waring, in his work entitled "Ceramic Art in Remote Ages" (p. 10), says:

The word [Fylfot] is Scandinavian and is compounded of Old Norse
_fiël_, equivalent to the Anglo-Saxon _fela_, German _viel_, many, and
_fotr_, foot, the many-footed figure. * * * It is desirable to have
some settled name by which to describe it; we will take the simplest
and most descriptive, the "Fylfot."

He thus transgresses one of the oldest and soundest rules of scientific nomenclature, and ignores the fact that the name Swastika has been employed for this sign in the Sanskrit language (the etymology of the word naturally gave it the name Svastika, _sv_--good or well, _asti_--to be or being, or it is) and that two thousand and more years of use in Asia and Europe had sanctioned and sanctified that as its name. The use of Fylfot is confined to comparatively few persons in Great Britain and, possibly, Scandinavia. Outside of these countries it is scarcely known, used, or understood.

The Swastika was occasionally called in the French language, in earlier times, _Croix gammée_ or _Gammadion_, from its resemblance to a combination of four of the Greek letters of that name, and it is so named by Count Goblet d'Alviella in his late work, "La Migration des Symboles." It was also called _Croix cramponnée_, _Croix pattée_, _Croix à crochet_. But the consensus even of French etymologists favors the name Swastika.

Some foreign authors have called it Thor's hammer, or Thor's hammer-mark, but the correctness of this has been disputed.[5] Waring, in his elaborate work, "Ceramic Art in Remote Ages,"[6] says:

The [Z] used to be vulgarly called in Scandinavia the hammer of Thor,
and Thor's hammer-mark, or the hammer-mark, but this name properly
belongs to the mark [Y].

Ludwig Müller gives it as his opinion that the Swastika has no connection with the Thor hammer. The best Scandinavian authors report the "Thor hammer" to be the same as the Greek tau (fig. 5), the same form as the Roman and English capital T. The Scandinavian name is Miölner or Mjolner, the crusher or mallet.

The Greek, Latin, and Tau crosses are represented in Egyptian hieroglyphics by a hammer or mallet, giving the idea of crushing, pounding, or striking, and so an instrument of justice, an avenger of wrong,[7] hence standing for Horus and other gods.[8] Similar symbolic meanings have been given to these crosses in ancient classic countries of the Orient.[9]

SYMBOLISM AND INTERPRETATION.

Many theories have been presented concerning the symbolism of the Swastika, its relation to ancient deities and its representation of certain qualities. In the estimation of certain writers it has been respectively the emblem of Zeus, of Baal, of the sun, of the sun-god, of the sun-chariot of Agni the fire-god, of Indra the rain-god, of the sky, the sky-god, and finally the deity of all deities, the great God, the Maker and Ruler of the Universe. It has also been held to symbolize light or the god of light, of the forked lightning, and of water. It is believed by some to have been the oldest Aryan symbol. In the estimation of others it represents Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, Creator, Preserver, Destroyer. It appears in the footprints of Buddha, engraved upon the solid rock on the mountains of India (fig. 32). It stood for the Jupiter Tonans and Pluvius of the Latins, and the Thor of the Scandinavians. In the latter case it has been considered--erroneously, however--a variety of the Thor hammer. In the opinion of at least one author it had an intimate relation to the Lotus sign of Egypt and Persia. Some authors have attributed a phallic meaning to it. Others have recognized it as representing the generative principle of mankind, making it the symbol of the female. Its appearance on the person of certain goddesses, Artemis, Hera, Demeter, Astarte, and the Chaldean Nana, the leaden goddess from Hissarlik (fig. 125), has caused it to be claimed as a sign of fecundity.

In forming the foregoing theories their authors have been largely controlled by the alleged fact of the substitution and permutation of the Swastika sign on various objects with recognized symbols of these different deities. The claims of these theorists are somewhat clouded in obscurity and lost in the antiquity of the subject. What seems to have been at all times an attribute of the Swastika is its character as a charm or amulet, as a sign of benediction, blessing, long life, good fortune, good luck. This character has continued into modern times, and while the Swastika is recognized as a holy and sacred symbol by at least one Buddhistic religious sect, it is still used by the common people of India, China, and Japan as a sign of long life, good wishes, and good fortune.

Whatever else the sign Swastika may have stood for, and however many meanings it may have had, it was always ornamental. It may have been used with any or all the above significations, but it was always ornamental as well.

The Swastika sign had great extension and spread itself practically over the world, largely, if not entirely, in prehistoric times, though its use in some countries has continued into modern times.

The elaboration of the meanings of the Swastika indicated above and its dispersion or migrations form the subject of this paper.

Dr. Schliemann found many specimens of Swastika in his excavations at the site of ancient Troy on the hill of Hissarlik. They were mostly on spindle whorls, and will be described in due course. He appealed to Prof. Max Müller for an explanation, who, in reply, wrote an elaborate description, which Dr. Schliemann published in "Ilios.[10]"

He commences with a protest against the word Swastika being applied generally to the sign Swastika, because it may prejudice the reader or the public in favor of its Indian origin. He says:

I do not like the use of the _word svastika_ outside of India. It is a
_word_ of Indian origin and has its history and definite meaning in
India. * * * The occurrence of such crosses in different parts of the
world may or may not point to a common origin, but if they are once
called _Svastika_ the _vulgus profanum_ will at once jump to the
conclusion that they all come from India, and it will take some time
to weed out such prejudice.

Very little is known of Indian art before the third century B. C., the
period when the Buddhist sovereigns began their public buildings.[11]

The name Svastika, however, can be traced (in India) a little farther
back. It occurs as the name of a particular sign in the old grammar of
Pânani, about a century earlier. Certain compounds are mentioned there
in which the last word is _karna_, "ear." * * * One of the signs for
marking cattle was the Svastika [fig. 41], and what Pânani teaches in
his grammar is that when the compound is formed, _svastika-karna_, i.
e., "having the ear marked with the sign of a Svastika," the final _a_
of Svastika is not to be lengthened, while it is lengthened in other
compounds, such as _datra-karna_, i. e., "having the ear marked with
the sign of a sickle."

D'Alviella[12] reinforces Max Müller's statement that Panini lived during the middle of the fourth century, B. C. Thus it is shown that the word Swastika had been in use at that early period long enough to form an integral part of the Sanskrit language and that it was employed to illustrate the particular sounds of the letter _a_ in its grammar.

Max Müller continues his explanation:[13]

It [the Swastika] occurs often at the beginning of the Buddhist
inscriptions, on Buddhist coins, and in Buddhist manuscripts.
Historically, the Svastika is first attested on a coin of Krananda,
supposing Krananda to be the same king as Xandrames, the predecessor
of Sandrokyptos, whose reign came to an end in 315 B. C. (See Thomas
on the Identity of Xandrames and Krananda.) The paleographic evidence,
however, seems rather against so early a date. In the footprints of
Buddha the Buddhists recognize no less that sixty-five auspicious
signs, the first of them being the _Svastika_ [see fig. 32], (Eugene
Burnouf, "Lotus de la bonne loi," p. 625); the fourth is the
_Suavastika_, or that with the arms turned to the left [see fig. 10];
the third, the _Nandyâvarta_ [see fig. 14], is a mere development of
the _Svastika_. Among the Jainas the _Svastika_ was the sign of their
seventh Jina, Supârsva (Colebrooke "Miscellaneous Essays," II, p. 188;
Indian Antiquary, vol. 2, p. 135).

In the later Sanskrit literature, _Svastika_ retains the meaning of an
auspicious mark; thus we see in the Râmâyana (ed. Gorresio, II, p.
318) that Bharata selects a ship marked with the sign of the Svastika.
Varâhamihira in the Brihat-samhitâ (Mod. Sæc., VI, p. Ch.) mentions
certain buildings called Svastika and Nandyâvarta (53.34, seq.), but
their outline does not correspond very exactly with the form of the
signs. Some Sthûpas, however, are said to have been built on the plan
of the Svastika. * * * Originally, _svastika_ may have been intended
for no more than two lines crossing each other, or a cross. Thus we
find it used in later times referring to a woman covering her breast
with crossed arms (Bâlarâm, 75.16), _svahastas-vastika-stani_, and
likewise with reference to persons sitting crosslegged.

Dr. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter[14] speaking of the Swastika position, either of crossed legs or arms, among the Hindus,[15] suggests as a possible explanation that these women bore the Swastikas upon their arms as did the goddess Aphrodite, in fig. 8 of his writings, (see fig. 180 in the present paper), and when they assumed the position of arms crossed over their breast, the Swastikas being brought into prominent view, possibly gave the name to the position as being a representative of the sign.

Max Müller continues:[16]

Quite another question is, why the sign [S] should have had an
auspicious meaning, and why in Sanskrit it should have been called
Svastika. The similarity between the group of letters _sv_ in the
ancient Indian alphabet and the sign of Svastika is not very striking,
and seems purely accidental.

A remark of yours [Schliemann] (Troy, p. 38.) that the Svastika
resembles a wheel in motion, the direction of the motion being
indicated by the crampons, contains a useful hint, which has been
confirmed by some important observations of Mr. Thomas, the
distinguished Oriental numismatist, who has called attention to the
fact that in the long list of the recognized devices of the
twenty-four Jaina Tirthankaras the sun is absent, but that while the
eighth Tirthankara has the sign of the half-moon, the seventh
Tirthankara is marked with the Svastika, i. e., the sun. Here, then,
we have clear indications that the Svastika, with the hands pointing
in the right direction, was originally a symbol of the sun, perhaps of
the vernal sun as opposed to the autumnal sun, the _Suavastika_, and,
therefore, a natural symbol of light, life, health, and wealth.

But, while from these indications we are justified in supposing that
among the Aryan nations the Svastika may have been an old emblem of
the sun, there are other indications to show that in other parts of
the world the same or a similar emblem was used to indicate the earth.
Mr. Beal * * * has shown * * * that the simple cross ([cross]) occurs
as a sign for earth in certain ideographic groups. It was probably
intended to indicate the four quarters--north, south, east, west--or,
it may be, more generally, extension in length and breadth.

That the cross is used as a sign for "four" in the Bactro-Pali
inscriptions (Max Müller, "Chips from a German Workshop," Vol. II, p.
298) is well known; but the fact that the same sign has the same power
elsewhere, as, for instance, in the Hieratic numerals, does not prove
by any means that the one figure was derived from the other. We forget
too easily that what was possible in one place was possible also in
other places; and the more we extend our researches, the more we shall
learn that the chapter of accidents is larger than we imagine.

The "Suavastika" which Max Müller names and believes was applied to the Swastika sign, with the ends bent to the left (fig. 10), seems not to be reported with that meaning by any other author except Burnouf.[17] Therefore the normal Swastika would seem to be that with the ends bent to the right. Burnouf says the word Suavastika may be a derivative or development of the Svastikaya, and ought to signify "he who, or, that which, bears or carries the Swastika or a species of Swastika." Greg,[18] under the title Sôvastikaya, gives it as his opinion that there is no difference between it and the Swastika. Colonel Low[19] mentions the word Sawattheko, which, according to Burnouf[20] is only a variation of the Pali word Sotthika or Suvatthika, the Pali translation of the Sanskrit Swastika. Burnouf translates it as Svastikaya.

M. Eugene Burnouf[21] speaks of a third sign of the footprint of Çakya, called Nandâvartaya, a good augury, the meaning being the "circle of fortune," which is the Swastika inclosed within a square with avenues radiating from the corners (fig. 14). Burnouf says the above sign has many significations. It is a sacred temple or edifice, a species of labyrinth, a garden of diamonds, a chain, a golden waist or shoulder belt, and a conique with spires turning to the right.

Colonel Sykes[22] concludes that, according to the Chinese authorities Fa-hian, Soung Young, Hiuan thsang, the "Doctors of reason," Tao-sse, or followers of the mystic cross [S] were diffused in China and India before the advent of Sakya in the sixth century B. C. (according to Chinese, Japanese, and Buddhist authorities, the eleventh century B. C.), continuing until Fa-hian's time; and that they were professors of a qualified Buddhism, which, it is stated, was the universal religion of Tibet before Sakya's advent,[23] and continued until the introduction of orthodox Buddhism in the ninth century A. D.[24]

Klaproth[25] calls attention to the frequent mention by Fa-hian, of the Tao-sse, sectaries of the mystic cross [S] (Sanskrit Swastika), and to their existence in Central Asia and India; while he says they were diffused over the countries to the west and southwest of China, and came annually from all kingdoms and countries to adore Kassapo, Buddha's predecessor.[26] Mr. James Burgess[27] mentions the Tirthankaras or Jainas as being sectarians of the Mystic Cross, the Swastika.

The Cyclopædia of India (title Swastika), coinciding with Prof. Max Müller, says:

The Swastika symbol is not to be confounded with the Swastika sect in
Tibet which took the symbol for its name as typical of the belief of
its members. They render the Sanskrit Swastika as composed of su
"well" and asti "it is," meaning, as Professor Wilson expresses it,
"so be it," and implying complete resignation under all circumstances.
They claimed the Swastika of Sanskrit as the _suti_ of Pali, and that
the Swastika cross was a combination of the two symbols _sutti-suti_.
They are rationalists, holding that contentment and peace of mind
should be the only objects of life. The sect has preserved its
existence in different localities and under different names,
Thirthankara, Tor, Musteg, Pon, the last name meaning purity, under
which a remnant are still in the farthest parts of the most eastern
province of Tibet.

General Cunningham[28] adds his assertion of the Swastika being the symbol used by the Buddhist sect of that name. He says in a note:

The founder of this sect flourished about the year 604 to 523 B. C.,
and that the mystic cross is a symbol formed by the combination of the
two Sanskrit syllables _su_ and _ti-suti_.

Waring[29] proceeds to demolish these statements of a sect named Swastika as pure inventions, and "consulting Professor Wilson's invaluable work on the Hindoo religious sects in the 'Asiatic Researches,' we find no account of any sect named Swastika."

Mr. V. R. Gandhi, a learned legal gentleman of Bombay, a representative of the Jain sect of Buddhists to the World's Parliament of Religions at Chicago, 1893, denies that there is in either India or Tibet a sect of Buddhists named "Swastika." He suggests that these gentlemen probably mean the sects of Jains (of which Mr. Gandhi is a member), because this sect uses the Swastika as a sign of benediction and blessing. This will be treated further on. (See p. 804.)

Zmigrodzki, commenting on the frequency of the Swastika on the objects found by Dr. Schliemann at Hissarlik, gives it as his opinion[30] that these representations of the Swastika have relation to a human cult indicating a supreme being filled with goodness toward man. The sun, stars, etc., indicate him as a god of light. This, in connection with the idol of Venus, with its triangular shield engraved with a Swastika (fig. 125), and the growing trees and palms, with their increasing and multiplying branches and leaves, represent to him the idea of fecundity, multiplication, increase, and hence the god of life as well as of light. The Swastika sign on funeral vases indicates to him a belief in a divine spirit in man which lives after death, and hence he concludes that the people of Hissarlik, in the "Burnt City" (the third of Schliemann), adored a supreme being, the god of light and of life, and believed in the immortality of the soul.

R. P. Greg says:[31]

Originally it [the Swastika] would appear to have been an early Aryan
atmospheric device or symbol indicative of both rain and lightning,
phenomena appertaining to the god Indra, subsequently or collaterally
developing, possibly, into the Suastika, or sacred fire churn in
India, and at a still later period in Greece, adopted rather as a
solar symbol, or converted about B. C. 650 into the meander or key
pattern.

Waring, while he testifies to the extension of the Swastika both in time and area, says:[32]

But neither in the hideous jumble of Pantheism--the wild speculative
thought, mystic fables, and perverted philosophy of life among the
Buddhists--nor in the equally wild and false theosophy of the
Brahmins, to whom this symbol, as distinctive of the Vishnavas,
sectarian devotees of Vishnu, is ascribed by Moor in his "Indian
Pantheon," nor yet in the tenets of the Jains,[33] do we find any
decisive explanation of the meaning attached to this symbol, although
its allegorical intention is indubitable.

He mentions the Swastika of the Buddhists, the cross, the circle, their combination, the three-foot [Y] and adds: "They exhibit forms of those olden and widely spread pagan symbols of Deity and sanctity, eternal life and blessing."

Professor Sayce says:[34]

The Cyprian vase figured in Di Cesnola's "Cyprus," pl. XLV, fig. 36
[see fig. 156], which associates the Swastika with the figure of an
animal, is a striking analogue of the Trojan whorls on which it is
associated with the figures of stags. The fact that it is drawn within
the vulva of the leaden image of the Asiatic goddess [see fig. 125]
seems to show that it was a symbol of generation. I believe that it is
identical with the Cyprian character [symbol] or [symbol] (ne), which
has the form [symbol] in the inscription of Golgi, and also with the
Hittite [symbol] or [symbol] which Dr. Hyde Clarke once suggested to
me was intended to represent the organs of generation.

Mr. Waller, in his work entitled "Monumental Crosses," describes the Swastika as having been known in India as a sacred symbol many centuries before our Lord, and used as the distinguishing badge of a religious sect calling themselves "Followers of the Mystic Cross." Subsequently, he says, it was adopted by the followers of Buddha and was still later used by Christians at a very early period, being first introduced on Christian monuments in the sixth century. But Mr. Waring says that in this he is not correct, as it was found in some of the early paintings in the Roman catacombs, particularly on the habit of a _Fossor_, or gravedigger, given by D'Agincourt.

Pugin, in his "Glossary of Ornament," under the title "Fylfot," says that in Tibet the Swastika was used as a representation of God crucified for the human race, citing as his authority F. Augustini Antonii Georgii.[35] He remarks:

From these accounts it would appear that the fylfot is a mystical
ornament, not only adopted among Christians from primitive times, but
used, as if prophetically, for centuries before the coming of our
Lord. To descend to later times, we find it constantly introduced in
ecclesiastical vestments, * * * till the end of the fifteenth century,
a period marked by great departure from traditional symbolism.

Its use was continued in Tibet into modern times, though its meaning is not given.[36] (See p. 802.)

The Rev. G. Cox, in his "Aryan Mythology," says:

We recognize the male and the female symbol in the trident of
Poseidon, and in the fylfot or hammer of Thor, which assumes the form
of a cross-pattèe in the various legends which turn on the rings of
Freya, Holda, Venus, or Aphrodite.

Here again we find the fylfot and cross-pattèe spoken of as the same symbol, and as being emblematic of the reproductive principles, in which view of its meaning Dr. Inman, in his "Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names," concurs.

Burnouf[37] recounts the myth of Agni (from which comes, through the Latin _ignis_, the English word igneous), the god of Sacred Fire, as told in the Veda:[38]

The young queen, the mother of Fire, carried the royal infant
mysteriously concealed in her bosom. She was a woman of the people,
whose common name was "Arani"--that is, the instrument of wood (the
Swastika) from which fire was made or brought by rubbing. * * * The
origin of the sign [Swastika] is now easy to recognize. It represents
the two pieces of wood which compose _l'arani_, of which the
extremities were bent to be retained by the four nails. At the
junction of the two pieces of wood was a fossette or cup-like hole,
and there they placed a piece of wood upright, in form of a lance (the
Pramantha), violent rotation of which, by whipping (after the fashion
of top-whipping), produced fire, as did Prometheus, the _porteur du
feu_, in Greece.

And this myth was made, as have been others, probably by the priests and poets of succeeding times, to do duty for different philosophies. The Swastika was made to represent Arani (the female principle); the Pramantha or upright fire stake representing Agni, the fire god (the male); and so the myth served its part to account for the birth of fire. Burnouf hints that the myth grew out of the production of holy fire for the sacred altars by the use of the Pramantha and Swastika, after the manner of savages in all times. Zmigrodzki accepts this myth, and claims all specimens with dots or points--supposed nail holes--as Swastikas.

The Count Goblet d'Alviella[39] argues in opposition to the theory announced by Burnouf and by Zmigrodzki, that the Swastika or croix swasticale, when presenting dots or points, had relation to fire making. He denies that the points represent nails, or that nails were made or necessary either for the Swastika or the Arani, and concludes that there is no evidence to support the theory, and nothing to show the Swastika to have been used as a fire-making apparatus, whether with or without the dots or points.

Mr. Greg[40] opposes this entire theory, saying:

The difficulty about the Swastika and its supposed connection with
fire appears to me to be in not knowing precisely what the old fire
drill and chark were like. * * * I much doubt whether the Swastika had
originally any connection either with the fire-chark or with the sun.
* * * The best authorities consider Burnouf is in error as to the
earlier use of the two lower cross pieces of wood and the four nails
said to have been used to fix or steady the framework.

He quotes from Tylor's description[41] of the old fire drill used in India for kindling the sacrificial fire by the process called "churning," as it resembles that in India by which butter is separated from milk. It consists in drilling one piece of Arani wood by pulling a cord with one hand while the other is slackened, and so, alternately (the strap drill), till the wood takes fire. Mr. Greg states that the Eskimos use similar means, and the ancient Greeks used the drill and cord, and he adds his conclusions: "There is nothing of the Swastika and four nails in connection with the fire-churn."

Burton[42] also criticises Burnouf's theory:

If used on sacrificial altars to reproduce the holy fire, the practice
is peculiar and not derived from everyday life; for as early as Pliny
they know that the savages used two, and never three, fire sticks.

Burnouf continues his discussion of myths concerning the origin of fire:

According to Hymnes, the discoverer of fire was Atharan, whoso name
signifies fire, but Bhrigon it was who made the sacred fire, producing
resplendent flames on the earthen altar. In theory of physics, Agni,
who was the fire residing within the "onction," (?) came from the milk
of the cow, which, in its turn, came from the plants that had
nourished her; and these plants in their turn grew by receiving and
appropriating the heat or fire of the sun. Therefore, the virtue of
the "onction" came from the god.

One of the Vedas says of Agni, the god of fire:[43]

Agni, thou art a sage, a priest, a king,
Protector, father of the sacrifice;
Commissioned by our men thou dost ascend
A messenger, conveying to the sky
Our hymns and offerings, though thy origin
Be three fold, now from air and now from water,
Now from the mystic double _Arani_.[44]

Count Goblet d'Alviella combats the hypothesis of Burnouf that the Swastika when turned to right or left, passed, the one for the male and the other for the female principle, and declares, on the authority of Sir George Birdwood, that it is, in modern India, a popular custom to name objects which appear in couples as having different sexes, so that to say "the male Swastika" and the "female Swastika," indicating them by the pronouns "he" or "she," would be expressed in the same manner when speaking of the hammer and the anvil or of any other objects used in pairs.[45]

Ludwig Müller, in his elaborate treatise, gives it as his opinion that the Swastika had no connection with the Tau cross or with the _Crux ansata_, or with the fire wheel, or with arani, or agni, or with the mystic or alphabetic letters, nor with the so-called spokes of the solar wheel, nor the forked lightning, nor the hammer of Thor. He considers that the triskelion might throw light on its origin, as indicating perpetual whirling or circular movement, which, in certain parts of southern Asia as the emblem of Zeus, was assimilated to that of Baal, an inference which he draws from certain Asiatic coins of 400 B. C.

Mr. R. P. Greg[46] opposes this theory and expresses the opinion that the Swastika is far older and wider spread as a symbol than the triskelion, as well as being a more purely Aryan symbol. Greg says that Ludwig Müller attaches quite too much importance to the sun in connection with the early Aryans, and lays too great stress upon the supposed relation of the Swastika as a solar symbol. The Aryans, he says, were a race not given to sun worship; and, while he may agree with Müller that the Swastika is an emblem of Zeus and Jupiter merely as the Supreme God, yet he believes that the origin of the Swastika had no reference to a movement of the sun through the heavens; and he prefers his own theory that it was a device suggested by the forked lightning as the chief weapon of the air god.

Mr. Greg's paper is of great elaboration, and highly complicated. He devotes an entire page or plate (21) to a chart showing the older Aryan fire, water, and sun gods, according to the Brahmin or Buddhist system. The earliest was Dyaus, the bright sky or the air god; Adyti, the infinite expanse, mother of bright gods; Varuna, the covering of the shining firmament. Out of this trinity came another, Zeus, being the descendant of Dyaus, the sky god; Agni, the fire; Sulya, the sun, and Indra, the rain god. These in their turn formed the great Hindu trinity, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva--creator, preserver, and destroyer; and, in his opinion, the Swastika was the symbol or ordinary device of Indra as well as of Zeus. He continues his table of descent from these gods, with their accompanying devices, to the sun, lightning, fire, and water, and makes almost a complete scheme of the mythology of that period, into which it is not possible to follow him. However, he declines to accept the theory of Max Müller of any difference of form or meaning between the Suavastika and the Swastika because the ends or arms turned to the right or to the left, and he thinks the two symbols to be substantially the same. He considers it to have been, in the first instance, exclusively of early Aryan origin and use, and that down to about 600 B. C. it was the emblem or symbol of the supreme Aryan god; that it so continued down through the various steps of descent (according to the chart mentioned) until it became the device and symbol of Brahma, and finally of Buddha. He thinks that it may have been the origin of the Greek fret or meander pattern. Later still it was adopted even by the early Christians as a suitable variety of their cross, and became variously modified in form and was used as a charm.

D'Alviella[47] expresses his doubts concerning the theory advanced by Greg[48] to the effect that the Swastika is to be interpreted as a symbol of the air or of the god who dwells in the air, operating sometimes to produce light, other times rain, then water, and so on, as is represented by the god Indra among the Hindus, Thor among the Germans and Scandinavians, Perkun among the Slavs, Zeus among the Pelasgi and Greeks, Jupiter Tonans, and Pluvius among the Latins. He disputes the theory that the association of the Swastika sign with various others on the same object proves its relationship with that object or sign. That it appears on vases or similar objects associated with what is evidently a solar disk is no evidence to him that the Swastika belongs to the sun, or when associated with the zigzags of lightning that it represents the god of lightning, nor the same with the god of heaven. The fact of its appearing either above or below any one of these is, in his opinion, of no importance and has no signification, either general or special.

D'Alviella says[49] that the only example known to him of a Swastika upon a monument consecrated to Zeus or Jupiter is on a Celto-Roman altar, erected, according to all appearances, by the Daci during the time they were garrisoned at Ambloganna, in Britain. The altar bears the letters I. O. M., which have been thought to stand for Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The Swastika thereon is flanked by two disks or rouelles, with four rays, a sign which M. Gaidoz believes to have been a representative of the sun among the Gaulois.[50]

Dr. Brinton[51] considers the Swastika as being related to the cross and not to the circle, and asserts that the Ta Ki or Triskeles, the Swastika and the Cross, were originally of the same signification, or at least closely allied in meaning.

Waring,[52] after citing his authorities, sums up his opinion thus:

We have given remarks of the various writers on this symbol, and it
will be seen that, though they are more or less vague, uncertain, and
confused in their description of it, still, with one exception, they
all agree that it is a mystic symbol, peculiar to some deity or other,
bearing a special signification, and generally believed to have some
connection with one of the elements--water.

Burton says:[53]

The Svastika is apparently the simplest form of the Guilloche [scroll
pattern or spiral]. According to Wilkinson (11, Chap. IX), the most
complicated form of the Guilloche covered an Egyptian ceiling upward
of a thousand years older than the objects found at Nineveh. The
Svastika spread far and wide, everywhere assuming some fresh
mythological and mysterious significance. In the north of Europe it
became the Fylfot or Crutched cross.

Count Goblet d'Alviella is of the opinion (p. 57) that the Swastika was "above all an amulet, talisman, or phylactere," while (p. 56) "it is incontestable that a great number of the Swastikas were simply motifs of ornamentation, of coin marks, and marks of fabrics," but he agrees (p. 57) that there is no symbol that has given rise to so many interpretations, not even the _tricula_ of the Buddhists, and "this is a great deal to say." Ludwig Müller believes the Swastika to have been used as an ornament and as a charm and amulet, as well as a sacred symbol.