Chapter XXVIII: Appendix: Notes on the Geology of Syria,

(_Kindly communicated to me by my friend_, _Professor Edward Forbes_.)

MY DEAR SIR,—It is much to be desired that a careful geological exploration of your interesting country should be undertaken by an able investigator. All that we know of the structure of Syria is fragmentary, and in great part unsatisfactory. Sufficient, however, is known to indicate the scientific importance of the region, and to hold out a promise of a rich harvest for the practical geologist who may undertake its description. The collection of fossils which I have myself seen from the district around Lebanon, suggested many enquiries that have not yet been answered, especially respecting the relations of the jurassic and cretaceous rocks of that famous region. The following scanty notices of what is known about Syrian formations and their fossils, may serve to excite curiosity and to direct the traveller to fresh observations.

In the year 1833, a valuable memoir by M. Botta, Jun., was published by the Geological Society of France. It is entitled “Observations sur le Liban et l’Antiliban.” He represents Mount Lebanon as composed of rocks belonging to the lower cretaceous series, resting upon green sands, and these in their turn reposing upon jurassic strata. He states, that in the chain of the Lebanon there are three distinct formations. The uppermost is a limestone, very variable in character, both of appearance and hardness, and alternating with calcareous marls. The lower division of this formation is distinguished by the presence of beds and nodules of flint. Fossil sea-urchins occur in its middle, and fishes in its lower part. A second formation of variable thickness is sandy, very ferruginous, abounding in iron ores and lignites, and passing above into a calcareous rock. The lowest formation is constituted of numerous beds of cavernous limestone. Besides these older rocks, M. Botta remarks upon the presence, all along the coast from Beyrout to Tripoli, of conglomerates or sandstones, quite unconformable to the calcareous rocks of the coast.

M. Botta takes particular notice of those localities in which remarkable fossils occur. The first is at the bottom of the basin in which Antoura is built. The stratum is confused marl, abounding in specimens of sea-urchins. These species are remarkable for their size and shape. He considers this bed as belonging to the jurassic series. Corals are also found in it.

The second locality is near the convent of Bikeurby, where a stratum occurs containing numerous univalve shells of the genus _Nerinœa_, which being harder than the rock containing them, stand up on its weathered surface.

The third locality is at Sach el Aalma, where at about 300 feet above the level of the sea occurs an impure limestone, often soft. In it fossil fishes are found in plenty. They are irregularly disposed in the rock.

The fossil fishes of Mount Lebanon have been the subject of frequent investigations, although the true geological position of the beds whence they are derived, has not yet been made out with certainty. Two memoirs have especially been devoted to descriptions of them, the one by M. Heckel (1843), and the other by Professor Pictet, of Geneva (1853). Professor Agassiz also has written upon some of the Lebanon fishes, and Sir Philip Grey Egerton has described a very remarkable fossil, viz., the Cyclobatis Oligodactylus, brought from Syria by Captain Graves, R.N., who kindly committed it to my care in 1845. Altogether no fewer than thirty-four fossil fishes from Mount Lebanon are now known and described. As the works in which the accounts are contained are not likely to pass into the hands of travellers, it may be useful to give a list of some of the principal of these very interesting and beautiful fossils.

Of the family of perched fishes there occurs a species of _Beryx_, a genus of which certain fossil forms are found in the chalk, and a few living species in the Indian seas. The _Beryx Vexillifer_ is found in the hard limestones of Hakel.

Of the family of sparoid fishes, one or two species occur in the soft limestones of Sach el Aalma. The _Pagellus Libanicus_ is an example.

Of the family of Chromidæ, three species of _Pycnosterinx_ occur in the soft limestones of Sach el Aalma, viz., _P. discoides_, _P. Heckelii_, and _P. Russegerii_.

Of the Squamipennes, a _Platax_ occurs in the hard limestones of Hakel.

Of the Cataphracti, a new genus called _Petalopteryx_ has been established by Pictet for a fish from Sach el Aalma. Of the Sphyrenoid fishes, a _Mesogaster_ occurs at the same locality. To the Halecoid fishes a great number of those of Lebanon belong; among them are the following:—

_Osmeroides Megapterus_, Sach el Aalma.

_Eurypholis_ (new genus of Pictet) _sulcidens_, from Hakel.

_Eurypholis Boisseri_, from the same locality.

_Eurypholis longiden_, from Sach el Aalma.

_Spaniodon_ (new genus of Pictet) _Blondelii_, from Sach el Aalma.

_Spaniodon elongatus_, Sach el Aalma.

_Clupea lata_, Sach el Aalma.

_Clupea macropthalma_, Hakel.

_Clupea sardiniodes_, Hakel.

_Clupea laticauda_, Hakel.

_Clupea minima_, Sach el Aalma.

_Clupea brevissima_, Hakel. This fish, originally described by M. de Blainville, appears to be very common in its locality.

Of the Esocidæ, there is the fish called _Rhinellus furcatus_, which occurs at Sach el Aalma.

Of the Sclerodermi, several species of _Dircetis_ occur at Sach el Aalma. A curious and anomalous fish, called _Coccodus armatus_, is found at Hakel.

Of Cartilaginous fishes, a _Spinax_ is found at Sach el Aalma.

The curious _Cyclobatis oligodactylus_ of Egerton belongs to the same division.

In the north of Syria, M. C. Gaillardot has observed several distinct stages of rocks belonging to the great Nummulitic formation, and therefore, according to the received geological classification, members of the Eocene group of Tertiaries. The newest of these beds are stated to consist of compact white or grey limestones containing fossil corals, sea-urchins, and oysters. Under these is a white chalky limestone, alternating with green and grey soft marls and other limestones, almost entirely made up, according to Vicomte D’Archiac, of the _Nummulina intermedia_. In the white limestones of Ainzarka are found _Nummulina Raymondi_, _N. lœvigata_, and _Alveolina subpyrenacia_. M. Gaillardot would distinguish the entire group of strata constituting the highest mountains of Syria by the name of the Libanian System. He appears, however, to have confounded strata of very different ages, tertiary rocks with cretaceous and jurassic. In the true Lebanon region the mummulitic beds seem to be altogether wanting. It is possible that they may be present in the Antioch district, but this has not been clearly made out as yet. M. Russegger has shewn, contrary to the views of M. Gaillardot, that the region around Jerusalem is mainly of oolitic age, with occasional remains of cretaceous strata outlying here and there.

During the Armenian expedition to the shores of the Dead Sea, considerable collections of Syrian fossils appear to have been amassed. These have been described by Mr. Conrad, and are figured in the report very recently published by Mr. Lynch. The cretaceous beds of Syria are therein referred in part, at least, to the age of the white chalk of Europe. The Jurassic fossils are, for the most part, in the condition of casts. Species of _Nerinœa_ were noticed, and among European forms, the _Ostrea scapha_ of Roemer, and the _Ostrea virgata_ of Goldfuss. A very remarkable fossil is the _Ammonites Syriacus_, from the Lebanon region; it is a species apparently of the genus _Ceratites_, a group of cephalopods usually regarded as characteristic of strata of Triassic age, but in this instance possibly represented among cretaceous beds.

NOTES.

{3} Canticles iv. 13–15.

{8} The supposed tomb of the prophet Jonah is distinctly visible from this spot.

{10} This favourite dish is something similar to forced-meat balls, being made of dried boiled wheat, finely-chopped suet and meat, pepper, salt, and red chillies. The whole is mashed into a paste, then squeezed by the hand into a globular shape, and afterwards either boiled or baked.

{21a} In the houses of Mahomedans the texts are from the Koran.

{21b} Afterwards Pasha of Damascus, where he introduced many useful European inventions; he is now the Commander-in-Chief at Adrianople, beloved and esteemed by the people he governs.

{22} It is the fashion of Damascus, and generally in the East, for the lady of the house to first sip the coffee, and then hand it to the visitor as a mark of favour; and on my first arrival in London, I used to do the same, much to the astonishment of my English lady-friends.

{28} (Aliahey Ushruf fûl salām.)

{48} In the East generally, however it is not regarded in the light of a theft to eat as much fruit from the fertile gardens as may satisfy the moderate wants of the passer by.

{76} Spirit, made of raisins and aniseed distilled.

{78} Every marriage-guest brings a wax-taper, which he is to light.

{79} Sometimes the marriage ceremony is performed at home, sometimes in the church.

{92} This is made either of raisins, or a kind of sweet pod. These are crushed in a mill worked by a camel and afterwards mixed with a small portion of alkali and a kind of soft earth, placed in a vessel with a vent. Over this a certain quantity of water is poured again till all the juice is extracted, then evaporated by heat till a mass resembling molasses, is left, which has a delicious flavour.

{97} This tobacco, when gathered, is hung up while it is green in a chamber, and exposed to the fumes of a particular kind of wood, which grows only in this neighbourhood, and which imparts to it a mild and much admired flavour.

{107} I have this fact on the authority of an English traveller.

{119} Another story prevalent was, that the Sultan had written to the Queen of England, commanding her to send her fleet to subdue the Egyptians and threatening, if she refused to do so, to dethrone her, as he is the Padischah of all kings.

{157} Since the above remarks were placed in the hands of the printer, Mr. Brady has, I am happy to see, obtained permission of the minister to introduce a bill into the House of Commons, for the registration of all duly qualified medical practitioners. This is, at least, one step in the right direction. Short though it be, nevertheless we must look upon it as an earnest of greater regard on the part of the Government than they have hitherto evinced; and we may receive it as a first instalment of more valuable boons yet to come.

{175} M. Musurus, Prince Callimaki, and Prince Caradja.

{178} Reschid Pasha, Aali Pasha, and Fuah Effendi, the ablest men in the empire, were many years in this country, and are eminently distinguished by their advocacy of reform, and by carrying on improvements in all branches of the public service.

{210} EUPHRATES AND THE EAST.—On Saturday last, a lecture announced under the above title, was delivered at the Assembly Rooms in this city, by Dr. J. B. Thompson, a gentleman who has just returned from a medical mission in Turkey. Capt. Saumarez, R.N., presided, and a very numerous audience of ladies and gentlemen attended on the occasion. The lecture was so desultory in its course, that it will not admit of analysis; nevertheless, it was exceedingly interesting, and formed an important addition to our information respecting a country which is the cradle of the world. Dr. Thompson, it appears, was sent to Asiatic Turkey on a medical mission by an association of English gentlemen, amongst whom was the Earl of Ellesmere; and having opened a free hospital at Damascus, and acquired the Arabic language, he enjoyed rare facilities for obtaining a knowledge of the manners, feelings, and circumstances of the population. There is not only more toleration for Christians in Turkey, but less corruption and injustice than under the powers which seek to dismember it. He described the Turkish rulers as sensible men, ever ready to carry on any improvements suggested to them. The missionaries would effect far more if, instead of teaching doctrines to adults, they educated the females prior to their seclusion in the harems. There was no impediment to the establishment of female schools; and, therefore, if these secondary means were adopted, the condition of the young might be raised, the prejudices of the parents might be abated, and a foundation might be laid for the civilization of the East. The principal feature of the lecture, however, was the description of a new route to India. Instead of passengers proceeding by Alexandria, Cairo, across the sandy Egyptian Desert, and through the Red Sea, it was suggested that they should land at the mouth of the river Orontes, near Antioch, in Syria, and pass through a rich and beautiful country to Belis. There, embarking on the river Euphrates, they would descend through the land of Paradise to Bussora on the Persian Gulf and from thence proceed straight to Bombay or Calcutta. The advantages of this new route were healthiness and rapidity. The journey to India by Suez occupied twenty-eight days, and entailed much suffering in crossing the Desert, and in traversing the unhealthy Red Sea. The transit from Antioch to Belis would occupy two days by railway through a country so rich and fertile that it would become peopled if communication were opened up. The entire journey to India would be shortened seven days, the route being not only better but shorter by at least 300 miles. The saving of time would be still greater if a railway were formed along the bank of the Euphrates from Belis to Bussora. Dr. Thompson addressed himself to the objections which had been made to the route by the Euphrates. It had been said, that Col. Chesney’s exploring expedition failed; but this was incorrect. Col. Chesney’s difficulties arose partly from his having fixed upon Barick, higher up than Belis, as his terminus, and partly from the want of native pilots. The river is subject to squalls, the signs of which are familiar to those who live on its banks; but Col. Chesney employed none of the navigators, and one of his steamers having been upset, the river in consequence got a bad name. It had been said, too, that the Bedouin Arabs are ill-disposed towards the navigation of the Euphrates. This Dr. Thompson denied on his own knowledge, having visited all the chiefs along the banks, and he declared, contrary to the general opinion, that the Bedouins are a benevolent, generous, noble-hearted race. It might be true, he observed, that during the progress of Col. Chesney’s expedition, the Bedouins were prejudiced against the navigation of the river; but the fact was, there were powers which thought they had an interest in misrepresenting the intentions of the English in the East. This feeling had, however, been dissipated by more correct knowledge. Dr. Thompson added, that he had submitted the plan of the Euphrates route to the Turkish Sultan, who immediately perceived its advantages over the old route through Egypt, and would strongly support it. One feature of the plan, he also stated, would be the establishment of a school for children at Antioch, the climate of which is delightful; and while officers in India might come there on furlough, without losing certain advantages, as they would still be within the confines of Asia, their friends in Europe would find it an easy and delightful trip to visit them at that place. Dr. Thompson pointed out other and more general advantages, which would arise from the adoption of the new route, as regards trade and civilisation.

On the conclusion of the lecture, Habeeb Risk Allah Effendi, a Syrian, who is at the present sojourning in this city, presented himself to the meeting, and addressed it in a few sentences expressive of his desire that the Euphrates route might be adopted, as it would be the means of civilising his native country. The Syrian women, he said, are entirely uneducated, and this is one of the principal causes of the ignorance which pervades the great mass of the people. He gracefully thanked the audience for their attendance, regarding it as a manifestation of warm interest felt in the progress of the East. A vote of thanks having been given to Dr. Thompson, on the motion of Sir Claude Wade, the audience separated, and, we may fairly add, that, though the manner of the lecturer was clearly unpremeditated, his matter gave considerable satisfaction to a large, intelligent, and influential audience.—_Extract from the Bath Chronicle_.

{233} This method of practice is in all respects the same as that of the Egyptian midwives alluded to in Exodus i.16.

{236} The Hebrews appear to have had a similar tradition, as we read in the _History of Tobit_, vii. 4, 6, 7, 16, 17. viii. 2, 3,

{242} During a recent visit to Walton-on-Thames with Azimullah Khan, who is here on a mission from the Peishwa to the Right Honourable East India Directors, and who, I may remark, is highly talented, and possesses an extensive knowledge of the English language, we attended the service at the church there. Azimullah left his golden slippers at the door, not presuming to enter a temple with them on. Afterwards they were brought to our pew by the beadle, who said that, if he did not take them, they would be stolen. By my friend’s zealous adherence to Eastern custom, he caught a severe cold.

{284} A false conclusion of the same nature arose in my own mind on entering an English Church; when I observed a picture of the Saviour over the altar, and various monumental effigies round the walls, I rashly concluded that the English worshipped pictures, etc., and laid their dead in the Church to pray for them.

{306} Latterly, the Jesuits at Beyrout, as, indeed, at all the principal towns in Turkey, and even in Cyprus, have succeeded in introducing the use of bells, even in some instances, for schools, factories, and private families.

{318} It may be as well here to relate an anecdote in connection with the late Lady H. Stanhope, whose eccentric life has already excited so much interest all over Europe. It came to the knowledge of some Metáwali chiefs that her ladyship, like themselves, kept apart two beautiful mares ready caparisoned, on which no one had ever yet ridden; attributing this to a religious prejudice similar to their own, they came to the conclusion that she ought to be considered as one of themselves. A council was accordingly held, but after many pros and cons the vote was unfavourable to her ladyship’s election, because, as one of the chiefs asserted, she was so excessively eccentric, as to ride on one side of her horse, and not to wear trousers. I believe that this occurred before her ladyship had adopted the Oriental style of dress.

{371} Since writing the above, the small cloud has gathered to a storm, which threatens to involve the world in the dispute. I am grieved to say, that the true state of the facts reflects the usual disgrace on human nature, incident to all religious quarrels. For what, after all, is the present question? Not any point of faith, morality or benevolence, but a contention between two parties for the exclusive possession of the fees obtained from pious pilgrims visiting spots, whose situation if precisely ascertained, would be doubly calculated to make an impression never to be effaced from the minds of those who tread them; but that the places actually shown are probably not the real ones, modern research has greatly tended to prove, both from measurement as well as historical evidence. The matter is thus left doubtful; and it is painful to think that no record, to be relied on, should have been preserved of spots hallowed by the more remarkable incidents in the earthly career of that Holy Presence, so all-important to mankind. The real point in dispute was between the priests of the Greek and Latin Churches, for the possession and care of those places which are shown as the scene of the birth, crucifixion and burial of our Lord, from the exhibition of which a large revenue accrues. Majority of numbers and better management, had for some time secured the greater share of the advantages to the Greek priests. Hence arose, on their respective sides, the opportunity for French and Russian interference; the Czar claiming the exclusive protectorate of the Greek Christians throughout Turkey. In the question of the keys, the Turks had no interest; but the pretence of international protection on the part of the Russians, was a wedge of destruction, and hence the war.

{375} While I was going from Trieste to Constantinople, we had very bad weather, and the sea very rough. We put into a port, to remain at anchor. I was so tired of the sea that I went on shore, and proceeded to a _café_, where I saw two Albanians of ferocious aspect, each carrying two pistols, a dagger, and carbine. When I made my appearance, they enquired, “What countryman are you?” I replied, “I come from the Holy Land.” Both arose and rushed towards me. I was at first alarmed, but the words, “Welcome, stranger!” reassured me. They hugged me with enthusiasm. They then desired the host to provide the best dishes he had, and requested me to join their repast. Finally, they offered me a home in their house, and the best apartment they had.

<pre id="pg-footer">